SURV 1130 Course Notes

SURV 1130
SURVEYING FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING 1
BY DONNA CONROY
GEOMATICS ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY, BCIT
SEPTEMBER 2016
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CONTENTS
History ............................................................................................................................................................ 3
Definition of Surveying ................................................................................................................................... 5
Surveying Calculations .................................................................................................................................... 7
Linear Units..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Angular Units .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Measurements and Errors ............................................................................................................................ 10
Distance Measurement in Surveying ............................................................................................................ 10
Accuracy and Precision ................................................................................................................................. 11
Field Notes .................................................................................................................................................... 12
Levelling ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
Levelling Tasks .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Levelling Terms and Definitions ................................................................................................................... 18
Peg Test ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
Differential Levelling..................................................................................................................................... 22
Differential Levelling with Intermediate Foresights ..................................................................................... 26
Inverted Rod Observations in Levelling ........................................................................................................ 28
Grade ............................................................................................................................................................ 29
Topographic Surveys .................................................................................................................................... 31
Angle Measurement ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Total Stations ................................................................................................................................................ 34
Trigonometric Levelling ................................................................................................................................ 41
Linear Measurement – Taping...................................................................................................................... 44
BCIT: SURV 1130 – Surveying for Civil Engineering 1 Instructor: Donna Conroy
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HISTORY
Archaeological evidence suggests that ‘surveyors’ existed in

the Neolithic Period dating back to 6200 BCE. A plan from this
date showing building and street locations on a clay tablet
were excavated from the ancient town of Catalhoyuk in
present day Turkey. The megalithic monuments throughout
Europe also seem to indicate that individuals acting as
surveyors were involved. The alignments of many of these
Early Egyptian level monuments in the direction of astronomical events show that
the locations were not random and were set out according to
some sort of plan. Some archaeologists (Alexander Thom and
Alfred Watkins) have put forward theories that these Stone Age surveyors were relatively advanced using
a standardized unit of length (the Megalithic Yard) and creating a network of intervisible sites that covered
most of the British Isles.
In general, surveying has developed along with civilization and technology. As people adopted stationary
agrarian methods of food production there was the need to establish land boundaries. Subsistence and
survival depended on the amount, quality and location of a farmer’s land. Boundary markers were used to
indicate the location of the plots of land; surveyors measured and recorded distances between the markers
to prevent land disputes.
The earliest recorded surveys involved re-establishing land boundaries following river flooding in the Tigris
and Euphrates valley during the Babylonian civilization. Early Egyptian civilizations involved surveyors
performing similar tasks after the yearly flooding of the Nile.
These civilizations also brought about government and inevitably taxes. Taxes were levied according to
land ownership. Surveyors were required to measure the amount of land for tax purposes and keep track
of yearly changes due to river flooding and erosion.
Herodotus, a Greek historian, writing in the 5th century B.C. credited the Egyptians with inventing
surveying, the Great Pyramid of 2700 B.C. involved setting out the base over uneven ground. These early
surveyors or 'rope stretchers' (harpendonaptae) managed to measure to within 20 cm over the 225 metre
base. They were aware of the need to standardize their equipment for obtaining repeatable results and
guidelines were developed for ensuring the measuring ropes were properly cured and calibrated.
Herodotus also stated that the greatest engineering accomplishment up to his time was the tunnel of
Samos. The tunnel was constructed in the sixth century B.C. and involved excavating from both ends for a
total distance of 1036 metres. The excavations successfully met in the middle with an error of less than 60
centimetres in elevation. The tunnel was used for over a thousand years to transport water in a channel cut
on one side of the floor.
Ancient Greek civilization advanced surveying directly through the mathematics of Euclid and others but
not greatly in new equipment or field techniques. Euclid's theorems in geometry were used in the
development of solutions for special survey problems.
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The Roman Empire was more practical and surveying methods were used for road and city layout. The first
sewer system was built in Rome and aqueducts were a popular means of transporting water, both required
careful layout in regard to grades. The orderly layout of Roman cities followed a pattern which in larger
settlements probably involved some sort of dedicated survey personnel. The surveyor was known as an
"agrimensore" or land measurer.
The Dark Ages saw little activity or advancement in surveying in western civilization. Arab scholars
translated and preserved the works of the Greeks and this
knowledge when reintroduced into Europe helped pave
the way to further developments in surveying theory, tools
and applications. The discovery of the magnetic compass
was one of the few major changes that influenced
surveying between the Roman Empire and the 16th
century. Early map makers began systematic mapping in
Europe from as early as the 16th century with a variety of
techniques and methods of presentation. The invention of
the telescope in the early part of the 17th century lead to
major improvements in survey instruments.
Surveying methods started to advance rapidly as

developments in the industrial revolution changed modes
of transportation and the need for accurate standardized mapping became a priority. Railway alignment,
mapping for colonial expansion, underground mine surveys for coal, the purely scientific interest in
determining the size and shape of the earth and the increasing emphasis on private property all contributed
to the need for more accurate surveys.
Some Notable Surveyors
Eupalinos of Megara (6th Century BC) – the tunnel of Samos

Colonel Sir George Everest (July 4, 1790 – December 1, 1866)
Sir Alexander MacKenzie (1764 - March 11, 1820).
General William Roy (1726 - July 1, 1790)
David Thompson (April 30, 1770 – February 10, 1857),
Charles Mason (1730–1787) - the ‘Mason-Dixon’ line
Jeremiah Dixon (July 27, 1733 – Jan. 22, 1779) – the ‘Mason-Dixon’ line
Captain George Vancouver (June 22, 1757 – May 12, 1798)
Captain James Cook (Oct. 27, 1728 – February 14, 1779)
P.F.A Méchain (August 16, 1744 – September 20, 1804)
J.B.J. Delambre (September 19, 1749 – August 19, 1822)
Notable Individuals Connected with Surveying
George Washington (Feb. 22, 1732 – Dec. 14, 1799)

Abraham Lincoln (Feb. 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865)
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826)
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DEFINITION OF SURVEYING
Surveying has traditionally been defined as the science and art of determining the relative positions of
points above, on or beneath the surface of the earth.
Geomatics is the applied science dealing with the acquisition, manipulation, analysis and presentation of
geo-spatial data. Geomatics is also the “umbrella” term combining the disciplines of surveying, geodesy,
geographic information systems, cartography and remote sensing.
GEOMATICS DISCIPLINES
There are two basic types of surveys; plane surveys which treat the earth as flat and geodetic surveys which
consider the curved surface of the earth. However, even in plane surveying elevations are often referenced
to sea level, a curved surface. In most small-scale projects such as construction sites and property line
surveys the earth is treated as “flat”.
Geodesy - is a discipline that deals with locating and relating the position of objects on the earth relative to
each other, while taking into account the size, shape and gravity of the earth. Geodetic survey applies to
the primary control networks usually on a provincial or national level.
Plane surveying - for horizontal computations the earth’s surface is treated as flat. The irregular surface of
the earth, called terrain, is approximated by a plane and therefore mathematical formulations simply use
Euclidean geometry and plane trigonometry. It is important to emphasize that plane surveys refer to the
horizontal positioning only; the elevations of points can rarely be defined in terms of the adopted
approximation plane.
Photogrammetry - uses terrestrial, aerial or satellite photographs for measurements and is the usual source
for small scale topographic maps. Remote sensing is a subset of photogrammetry that allows the user to
acquire information about an object without any physical contact with the object. Remote sensing often
includes the use of images.
Cartography - deals with representing the earth’s curved surface on a flat surface such as a map or a chart.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a computer application with the capacity to assemble, store,
manipulate, analyze and display geographically referenced information. GIS is the merging of cartography,
statistical analysis and database technology.
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system placed into orbit by the U.S.
Department of Defense that provides position and time information. Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) is the standard generic term for satellite navigation systems.
Engineering surveys - provide horizontal and vertical control for structures and can also include route
location, topographic, construction, mining, etc. Engineering surveys also include the monitoring of
deformations and stability of structures and their environment.
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CATEGORIES OF SURVEYS
What kind of a survey is it??
Topographic - used to locate natural and man-made features such as buildings, improvements, fences,
elevations, land contours, trees, streams, etc. Often a map or topographic survey plan is the end result with
contours showing the shape or topography of the land.
Hydrographic - gathering and processing data to show the location and depth of underwater manufactured
or natural features. A nautical chart is the end result and can be used for safe navigation in water.
Shorelines, reefs, underwater pipelines and cables may all appear.
Construction - layout surveys that locate and mark the position of proposed features- buildings, bridges,
factories, underground services, etc.
As-built - similar to topographic but emphasis is on constructed features. This is often a follow up for large
construction projects to check and document the final results. What is built is often different from the
original plan as on site changes, or over several years modifications have been mad piecemeal, and a
complete plan doesn’t exist to show all the changes.
Route surveys - this is a combination of topographic and construction surveys but may also include
underground surveys. The combination applies to the survey process of establishing a road, railway,
pipeline or long conveyor system. On large projects aerial photographs may be used for establishing a
proposed alignment.
Property - surveys that determine boundary locations for new and existing properties of land (often called
cadastral surveys). This is the work of commissioned land surveyors - British Columbia Land Surveyor (BCLS).
Aerial - gathering and processing field data for providing control for aerial photographs. Processing the
photographs to produce maps and plans is called photogrammetry.
Underground - mining industry, tunneling - some special equipment and observation procedures are often
required.
These are not separate unrelated categories, similar equipment and techniques may be used in different
categories, for instance GNSS may be used for positioning the boat in hydrographic surveys and setting out
control or determining the camera position in aerial surveys.
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SURVEYING CALCULATIONS
Calculations are a traditional task that every surveyor spends some time doing. Computers and calculators
make the work easier, but of course you need to know the steps to follow in order to arrive at a correct
answer. Although computer aided drafting software, computation software packages and total station
software are often used to process surveying data for design and plan production; there are still many field
checks and preliminary calculations done with a hand-held calculator.
This initial course in surveying deals with plane surveying, meaning that we assume the earth is a flat or a
“plane” surface. We can assume that the earth is flat for horizontal positioning because the earth’s
curvature and atmosphere doesn’t affect our results until we reach areas greater than 200km2. However,
vertical positioning is affected by 1mm over distances as short as 120m and therefore cannot often be
assumed to be on a flat surface. Surveys covering larger expanses of land where the curvature of the earth
must be considered are termed Geodetic Surveys and are covered in more advanced Geomatics courses.
CALCULATIONS/SUBMISSIONS
Calculation technique depends to a certain extent on the individual person, but some general guidelines for
layout of calculations should be followed. Do not plan to do a rough, messy copy, and then copy your results
onto a second neater form to submit because many mistakes are made when copying to a second version.
A good layout makes it easier, and more reliable, for other people to read your calculations or even for you
to read them later when you need to look back at what you’ve done. It is advisable to include details of
steps of the calculating process, especially to state formulas used. A summary of results should be given, or
the results should be highlighted.
It may be possible to succeed in this course by memorizing a series of steps, but you may forget it later. I
hope you will try to understand this subject. Practice doing the calculations. This is a practical course, the
more practice and experience you get, the better you will understand the topic and the faster you will be
able to solve problems.
You will, as a civil technologist or engineer, do many calculations. From time to time you will make mistakes,
none of us are perfect. Engineers do sometimes make mistakes, but the good ones find their mistakes and
fix them before any “damage” is done. It is critical that you check your work and discover mistakes before
you report your results to a client. If you don’t perform checks, you won’t detect errors.
INTEGERS AND REAL NUMBERS IN SURVEYING

Measurements (distances and angles) are estimates of real numbers and are part of a continuous sample.
Measurements are never perfectly accurate, they always contain some error. The measured value is an
approximate representation of the true value. For example, the distance between two marks is 43.643745…
metres. If we use a measuring tape that is graduated every millimetre our value for the distance could be
43.644m. Now if we estimate the fraction between the 3 and 4mm marks on the tape we might say the
distance is about 43.6437m. The number of decimal places you record for the measurement depends on
how accurate you can measure, but you will only approximate the true value. You will never know what the
exact value is. The more precise our measurement equipment, the more decimal places or significant
figures we see. There are some numbers in surveying that are exact, or in other words discrete integer
values. Integer values exist when we count something, for example how many stations are in the survey or
how many times you repeated a measurement. When we do calculations in surveying the equations often
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involve a combination of integers, constants and real number measurements and occasionally values like π
(PI).
A common student mistake is to write down too many digits in the answers from their calculations. How
many digits should we show in the results of our calculations? A common approach in surveying is to
determine the accuracy of the results and then decide how many digits to display based on this accuracy.
For example, if you do some calculations to find the distance between two points and the accuracy is about
±3mm, then you would round off the distance to the nearest mm and show no more digits. Don’t show
more decimal places in your results than you can be sure of. If possible you should do all your calculations
with the numbers as you obtain them stored in a calculator without rounding off intermediate steps and
then round off the answer. If you are writing down intermediate steps they should be shown to one decimal
place greater than your final answer.
As you know, rounding 123.234567 to two decimal places gives 123.23. Rounding trailing 5s however, is
sometimes rounded up so values are always slightly larger and other times rounded down. In this course
you will be required to round fives to the nearest even value. For example, again to 2 decimal places,
84.235 becomes 84.24 and 73.285 becomes 73.28. If you always round to an even number it can be divided
by 2 if necessary without generating further decimal places and trailing fives.
LINEAR UNITS
The metric system is currently used by the surveying profession in Canada. The unit measure of this system
is the metre, which is divided into one hundred centimetres and further divided by ten into millimetres.
Although legal survey plans are currently produced in the metric system, referral to old plans requires
knowledge of the older systems that were used.
When North America was first surveyed in the 18th and 19th centuries, the distance measuring device was
the Gunter’s chain. A Gunther’s chain was 66 feet long and was comprised of 100 links. Hence many older
streets and city lots are 66 feet (≈20.1m) or 33 feet wide.
The imperial system uses the foot as the unit measure, which is divided into 12 inches for finer work and
further into half units until the necessary interval is reached. Surveyors in the past used a decimal dividing
system for the foot with each foot being divided into tenths of a foot and then further divided by ten into
hundredths and then into thousandths of a foot for very precise work. Historical legal survey plans show
dimensions in feet and decimals thereof, usually to the nearest hundredth. Architectural plans, however,
still often will show feet and inches and fractions of an inch. There must be some comfort with the different
units that you may encounter on plans or project specifications.
The following list outlines some of the common conversions needed when dealing with plans or projects in
different units of measure.
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm) 1 metre = 100cm = 1000mm
1 kilometre (km) = 1000m 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 sq. m = 100m x 100m
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) (12”) 1 yard (yd) = 3ft (3’)
1 mile (mi) = 5280ft 1 Gunter’s chain = 100 links = 66ft = 4 rods
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1 mi = 80 Gunter’s chain 1 fathom = 6ft
1 nautical mi = 6076.12ft = 1.852km 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft
Metric to Imperial Conversions
Note: There is only one metre but there are two types of feet, US Survey foot and international foot.
1m = 39.37 inches (US) 1m ≈ 3.2808333.. US ft
1 inch = 2.54cm (International) 1ft (Int.) = 0.3048m
1 km = 0.621371mi 1mi = 1609.344m 1ha = 2.47105 acres 1acre = 0.404685ha
ANGULAR UNITS
The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree. The sexagesimal units of angular measurement are
degrees, minute and seconds. A plane angle extending completely around a point equals 360 degrees; 1
degree = 60 minutes; 1 minute = 60 seconds. In some European countries the centesimal unit, the grad (or
gon), is the angular unit; 400 grads (gons) = 360 degrees. Grads are usually expressed in decimals. Expressing
angles in radians is required for some types of surveying applications. The radian is an angle subtended by
an arc of a circle having a length equal to the radius of the circle. Useful conversions are: 2 π rad = 360°, 1
rad = 57° 17’ 44.8” = 57.29578°, and 0.01745 rad = 1°
ANGULAR CONVERSION
An angle in degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS) must first be converted to decimal degrees (DD) and then
converted to radians to be used in many computer programs. In order to use trigonometry functions on
some calculators you’ll need to convert angles from DMS to DD, there is often a button on the calculator to
perform this conversion for you.
DMS to DD = D + M/60 + S/3600 e.g. 12°15’27” = 12 + 15/60 + 27/3600 = 12.2575°
DD to Rad = DD x PI/180° = 12.2575° x π/180° = 0.2139337rad.
1 full circle = 2π rad. = 360° = 400 gon (grad) 1 right angle = π/2 rad. = 90° = 100 gon
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MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS

Making measurements and the subsequent computations utilizing them are fundamental tasks of a
surveyor. The process requires a combination of human skill and mechanical equipment applied with the
utmost judgment. Experience and good physical conditions improve the human factor; superior equipment
enables good operators to do better work with more consistent results and in less time. Measurements are
never exact, however, and no matter how carefully made, they will always contain some error. By definition
an error is the difference between an observed value, for a quantity, and its true value. In surveying errors
are often termed misclosure and corrections are termed adjustments.
ERROR = OBSERVED VALUE – TRUE VALUE CORRECTION = -ERROR
Errors in measurements stem from three sources and are classified accordingly.
(1) Natural errors - These are caused by physics of the earth such as variations in wind, temperature,
humidity, refraction, gravity and magnetic declination.
(2) Instrumental errors - These result from any imperfections in the construction or adjustment of
instruments and from the movement of individual parts.
(3) Personal errors (human errors) - These arise principally from limitations of the human senses of
sight and touch.
Errors in measurements are of two types.
(1) Systematic - Those errors where the magnitude and the algebraic sign can be determined.
(2) Random - The errors that remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated.
Present in all surveying measurements. Random errors are unpredictable and are generally beyond
the control of the observer.
Mistakes
Mistakes are observer blunders and are usually caused by a misunderstanding of the problem, carelessness,
fatigue, missed communication, or poor judgment. Mistakes or blunders are in a special category because
they are usually so gross in magnitude compared to the other two types of errors. Mistakes must be located
and eliminated before any results can be obtained.
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT IN SURVEYING

The measuring of a distance can be accomplished with several methods. The accuracy required often
determines the method that is used.
Pacing – Pacing is a useful means of measuring a distance but not very accurate. Pacing is sufficient for
locating survey markers or for rough checks in construction layout. Knowing your pace length can be useful
in estimating needed distances.
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Taping - In plane surveying the distance between two points refers to the horizontal distance between the
two points. Tapes are made of a variety of materials, lengths, and weights. Those more commonly used by
the surveyor are steel tapes, sometimes called chains, and woven nonmetallic and metallic tapes.
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) - Technological advances have led to the development of electro-
optical and electromagnetic instruments which are of a great value to the surveyor for accurate
measurement of distances. Most EDM devices determine the length of a distance by measuring the number
of complete periods of a known wavelength and the length of the partial wavelength between the emitted
and received signals. Natural errors in EDM operations stem primarily from atmospheric variations in
temperature, pressure, and humidity; this affects the index of refraction and modifies the wavelength of
electromagnetic energy. These variables are measured and accounted for in distance determination with
an EDM.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of measurements. If multiple
measurements are made of the same quantity and small discrepancies result, this indicates high precision.
The degree of precision attainable is dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer skill. In surveying,
precision should not be confused with accuracy, which denotes the absolute nearness of measured
quantities to their true values. A survey may be precise without being accurate.
The bulls’ eye of the targets below indicate the “accepted value of a measurement”. To be very precise, the
measurements need to be grouped together, to be very accurate they need to hit the bulls’ eye.
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FIELD NOTES
One of the most important aspects of surveying is the taking of neat, legible, and complete field notes. Field
notes are often used as an aid when creating a scaled drawing of the area surveyed and are also used to
provide a permanent record of the survey proceedings.
An experienced surveyor’s notes will be well arranged to aid in comprehension and will contain all of the
needed data to complete the survey task along with any field checks that were done to verify the data.
Notes must be neat and legible to ensure that the correct information is conveyed and sketches will be used
to illustrate the survey and thus remove possible ambiguities. In many instances field notes are passed from
a field surveyor to office personnel that then do calculations and create a plan based on the information
that the surveyor has provided. Many surveys employ electronic data collection which limits the amount of
data written down in a field book. When data is collected electronically the field notes and sketches are
used to clarify the data and aid in the processing of the data.
Field books can be bound books or loose-leaf binders. When the loose-leaf type is used it is necessary to
make sure that each page has a name or job number on it and that all pages are numbered.
FIELD NOTE “RULES”

• Entries are to be in 2H or 3H pencil when using waterproof paper (NO ink).
• All entries are neatly printed in uppercase letters.
• All arithmetic computations are to be checked.
• Although sketches are not scale drawings, they should be drawn roughly to scale.
• Whenever possible, north arrows are placed so that they are pointing upwards on the page.
• Sketches are not freehand; straightedges and templates are used for line work and symbols.
• Crowding information on the page is one of the chief causes of poor looking field notes and should
therefore be avoided.
• Mistakes in the entry of measured data are to be carefully lined out, not erased.
• Field notes are to be original, not re-written.
• Lettering on sketches is to be read from the bottom of the page or from the right side; any other
position is upside down.
• If the data on an entire page is to be voided, the word VOID, together with a single diagonal line,
is placed on the page. A reference page number is shown for the new location of the relevant data.
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SAMPLE LAB TITLE PAGE

All of your labs will have a similar title page.
PG 1 OF ##
SURV 1130
LAB #1 - PEG TEST
0
OCTOBER 25, 2001
0
CREW: JOHN DOE, SET C
0 JUNE SMITH
EQUIPMENT: SOKKIA AUTOMATIC LEVEL
SERIAL # 12345
WEATHER: SUNNY, 10°C
LOCATION: SOUTH OF NW1

BCIT CAMPUS
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LEVELLING
Levelling is the procedure used to determine differences in elevation between points that are remote from
one another. An elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference datum. In surveying, the
reference datum that is universally employed is that of mean sea level (MSL).
A vertical line is a line parallel to the direction of gravity.
A level line is a line in a level surface. A level surface is a curved surface parallel to the mean surface of the
earth. A level surface is best visualized as the surface of a large body of water.
A horizontal line is a straight line perpendicular to a vertical line.
THE SURVEYOR’S LEVEL

A level consists of a high powered telescope with cross hairs and a spirit level tube attached to it such that
when the bubble of the spirit level tube is centered, the line of sight is horizontal.
The purpose of the telescope is to fix the direction of the line of sight and to magnify the apparent size of
the object observed. The telescope has three main parts: the objective lens, the eyepiece, and the cross
hair reticule. The objective lens is the large lens located at the front end of the telescope. The eyepiece is
the small lens located at the viewer’s end, it is a microscope that magnifies and enables the viewer to see
the image formed by the objective lens clearly. The cross hairs and stadia hairs form a network of lines that
are fastened to a glass ring called the reticule.
A line drawn from the point of intersection of the cross hairs and the optical center of the objective system
is called the line of sight or line of collimation.
Types of Levels
• Hand level or abney level: used on low precision work.
• Dumpy level: simple, rugged instrument that has been replaced by more sophisticated instruments.
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• Tilting level: precise leveling of the instrument is done by rotating a tilting screw, which in effect raises
or lowers the eyepiece end of the telescope.
• Automatic level: employs a gravity referenced prism or mirror compensator to automatically orient the
line of sight.
Photo Courtesy of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Automatic_Level.svg
A word of caution: All automatic levels employ a compensator referenced by gravity. This operation
normally entails freely moving prisms or mirrors, some of which are hung by fine wires. If a wire or
fulcrum were to break or stick, the compensator would become inoperative and all readings would be
incorrect.
• Precise level: used to establish vertical control, measurements are taken to decimals of a millimetre.
• Digital level: electronically reads the rod and digitally displays the rod reading.
LEVELLING TASKS
When performing a levelling exercise there are procedures that can aid/improve your results and they
should be followed when possible. There are two separate tasks when levelling; using a level (instrument
person) and using a levelling rod (rod person). The following suggestions for each task are recommended.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INSTRUMENT PERSON

• Tripod legs should be tightened so that when one leg is extended horizontally it falls slowly back to the
ground under its own weight.
• The instrument can be comfortably carried in a vertical position resting on one shoulder; if tree
branches or other obstacles (e.g., door frames) threaten the safety of the instrument, it should be
cradled under one arm with the instrument forward, where it can be seen.
• When setting up the instrument, gently force the legs into the ground by applying weight on the tripod
shoe spurs.
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• When the tripod is to be set up on a slope, two legs should be placed downhill and the third leg placed
uphill. The instrument can be set up roughly leveled by careful manipulation of the third uphill leg.
• The location of the level setup should be wisely chosen with respect to the ability to “see” the maximum
number of rod locations, particularly BS and FS locations. The location should also consider your safety.
Do not set the instrument on roadways unless it’s completely unavoidable. Always be aware of your
surroundings.
• Prior to taking rod readings the cross hairs should be sharply focused; it helps to point the instrument
toward a light-coloured background.
• When the instrument operator observes apparent movement of the cross hairs on the rod (this is
parallax), he or she should carefully check the cross hair focus adjustment and the objective focus
adjustment.
• Check to make sure the level bubble remains centered or that the compensating device (in automatic
levels) is operating before taking any readings.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ROD PERSON

• The rod should be properly extended and clamped; care should be properly taken to ensure that the
bottom of the sole plate does not become encrusted with mud, which could result in mistaken readings.
If a rod target is being used, care is exercised to ensure that it is properly positioned and that it cannot
slip.
• The rod should be held plumb (vertical) for all rod readings. Either a rod level will be used, or the rod
will be gently rocked to and from the instrument so that the lowest reading can be determined.
• Ensure that all points used as turning points are suitable (i.e., describable, identifiable, and capable of
having the elevation determined to the closest 0.01 ft or 0.001m).
• Care should be taken to ensure that the rod is held in precisely the same location for the backsight as
it was for the foresight.
• If the rod is being held near to, but not on, a required location, the face of the rod should be turned
away from the instrument so that the instrument operator cannot take a mistaken reading. In other
words, do not indicate that you are ready when you are not.
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LEVELLING RODS
Levelling rods are made of wood, metal or fiberglass and are graduated in metres or feet. Metric rods are
usually graduated to be read to 0.01m, with millimetres estimated.
rod bubble held tightly against rod
BCIT mainly has wooden “E” style rods. Shown below is a portion of
a rod with a few rod readings indicated:
1.144
1.1 1.120
1.103
1.085
1.000
1.0
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LEVELLING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
STATION B.S. H.I. I.F.S. F.S. ELEV. (m)
BM A 1.977 101.977 100.000
B 0.540 101.437
Elevation (E or ELEV) is the vertical distance of a point from a level surface.
Benchmark (BM) is a permanent point of known elevation. Benchmarks are established using precise
leveling techniques and instrumentation.
Temporary Benchmark (TBM) is a semi-permanent point of known elevation, whose elevation may be
established for a specific project only.
Turning Point (TP) is a stable point used to transfer an elevation. Preferably, these points should be solid,
well defined, and permanent enough to remain until the survey is completed. Since the rod will be rested
on these points they should have a well-defined top (vs. a flat surface).
Backsight (BS) is a rod reading taken to a point of known elevation in order to establish the elevation of the
line of sight.
Height of instrument (HI) is the elevation of the line of sight through the level. The elevation of the
instrument is expressed by the formula: HI = Elevation of BS + BS reading
Foresight (FS) is a rod reading taken to a point (turning point) of unknown elevation or it is the last
observation in a loop taken to the BM or TBM.
Page 19 of 47
Intermediate Foresight (IFS) is a rod reading taken to any other point where the elevation is required. An
IFS is a single observation, unlike a FS that is checked by two observations. Although there are times when
IFS are needed they should be used with some caution because they are not checked. Remember, any time
a quantity is measured only once there is a chance that the measurement has error and this error may go
undetected until further observations are made.
Datum is a level surface of zero elevation to which elevations are referred. The Mean Sea Level (MSL) is one
example. Other datums used are Assumed Datum and Modified Datum.
Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the arithmetic mean elevation of the sea in reference to a surface such as a chart
datum. It is determined from hourly observations over a 19 year cycle to average out the tidal lows and
highs caused principally by the gravitational forces from the moon and sun.
Parallax - This is a condition which occurs when the image of the distant object is not properly focused on
to the plane of the crosshairs when viewed through the eyepiece end of the telescope. If the viewer moves
one’s eye sideways or up and down in relation to the eyepiece, one would find that the image tends to
move away from the crosshairs. In this situation it is said that parallax is present. However, if the focusing
is done properly, namely, by setting the image in the same vertical plane as the crosshairs, the image and
the crosshairs will move together when moving one’s eye, as if they are glued together, indicating it is free
of parallax. Parallax must be eliminated before observations are made.
Collimation error - an error caused by improper adjustment of the optical system of the telescope. A level
is said to have collimation error when the line of sight, defined by the intersection of the crosshairs and the
centre of the objective lens, does not coincide with the optical axis of the telescope. The optical axis of the
telescope is defined as an imaginary line joining the centre of the objective lens and the eyepiece. If it is
known that a particular level has collimation error, and it is used for benchmark leveling, then one should
ensure that the backsight and the foresight must be equidistant from the instrument position. Prior to going
out to do any survey work each day, it would be advisable that a quick check be undertaken to ascertain if
collimation error is present in the level being used. The field procedure of determining collimation error is
known as the peg test.
Page 20 of 47
PEG TEST
The purpose of this test is to check that the line of sight through the level is horizontal.
Procedure
1. Establish two points about 60 metres apart

on fairly level ground and designate them A
and B.
2. Set the level mid-way between A and B and

read the rod at A. Book the reading as shown
in the example on the next page.
3. Keep the level at the mid-point and move the rod to B. Read the rod and book the reading as shown in
the example.
4. Move both the rod and the instrument to point A. The instrument should be about 2 metres off to the
side of point A. Read the rod and book the reading.
5. Keep the level where it is and move

the rod back to B, again read and record.
6. Steps 2 and 3 will give the true

difference in elevation between these
points by subtracting one from the other
(rod reading at A - rod reading at B).
7. Steps 4 and 5 will also give a change

in elevation between the two points. If the difference is the same as in step 6 then the level is in good
adjustment. If the differences are not the same, and the amount exceeds the instrument
manufacturer’s stated accuracy, then the level has an error that is called collimation error.
8. The size of the error in this example is for a distance of 60 metres, however the error over 100 metres
is a more convenient figure and it can be determined by ratio and proportion.
9. The direction of the line of sight, above or below the horizontal can also be determined and may be
useful for consideration in adjusting elevations.
Page 21 of 47
PEG-TEST EXAMPLE
Instrument at mid-point of line A to B, Distance A to B = 60 metres
Rod Reading to A 1.478m
Rod Reading to B 1.139m
Difference 1 = +0.339m = true difference in elevation
Instrument at A, distance is ≈ 1.5 metres behind Point A
Rod Reading to A 1.884m
Rod Reading to B 1.530m
Difference 2 = +0.354m = apparent difference in elevation
Since difference 1 does not equal difference 2, we know that there is some collimation error in the
instrument.
Collimation error equals difference 1 minus difference 2.
Difference 1 0.339m
Difference 2 -0.354m
Error -0.015m (this is over 60 metres)
−0.015𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥
Over 100 metres the error would be: = 𝑥𝑥 = −0.025𝑚𝑚
60𝑚𝑚 100𝑚𝑚
If the instrument didn’t have any error we would expect difference 1 to equal difference 2 because the
elevation difference between points A and B is constant.
We can assume that the rod reading to A, when the instrument is very close to point A, does not contain a
measurable amount of error and that the rod reading to point B, when the instrument is close to point A,
is where the error is measured. To calculate what should have been read at point B when close to point A
you simply accept the reading to point A as being errorless (correct) and subtract the true difference (1.884
- 0.339 = 1.545). If the instrument was in good adjustment you would have read 1.545 because 1.884 - 1.545
= 0.339, the same difference when you were in the middle. This value is used when adjusting a level; you
move the crosshairs up until the reading at point B is 1.545, when you are at the second setup.
An instrument with collimation error can still be used for differential levelling but the readings would be
adjusted before calculating elevations. See example on next page.
Page 22 of 47
USING A LEVEL THAT IS OUT OF ADJUSTMENT
Problem: An automatic level is found to have a collimation error of +0.025m over a distance of 50m. A rod
reading to point A, that is 43m away from the instrument, is 1.726m. What is the corrected rod reading to
point A?
Solution:
error over 50m = +0.025m error over 1m = +0.025/50 = +0.0005m/m
error over 43m = +0.0005m/m x 43m = +0.0215 = +0.022m
correction over 43m = -0.022m
corrected rod reading = 1.726-0.022 = 1.704m
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
Differential levelling refers to the transfer of an elevation from a published benchmark (BM) to another
point, often a temporary benchmark (TBM). In order to check measurements differential levelling is always
conducted as a closed circuit by either returning back to the start or by closing to another benchmark in the
area. When it is decided that the loop will close onto itself and return back to where it was started the
overall measured change in elevation should be zero. However, when the loop closes to a different
benchmark then the overall measured change in elevation should equal the difference in elevation between
the two benchmarks used. The error is calculated by subtracting the true (known) change in elevation from
the overall observed change in elevation.
ALLOWABLE ERROR IN LEVELLING

The allowable error in a level circuit is dependent on the class of survey it is performed for and also on the
topography. However, for most day-to-day engineering projects the allowable error is third order, or
±0.024√𝑘𝑘 metres, where k is the one-way distance of the circuit expressed in km.
For example: a level circuit of 0.75km, the allowable error for third order levelling is:
𝑒𝑒∆𝐸𝐸 = ±0.024√0.75 = ±0.021𝑚𝑚
As can be seen, the guideline for level misclosure is very stringent.
Standards from the Surveys and Mapping Branch of Canada:
• Special order +/- 3mm √𝑘𝑘

• First order +/- 4mm √𝑘𝑘 (Primary National Control Network eg. sophisticated engineering projects,
dams, tunnels)
• Second order +/- 8mm √𝑘𝑘 (construction projects, inter-state highways)
• Third order +/- 24mm √𝑘𝑘 (small local engineering projects)
• Fourth order +/- 120mm √𝑘𝑘 (exploratory / preliminary surveys)
Page 23 of 47
To meet the requirements for a given class of survey, the surveyor must follow certain specifications and
procedures when collecting the field survey data. The different orders of vertical control allow engineering
companies, for example, to require survey projects to meet specific accuracy requirements, which in turn,
dictate which survey equipment will be used, and which survey procedures will be followed.
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING EXAMPLE

The task is to determine the elevation of a temporary benchmark (TBM) given the elevation of benchmark
A (BM A) being 36.721m above mean sea level (MSL) and benchmark B (BM B) being 37.459m above MSL.
Profile view:
0.753
0.922
B.S.
1.294
F.S.
1.121
1.982
1.006
1.759
1.335
TBM
1.170
1.455
TP 2 BM B
TP 1 TP 3
BM A
Plan view:
BM A
Direction of Travel Level
Level
TBM Position
Position TP 3
Level Level
Position Position
TP 2
Level BM B
Position
TP 1
Page 24 of 47
STEPS TO FOLLOW ONCE THE FIELD OBSERVATIONS ARE COMPLETE:

1. Sum the BS column (∑BS) and the FS column (∑FS)
2. Calculate the observed change in elevation, ΔEOBS = ∑BS - ∑FS
3. Calculate the true (known) change in elevation, ΔETrue = final known elevation – initial elevation
4. Calculate the error (misclosure) = ΔEOBS - ΔETrue
5. Decide if the loop meets the misclosure criteria and when it does continue to calculate adjusted
elevations. If the loop does not meet the required accuracy then further work would need to be
done. This often means that observations need to be repeated and the error(s) needs to be
located.
6. Calculate a correction per setup = -error/# of BS’s and apply to the HI column.
7. Calculate adjusted HI’s and elevations.
8. Check that the last calculated elevation is the same as the true (known) elevation.
Field Notes: 36.721+1.455+0.001 38.177-1.170
STATION BS. H.I. I.FS. FS. ELEV.(m)

+0.001
BM A 1.455 38.177 36.721
+0.001
TP 1 1.759 1.170 37.007
38.767
+0.001
TP 2 1.294 38.941 1.121 37.646
+0.001
TBM 0.922 39.111 0.753 38.188
+0.001
TP 3 1.335 38.465 1.982 37.129
BM B 1.006 37.459
∑=6.765 ∑=6.032
ΔEOBS = ∑BS - ∑FS = 6.765 – 6.032 = +0.733
ΔETrue = final known elevation – initial elevation = 37.459 – 36.721 = +0.738
Error (misclosure) = ΔEOBS - ΔETrue = 0.733 – 0.738 = -0.005
Correction per setup = -error/# of BS’s = -(-0.005)/5 = +0.001 per setup
The adjusted elevation of the TBM is 38.188m above MSL
Page 25 of 47
Alternatively the loop above could have returned to BM A rather than closing to BM B. This can be
“dangerous” because the elevation of BM A is not checked when this is done. If the elevation recorded for
BM A is incorrect then the elevation for the TBM is also incorrect and initially this blunder would not be
detected. It is only through further observation that the blunder may be discovered. Checking to a different
benchmark is the best decision, but not always possible, because there are times when only one benchmark
is available.
Example of a loop starting and ending at the same benchmark:

-0.001
BM FH2 1.455 102.823 101.369
-0.002
TP 1 1.759 103.410 1.170 101.653
-0.001
TP 2 2.453 103.081 2.781 100.629
-0.001
TP 3 1.294 103.253 1.121 101.960
-0.002
TBM 0.922 102.420 1.753 101.500
-0.001
TP 4 1.335 101.772 1.982 100.438
-0.001
TP 5 3.124 102.889 2.006 99.766
BM FH2 1.520 101.369
∑=12.342 ∑=12.333
ΔEOBS = ∑B.S. – ∑F.S. = 12.342 – 12.333 = +0.009
ΔETrue = final known elevation – initial elevation = 101.369 – 101.369 = 0.000
Error (misclosure) = ΔEOBS – ΔETrue = +0.009 – 0.000 = +0.009
Correction per setup = -error/# of BS’s = -(0.009)/7 = -0.0013 per setup
The adjusted elevation of the TBM is 101.500m above MSL
Page 26 of 47
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING WITH INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHTS

When conducting differential levelling we are often transferring an elevation from a benchmark to a
temporary benchmark nearer to our project area. There are times, however, when a job requires that the
elevation of a number of other points of detail also be collected, such as edge of road, gutter line, elevations
along a pipe, several building corners, etc. This can be achieved by taking rod readings on these points from
the instrument setup nearest to them, but not using them as turning points. A Rod reading taken to a point
of detail that is not used as a turning point is termed an intermediate foresight.
Determining an elevation by an intermediate foresight is much quicker than by a turning point because the
point is only observed once. However, because intermediate foresights are only observed once there is no
check on the observation.
Example of a differential levelling loop with intermediate foresights.
BM B
The known elevation for BM A is 32.940m above MSL
F E TP 2 The known elevation for BM B is 33.287m above MSL

7th Street
Intermediate foresights are taken to each dwelling corner

Dwelling
A
B
C D
BM A
1st Avenue
FS TP 1
See field notes on the next page.
Page 27 of 47
When a loop contains IFS points the calculation process involves ignoring the IFS column until all adjusted
HI’s are established. The elevations for the IFS points are calculated last, after you are sure the loop closes.

-0.001
BM A 1.721 34.660 32.940
A 1.231 33.429
B 1.393 33.267
C 1.372 33.288
D 1.498 33.162
TP 1 2.161 34.878 1.943 32.717

-0.001
TP 2 1.236 34.263 1.850 33.028
E 1.332 32.931
F 1.462 32.801
BM B 0.976 33.287
∑=5.118 ∑=4.769
ΔEOBS = ∑BS – ∑FS = 5.118 – 4.769 = +0.349
ΔETrue = final known elevation – initial elevation = 33.287 – 32.940 = +0.347
Misclosure = ΔEOBS - ΔETrue = 0.349 – 0.347 = +0.002
Correction per setup = -misclosure/# of BS’s = -0.002/3 = -0.0007 per setup
Page 28 of 47
INVERTED ROD OBSERVATIONS IN LEVELLING

This is a levelling technique used to determine the elevation of a point above the line of sight. To obtain
these elevations the rod is inverted and held upside down with its base on the elevated point. An inverted
rod reading is booked as a negative value. These points are rarely used as turning points because they are
difficult to hold the rod on for long.
B1
Underside of bridge B3
B2
3.50
3.57
4.62
1.423
2.496
1.003
1.553
BM A = 32.719m
BM B = 32.192m
TP 1
STATION BS H.I. IFS FS ELEV(m)

-0.002
BM A 1.423 34.140 32.719
B1 -3.50 37.64
-0.002
TP1 1.553 33.195 2.496 31.644
B2 -3.57 36.76
B3 -4.62 37.82
BM B 1.003 32.192
∑=2.976 ∑=3.499
ΔEOBS = ∑BS – ∑FS = 2.976 - 3.499 = -0.523
ΔETrue = final known elevation – initial elevation = 32.192 – 32.719 = -0.527
misclosure = ΔEOBS - ΔETrue = -0.523-(-0.527) = +0.004
correction per setup = -misclosure/# of BS’s = -0.004/2 = -0.002 per setup
Page 29 of 47
GRADE
Grade (also called slope, incline, gradient, pitch, or rise) of a physical feature, landform or constructed line
refers to the inclination of that surface in relation to the horizontal. In other words, grade refers to the
vertical distance (VD) or elevation change over the horizontal distance (HD), and can be defined as a ratio,
a percentage, or an angle of inclination or depression. The vertical distance is often called the rise while the
horizontal distance is the run. As grade can be either inclined or declined, it is necessary to include the sign
of the value, either positive (+) or negative (-).
• as a ratio, +1:10 – 1 part rise to 10 parts run, usually shown with the vertical as 1
VD:HD
• as an angle, +5°42’38”
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
α = tan−1 � �
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
• as a percentage, +10.00% (common in highways and pipelines)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
� � 100 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � � 100
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
Distance (VD)
Vertical
RISE
Horizontal Distance (HD)

RUN
PIPELINES
Pipelines are used to carry water for human consumption, storm water, sewage, oil, natural gas, and other
fluids. Pipes that carry storm runoff are called storm sewers; those that transport sewage are called sanitary
sewers. Flow in these two types of sewers is usually by gravity,
Crown and therefore their alignments and grades must be carefully
set. There are minimum grades for each type of pipeline in
order to maintain a self-cleaning velocity to avoid excessive
Outside Diameter
Inside Diameter
Invert sewer maintenance costs. Flow in pipes carrying city water, oil,
and natural gas are generally under pressure, so they usually
don’t need to be aligned to as high an order of accuracy.
Pipe Terminology
Page 30 of 47
HIGHWAYS
The geometric design of a highway consists of horizontal
alignment, vertical alignment and cross-sectional
Plan View
elements. Horizontal alignment defines the location and
orientation in plan view. Plan view is the view from above,
bird’s eye view. Vertical alignment deals with its shape in
profile. Profile view is when you look at the project from Profile View
the side. Cross-sectional view is looking at the end view at
different points along the centerline (or other designated
line).
The grade of a road is defined by its vertical component

and horizontal component, both shown in a profile view.
The horizontal component is often defined by stationing. Cross-sectional View
STATIONING (HORIZONTAL)
A system called stationing is used to specify the relative horizontal position of any point along a reference
line (pipelines, highways). In metric units, smaller projects use 100m full station intervals (0+00, 1+00,
1+20.365) whereas larger projects use 1000m (1 kilometre) intervals for full stations (0+000, 0+100, 1+100,
1+060.379). A stationing of 1+20.365 indicates that the point is 120.365 metres horizontally from the
beginning of the project, or reference point.
Problem: What is the grade, in percent, of a pipe with the following data:
at station 1+75.427m the invert elevation is 42.801m
at station 2+43.864m the invert elevation is 40.862m PIPE
Solution: 42.801
40.862
vertical distance = 40.862 – 42.801 = -1.939m
1+75.427
2+43.864
horizontal distance = 243.864 – 175.427 = 68.437m
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 −1.939
grade = � � 100 = � � 100 = -2.83%
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 68.437
CUT AND FILL (VERTICAL)

As surveyors, we are often tasked with indicating what depth of material has to be dug away, “cut” (e.g. for
a pipe trench or a house basement) or to what height material must be added to raise the ground, “fill”
(e.g. for a road embankment). This requires that the elevation of the current ground be measured and then
compared to the design elevation for the same place. The calculation of cut or fill is a simple subtraction:
cut (or fill) = design elevation – ground elevation. If the result is positive the ground needs to be filled and
if the result is negative the ground needs to be cut. The surveyor often produces a “Cut Sheet” to indicate
the amount of cut (or fill) at specific locations (or stations).
Page 31 of 47
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Topographic surveys are conducted to provide a plan showing both planimetric features (buildings, roads,
utilities, etc.) and the shape of the land (topography). A topographic plan shows all relevant land forms and
elevations of those land forms as contours and spot heights. As a civil engineer it is important that you
develop the ability to recognize map symbols, use map scales and interpret topography. For example,
topographic plans will assist your investigations of a polluted site and help you determine the potential
impact on neighboring sites by analyzing the slope of the terrain and drainage patterns. A profile
determined from a topographic plan along a proposed roadway can help to calculate cuts or fills to balance
earthworks. A good knowledge of the various characteristics is essential in order to benefit from the
information on a topographic plan.
CONTOURS
A contour is an imaginary line on the surface of the earth connecting all points of equal height above some
reference plane or datum surface, usually mean sea level. Contour lines on a map are similar in shape to
contours on the ground but are drawn according to the scale of the map. The best example of a contour
line is the shore of a lake or reservoir. The water level represents one contour line because the level of the
lake or reservoir is the same in all places.
Any number of contours may be drawn between two planes of different elevation; but it is obvious that if
too many are drawn it is impossible to distinguish one contour from another. In practice a contour interval
(vertical distance between contours) is chosen for each map so that each contour may be easily
distinguished. The intervals commonly used are 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100m, but generally, the larger the
scale of the map, the smaller the contour interval. All contours shown will be multiples of the contour
interval. In flat areas where there are few contour lines spot heights are also used to show relief of the
ground. Spot heights may also be used to mark critical points such as peaks, valleys, drains, underground
services, top of a retaining wall, etc.
Although each contour in nature has a unique shape, all contours adhere to a set of general characteristics
and these are:
• Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off the plan.

• The distance between contour lines indicates the steepness of the slope. Widely spaced indicates
gentle slope, closely spaced indicates steep ground, equally and parallel spaced indicates uniform
slope and irregular contours indicate an uneven surface.
• Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
• Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards the centre indicate a
depression.
• Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent a hill.
• Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form a V, they point down a ridge and form
U’s when crossing the ridge crest.
• Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other. Contour lines meet when there is a
vertical surface such as a wall, cliff or natural bridge. Contour lines cross when there is a cave or
over-hanging cliff.
• A contour line cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
Page 32 of 47
ANGLE MEASUREMENT
There are two types of angles measured in surveying, horizontal angles measured in plan view and vertical
angles measured in profile view. Horizontal angles are used to determine bearings and directions for
traversing and for laying out all types of structures. Vertical angles are used when determining the heights
of points and to calculate slope corrections.
The theodolite, sometimes referred to as a transit, is

a precision instrument used for measuring angles;
electronic theodolites read and display angles
automatically. Optical theodolites need to be read
manually. Both are usually classified according to the
smallest reading that the instrument displays, this
varies from 1 minute (1’) to a tenth of a second (0.1”).
Total stations are precision instruments that can
measure angles and distances. These are classified
according to their angle and distance measuring
capabilities.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

If the instrument is in perfect adjustment the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis and the
line of sight axis (collimation) is perpendicular to the horizontal axis. This configuration is rarely achieved in
practice and any variation from these conditions will cause errors in observed angles. The effects of these
errors can be removed by adjustment, calibration or by using suitable field procedures.
ACCURACY OF ANGLE MEASUREMENT

In order to measure angles using a total station the instrument has to be centered over a point and it has
to be levelled so that the vertical axis is truly vertical. When assessing the relationship between angular and
linear precision the following are useful:
• 20” is equivalent to 10mm at a sighting distance of 100m

• 10” is equivalent to 5mm at a sighting distance of 100m
• 5” is equivalent to 2.5mm at a sighting distance of 100m
• 1” is equivalent to 0.5mm at a sighting distance of 100m
Based on this, if a 5mm tolerance was specified for a job that had distances of 100m, a 10” instrument is
required. By simple proportion, if a 5mm tolerance was specified but the maximum distance to be set out
was 50m, a 20” instrument is sufficient.
Page 33 of 47
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

• angles to the right, clockwise
• angles to the left, counter-clockwise are negative
• internal angles
• external angles
• deflection angles (to the right + or to the left -)
• Acute (<90°), obtuse (>90°), reflex (>180°), right (=90°)
B
B
A
A
45° Angles to the right
-45° Angles to the left
315° -315°
Internal Angles
Deflection to left (-)

Deflection angles are
used in curve layout C1
Deflection to right (+)

External Angles
C2
In a polygon the sum of the interior angles = (n-2)180°, where n = the number of angles and the sum of the
exterior angles = (n+2)180°. When interior or exterior angles are measured with a total station on any
polygon the check for angular misclosure equals the observed sum minus the theoretical (true) sum.
TYPES OF VERTICAL ANGLES

• the “zero” is vertically above the instrument, zenith angle, increase downward
• the “zero” is vertically below the instrument, nadir angle, increase upward
• the “zero” is horizontal, vertical angle, angles increase upwards (+) or downwards (-)
Zenith
Zenith angle A to B = 62°
Zenith angle from A to C = 106°
B
Nadir angle from A to B = 118°
Horizon
A
C Vertical angle from A to B = +28° (positive)
Nadir angle from A to C = 74°
Vertical angle from A to C = -16° (negative)
Nadir
Page 34 of 47
TOTAL STATIONS
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying.
Total stations consist of 3 components:
1. digital (electronic) theodolite for measuring horizontal and vertical angles

2. EDM – electronic distance measuring instrument
3. software and/or hardware that allows for electronic data collection and processing
DIFFERENCES IN TOTAL STATIONS

 range and accuracy of distances
 maximum range from 500 – 5000+ metres
 accuracy typically 2-3mm + 2-5ppm
 angular resolution
 1” to 20”
 measuring time for distances, weight, battery life, colour, software sophistication, data collection
method
 Price
 low end ($6-8000) 5-20” theodolite, EDM 5mm+5ppm, range 500-800 metres, basic
software, limited keyboard
 mid range ($8-13,000) 1-5” theodolite, EDM 3mm+3ppm, range 1500-3500 metres, some
alpha character capability, cogo software, reflectorless option
 high end ($15-35,000) 1-5” theodolite, EDM 2mm+2ppm, range 2500-3500 metres, alpha
character capability, servo motors, ATR, sophisticated software, reflectorless option,
robotic radio link
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

The following two formulae are the basis for EDM distance determinations:
𝑉𝑉 𝑐𝑐
𝜆𝜆 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉 =
𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛
where:
λ = wave length, V = velocity in the atmosphere (m/sec), f = frequency of modulation in hertz (cycles/sec),
c = velocity in a vacuum (m/sec), n = refractive index of atmosphere (ratio)
velocity of EM (electromagnetic) energy in a vacuum is 299,792,458m/sec
refractive index of air varies between 1.0001 and 1.0005 dependent upon atmospheric temperature,
pressure and humidity.
Page 35 of 47
The EDM uses electromagnetic energy to determine the length of a line by transmitting a signal to a
reflector and using the returned signal to determine the distance.
The distance is not determined by measuring the time travel but by comparing the phase shift of the
returning wavelength with the original sent signal.
The phase difference may be used to determine the “distance” along a single wavelength but does not
provide the number of even wavelengths, to do this multiple wavelengths are used.
Page 36 of 47
The path of the EDM signal passes through the atmosphere and the reflector’s glass prism. The index of
refraction varies slightly in the atmosphere but is constant in the prism glass with a refractive index of 1.517.
As the index of refraction changes, the speed of light (V) changes. When the speed of light varies the
wavelength (λ) varies and this results in an error in the distance if it is not accounted for and corrected.
The refractive index of the atmosphere depends on temperature, pressure and relative humidity. Variations
in the atmospheric conditions will change the refractive index and influence distance measurements.
Relative humidity does not significantly affect the distance for the frequencies used in most total stations
and only temperature and pressure are usually taken into account. The distance error is also a function of
the length of the measurement and is calculated as a parts per million (ppm) correction. Most modern total
stations have onboard software where the operator enters the temperature and pressure and the
instrument calculates and applies the correction.
ERRORS SOURCES FOR EDM DISTANCES

There are two errors that normally need to be corrected with electronic distance measurements using light;
prism constant and atmospheric correction.
1. Prism constant is made up of 4 components:

• the horizontal offset of the measuring point of the prism and ground point
• the offset between the EDM’s measuring point and the vertical axis of the theodolite
• the effect of the refractive index and thickness of the prism glass
• any correction that has been programmed into the total station to produce a certain constant
with a specific type of prism
The prism correction is a constant; it does not vary with the measured distance. An incorrect prism constant
is the most common blunder in electronic distance measurement.
2. Atmospheric correction – different air densities create small changes in the speed of light.
This correction is generally applied as the measurements are made and is usually dealt with by onboard
software that allows the user to key in temperature and pressure. Alternatively a value for the atmospheric
correction can be calculated or read from a graph relating temperature, pressure and the correction.
Atmospheric correction is in terms of parts per million. The magnitude of the correction depends on the
length of the measured distance.
Page 37 of 47
LEICA TC600
In SURV 1130 the total station that is used is a LEICA TC600. The TC600 requires the prism constant to be
entered into the instrument as a correction, not an error. The typical manufacturer’s method for prism
constant determination is the following: A baseline is set up on a uniformly sloping site with three points in
a line.
Initially the instrument is placed at point C and the distance to A is measured and the distance to B is
measured. The instrument is then moved to point A and the overall distance is measured.
Example: Horizontal Distance (HD) C to A = 2.231m, HD C to B = 2.534m, HD A to B = 4.735m
(2.231+c) + (2.534+c) = (4.735+c)
4.765 + 2c = 4.735 + c
c = -0.030m (correction)
Another common method for determining a prism constant is to compare an EDM distance with a taped
distance. A short distance measured with a steel tape (2-3m) would be the “true” distance and the observed
distance would be the EDM distance. The prism constant error would then be the observed distance (EDM)
minus the true distance (taped).
Any time a prism constant is determined and set into the instrument you MUST check your result before
commencing the survey.
The TC600 requires the parts per million correction (PPM) to be calculated or read from a graph in the
user’s manual. The formula to calculate the PPM correction for a TC600 is:
0.29065𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 281.8 − where P = pressure in millibars and T = temperature in °C
1+0.00366𝑇𝑇
corrected slope distance (SD) = SD + (SD x ppm)
Page 38 of 47
Problem:
The PPM correction on the total station was set to zero and a slope distance of 227.624m was observed.
The temperature at the time of measurement was 2°C and the air pressure was 1035mb. What is the
corrected slope distance?
Solution:
(0.29065)1035
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 281.8 − = −16.8𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 + (0.00366)2
−16.8
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 227.624 + �227.624 � �� = 227.620𝑚𝑚
1000000
MEASURING ANGLES USING A TOTAL STATION

In order to minimize instrumental error, horizontal and vertical angles are measured on both face 1 and
face 2. Face 1 differs from face 2 in that they are 180° apart horizontally when observing the same point
and vertical angles (zenith) measured on face 1 are between 0° and 180°, while on face 2 they are between
180° and 360°. In order to measure angles on both faces you will point to each target twice. Since we can
predict the second reading to a point we have an opportunity to catch any blunders that may have been
observed on face 1. Any time you measure a quantity only once you do not have a check on the
measurement until you perform further calculations.
The method that we will use to measure horizontal angles is the directional method. The procedure is to
point to each target in a clockwise direction on face 1 and then to sight each target in the reverse order on
face 2.
Page 39 of 47
BOOKING FORMAT FOR HORIZONTAL ANGLES – DIRECTIONAL METHOD
Instrument
location A
C
130°20’33”
280°45’22”
Observations to 3 points, A B and C. The order of observations are as follows: sight to point A, then B and
then C on face 1. Switch to face 2 and sight to point C, then B and then A.
STATION F1 F2 SM RM
A 0°00’00” 179°59’46” 359°59’53” 0°00’00”
B 130°20’22” 310°20’30” 130°20’26” 130°20’33”
C 280°45’12” 100°45’18” 280°45’15” 280°45’22”
Observations Calculations
SM (Simple Mean) – add or subtract 180°(+180° if < 180°, -180° if > 180°) to F2 reading and average with F1
reading.
• exception: if F1 = 0°00’00” and F2 is less than 180°, you add 180° to F2 and average with 360°
rather than 0°.
RM (Reduced Mean) – rotate all directions by the same amount to force the first (initial) direction to be
0°00’00”.
Page 40 of 47
VERTICAL ANGLES
Angles measured in the vertical plane will be referenced to zero being straight up, zenith angles. Although
these angles are zenith angles you will often hear a surveyor call them vertical angles because they are
measured in the vertical plane. A word of caution: make sure you are aware of where the zero mark is on
the instrument when you are quoting “vertical angles”. The magnitude of the angle often indicates what
type of angle it is, but not always.
BOOKING FORMAT FOR ZENITH ANGLES
STATION/FACE ZENITH CORRECTION MEAN
A (F1) 84°26’18” +11” 84°26’29”
A (F2) 275°33’20” +11” 275°33’31”
SUM: 359°59’38” 360°00’00”
THEORETICAL 360°00’00”
ERROR: -0°00’22”
Steps to finding a mean zenith angle:
1. add F1 and F2 to obtain observed sum

2. subtract the theoretical sum (360°) to obtain error
3. apply a correction ( half the error, opposite sign) to each angle to obtain mean angles
4. verify that the mean values sum to 360°
5. use the mean F1 value in any further calculations
For any particular instrument the sum of F1 and F2 should stay consistent for all observations. If the sum is
consistently above or below 360° by a significant amount (could be up to a few minutes) then the
instrument is said to have collimation error. Collimation error can be adjusted by software in a total station,
there is a built in program, or by an adjustment done by a technician in a repair shop. If observing zenith
angles to several points and it is found that one of the sums does not agree with the rest then you can
assume there has been a blunder in the observations.
Page 41 of 47
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING
Using a measured zenith angle and slope distance you can calculate an elevation difference using
trigonometric levelling. A general equation for trigonometric levelling can be described using elements in
the diagram below between points A and B.
Horizontal Distance = SD sin ZA
ΔHAB = HI + SD cos ZA – HT therefore ElevB = ElevA + ΔHAB
ELEVB = ElevA + HI + SD cos ZA - HT
Problem:
An Instrument was set-up at Point A and the following measurements were taken to Point B:
• Mean Zenith Angle was measured to be 85°45’ 33”

• Slope Distance was 123.567m.
• The Height of Instrument was 1.491m while the Height of Target was 1.300m.
If the Elevation of A is 33.812m above MSL what is the Elevation of B and what is the Horizontal Distance
from A to B?
Solution:
Horizontal Distance = SD sin ZA = 123.567 sin 85°45’33” = 123.229m
ELEVB = ElevA + HI + SD cos ZA – HT = 33.812 + 1.491 + 123.567 cos 85°45’33” – 1.300 = 43.141m
Page 42 of 47
Trigonometric levelling can be divided into two types; long line and short line. When elevations are being
determine over long lines, when distances are greater than 300 metres, the error created by earth curvature
and refraction cannot be ignored. Both curvature and refraction are systematic errors because they can be
predicted and corrected for.
EARTH CURVATURE ERROR
Earth’s curvature makes the level line diverge from the

horizontal line so the correction is positive.
Equatorial radius of the earth ≈ 6380km
Polar radius of the earth ≈ 6360km
Mean radius of the earth ≈ 6370km
c = correction for curvature (+)
D = length of line (horizontal)
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐷𝐷2 = (𝑅𝑅 + 𝑐𝑐)2
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐷𝐷 2 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑐𝑐 2
subtract R2 from both sides
𝐷𝐷2 = 2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑐𝑐2
𝐷𝐷2 = 𝑐𝑐(2𝑅𝑅 + 𝑐𝑐)
𝐷𝐷2
= 𝑐𝑐
2𝑅𝑅 + 𝑐𝑐
because c is small, compared to R, it can be said that
𝐷𝐷 2
𝑐𝑐 ≈
2𝑅𝑅
if R≈6370km
𝐷𝐷2
𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ≈ = 0.0000785𝐷𝐷2 , D is in km
2(6370)
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 ≈ 0.0785𝐷𝐷2 , correction in m and D in km
Page 43 of 47
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION ERROR

Refraction refers to the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium density to another. Refraction
is affected by atmospheric pressure, temperature and geographic location. From the instrument, the line
of sight starts as a horizontal line, but as the sight length increases, the effect of refraction increases.
Refraction bends the light towards denser air which is usually closer to the earth’s surface; therefore the
line of sight is bent towards the earth and partially compensates, or reduces the curvature error. Error due
to refraction is significantly less than error
from curvature; it can be calculated for very
precise work but for many jobs is
approximated to 14% of the curvature
value.
r = correction for refraction (negative)
(c-r) = combined curvature and refraction

correction (+)
Commonly accepted approximation for (c-r)
(c-r)m ≈ 0.0675 Dkm2 , D is the horizontal

distance in kilometres and the correction is
in metres because the 0.0675 takes into
account both error and conversion.
With curvature and refraction applied the trigonometric levelling formula becomes:
ΔELEVAB = SD cos Z + HI – HT + (c-r)
Problem:
Calculate the change in elevation from point A to point B given the following field data:
Instrument at point A, HI = 1.605m
Observations to point B: HT = 1.300m, SD = 1250.301m, mean zenith angle = 98°13’10”
Solution:
HD = SD sin Z = 1250.301 sin 98°13’10” = 1237.458m ≈ 1.2375km
(c-r) in metres ≈ 0.0675 (1.2375)2 ≈ 0.103m
ΔELEVAB = 1250.301 cos 98°13’10” + 1.605 – 1.300 + 0.103 = -178.341m
Page 44 of 47
LINEAR MEASUREMENT – TAPING

For precise taping, steel tapes are always used. Steel tapes are manufactured in several lengths (up to 300
feet or 100 metres) and are graduated in feet or metres. They are also supplied in two common cross section
sizes; heavy duty (8mm x 0.45mm) and normal usage (6mm x 0.3mm). Fiberglass or cloth tapes may also be
used for less precise measurements over shorter distances (less than 20 metres).
Steel tapes are generally graduated in one of three different ways:
1. fully graduated throughout their length in metres and millimetres (or feet and hundredths)
2. cut tape – graduated in decimetres (or whole feet) only, except for the first decimetre (or foot)
which is fully graduated
3. add tape – graduated in decimetres only (or whole feet) with an additional decimetre (or foot)
before the zero mark which is fully graduated. Distances are measured by placing the nearest
decimetre on the forward mark and reading the fractions off the add section and adding them on
When using a tape to measure distances, the tape can be held horizontally by using a plumb bob at one end
or both ends. When this is not possible, the slope angle along with the slope distance can be measured and
the horizontal distance can be calculated.
In addition to slope correction the following systematic errors should also be considered when using a
surveyor’s steel tape in order to improve the precision of the measured distance.
Page 45 of 47
a) Standardization: Under given conditions a tape will have a stated nominal length; this can change
as tapes tend to stretch over time. To allow for this all tapes should periodically be standardized
using a reference tape or baseline.
𝐿𝐿(𝐿𝐿𝐹𝐹 − 𝐿𝐿𝑁𝑁 )
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝐿𝐿𝑁𝑁
where, L = recorded length

LF = standardized length of tape (e.g. 30.011m)
LN = nominal length of tape (e.g. 30.000m)
b) Tension: Because steel is elastic the length of a tape will vary according to how much tension is
applied to it. Steel tapes are often calibrated using a tension of 50 newtons. To improve the
precision of measurement the tape should be pulled using the standard tension, to ensure this is
done properly a spring balance is attached to the tape. If a tape is pulled a different tension to its
standardized value a correction is applied to the measurement.
𝐿𝐿(𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹 − 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 )
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

PF = tension applied
PS = standard tension, often 50N
A = cross-sectional area of tape
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity, typically 20 x 1010 N/m2
c) Temperature: Steel tapes will expand and contract with temperature variations. Steel tapes are
often calibrated at a temperature of 20°C.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 )

α = coefficient of expansion of steel, 11.2 x 10-6 per 1°C
TF = field temperature
TS = standard temperature, typically 20°C
Page 46 of 47
d) Sag: This correction is only considered when measuring distances to elevated points with steel
tapes. If this is done, the tape will sag under its own weight in the shape of a catenary curve. Since
the distance required is the chord between the end points a sag correction must be applied.
𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝐿𝐿3

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = −
24𝑃𝑃2

m = mass per unit length
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/sec2
P = tension applied
For setting out work, calculate all the corrections as if the distance had been measured then change the
sign of each correction and apply these to the known horizontal distance to give the required setting out
distance.
Problem:
A distance of 28.746m is read from a 30 metre steel tape that is

along the ground. The temperature at the time of measurement
was 0°C. Standard tension was applied and the tape was
standardized and found to be 30.000m in length. The slope of the
ground is measured with a clinometer (measures vertical angle, see
fig.A) and is found to be 10°. Calculate the corrected horizontal
distance.
Solution: FIGURE A: CLINOMETER
Correction for temperature and slope needs to be applied.
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = (28.746)(11.2𝑥𝑥10−6 )(0° − 20°) = −0.0064𝑚𝑚
corrected slope distance = 28.746+(-0.0064) = 28.7396m
𝐻𝐻. 𝐷𝐷. = 𝑆𝑆. 𝐷𝐷. cos(𝑉𝑉. 𝐴𝐴. ) = 28.7396 cos 10° = 28.303𝑚𝑚
Page 47 of 47
Problem:
A horizontal distance of 27.000m needs to be set out across a river. The field temperature is 30°C, standard
tension is used (75N) and there isn’t a standardized correction needed. The tape is held at the same
elevation on both sides of the river. What distance needs to be read on the tape?
Solution:
Sag correction and temperature correction need to be accounted for.
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = (27.000)(11.2𝑥𝑥10−6 )(30° − 20°) = +0.0030𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝐿𝐿3

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = −
24𝑃𝑃2
0.02782 9.812 27.0003

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = − = −0.0108𝑚𝑚
24(752 )
Distance that needs to be read is: 27.000 - 0.0030 + 0.0108 = 27.008m

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SURV 1130

SURVEYING FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

Archaeological evidence suggests that ‘surveyors’ existed in

Surveying methods started to advance rapidly as

Some Notable Surveyors

Eupalinos of Megara (6th Century BC) – the tunnel of Samos

Notable Individuals Connected with Surveying

George Washington (Feb. 22, 1732 – Dec. 14, 1799)

What kind of a survey is it??

INTEGERS AND REAL NUMBERS IN SURVEYING

1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm) 1 metre = 100cm = 1000mm

1 kilometre (km) = 1000m 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 sq. m = 100m x 100m

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) (12”) 1 yard (yd) = 3ft (3’)

1 mile (mi) = 5280ft 1 Gunter’s chain = 100 links = 66ft = 4 rods

1 mi = 80 Gunter’s chain 1 fathom = 6ft

1 nautical mi = 6076.12ft = 1.852km 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft

Metric to Imperial Conversions

1m = 39.37 inches (US) 1m ≈ 3.2808333.. US ft

1 inch = 2.54cm (International) 1ft (Int.) = 0.3048m

1 km = 0.621371mi 1mi = 1609.344m 1ha = 2.47105 acres 1acre = 0.404685ha

DMS to DD = D + M/60 + S/3600 e.g. 12°15’27” = 12 + 15/60 + 27/3600 = 12.2575°

DD to Rad = DD x PI/180° = 12.2575° x π/180° = 0.2139337rad.

MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS

ERROR = OBSERVED VALUE – TRUE VALUE CORRECTION = -ERROR

Errors in measurements are of two types.

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT IN SURVEYING

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

FIELD NOTE “RULES”

SAMPLE LAB TITLE PAGE

EQUIPMENT: SOKKIA AUTOMATIC LEVEL

WEATHER: SUNNY, 10°C

LOCATION: SOUTH OF NW1

A vertical line is a line parallel to the direction of gravity.

A horizontal line is a straight line perpendicular to a vertical line.

THE SURVEYOR’S LEVEL

• Hand level or abney level: used on low precision work.

Photo Courtesy of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Automatic_Level.svg

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INSTRUMENT PERSON

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ROD PERSON

rod bubble held tightly against rod

LEVELLING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

STATION B.S. H.I. I.F.S. F.S. ELEV. (m)

BM A 1.977 101.977 100.000

Elevation (E or ELEV) is the vertical distance of a point from a level surface.

1. Establish two points about 60 metres apart

2. Set the level mid-way between A and B and

5. Keep the level where it is and move

6. Steps 2 and 3 will give the true

7. Steps 4 and 5 will also give a change

Rod Reading to A 1.478m

Rod Reading to B 1.139m

Difference 1 = +0.339m = true difference in elevation

Instrument at A, distance is ≈ 1.5 metres behind Point A

Rod Reading to A 1.884m

Rod Reading to B 1.530m

Difference 2 = +0.354m = apparent difference in elevation

Collimation error equals difference 1 minus difference 2.

Error -0.015m (this is over 60 metres)

USING A LEVEL THAT IS OUT OF ADJUSTMENT

error over 50m = +0.025m error over 1m = +0.025/50 = +0.0005m/m

error over 43m = +0.0005m/m x 43m = +0.0215 = +0.022m

correction over 43m = -0.022m

corrected rod reading = 1.726-0.022 = 1.704m

ALLOWABLE ERROR IN LEVELLING