CENTRE OF STUDIES FOR QUANTITY SURVEYING

COLLEGE OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA SHAH ALAM.

COURSE CODE: BQS502 (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III)

PREPARED FOR: SIR HANAFI BIN AB HARIS

SEMESTER: SEPTEMBER 2022-FEBRUARY 2023

TOPIC: WRITTEN REPORT CASE STUDY

SUBMISSION DATE: WEEK 13

NAME MATRIC NO CLASS

ALISHA SYAHIRAH BINTI ASMADI 2022494378 AP2243H

EDDRY HARRIS PUTRA BIN MOHD ASRI 2022876048 AP2243H

NUR AQILAH NASIHAH BINTI MOHD ROSLI 2022815492 AP2243H

NURUL ASYIQIN BINTI MD HANEF 2022800196 AP2243H

ZULAIKHA ANEESA ERYNNA BINTI ZAHARI 2022830358 AP2243H

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION 3

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

3.0 BACKGROUND DETAILS OF CASE STUDY 6

4.0 CONSTRUCTION DETAIL 13

5.0 DIFFERENCES IN THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF STEEL AND REINFORCED

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 14
5.1 Advantages of steel compared to reinforced concrete construction 14
5.2 Disadvantages steel construction compared to reinforced concrete construction 15
5.3 Design consideration between steel construction and reinforced concrete construction 16
5.4 Plant and machineries requirement during the construction period 17

6.0 CONCLUSION 20

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Steel structure generally refers to a construction method that uses a skeleton frame made of
horizontal steel beams and vertical steel columns that is built into a roof building and linked to
the frame. In addition, steel structures are metal structures made up of structural steel
components joined together to support loads and provide stiffness. The steel structure is an
assemblage of a group members expected to sustain. Steel is highly elastic, ductile, malleable,
and weldable. Steel has high tensile and compressive strength and stands wear and tear much
better (Sharma, 2017).

These structures are more reliable and require less raw material than other types of structures
such as concrete due to the high strength of steel. Thus, in modern construction nowadays,
steel structures are used in almost all types of structures such as heavy industrial buildings,
skyscrapers, equipment support systems, infrastructure, bridges, towers and heavy industrial
plants. However, the use of steel for this frame also depends on the type of use of the building
and the size of the building. This is because the size and type of steel used will differ depending
on the two factors because the thickness of the iron will affect the amount of load that the
building can accommodate as well as the size of the steel. Furthermore, steel structure is also
one that is assembled from various steel pieces of varying shapes and sizes and joined together
by welding or riveting, carries out some purpose, has some capacity, and can stably sustain the
loads it is subjected to.

The steel structure is a metal structure that is made of essential steel parts associated with one
another to convey stacks and give full rigidity, another building that uses steel structure as a
building frame is trustworthy and uses fewer raw resources than others like solid and timber
constructions since it is made of high-quality strength steel. Apart from that, these steel
structures do not need frequent maintenance like concrete structures, but only need to be
handled with care during transportation from the factory to the building site to avoid any
damage. In addition, this steel structure does not require a lot of work methods because it does
not involve concrete and formwork, therefore the installation work involving this steel structure
will not be affected by the weather for the installation process. Construction of steel structures is
far increasingly quicker at that point since concrete needs time for curing after casting (Sharma
et al., 2017).

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Steel structures are distinguished by their excellent form variation and their ability to express
themselves visually. Through mechanical means, the fabrication and installation of steel building
structures are acknowledged. The most significant disadvantage of steel constructions is their
proclivity for corrosion, which necessitates the application of protective measures such as
specific coatings and paints on a regular basis, raising the cost of maintenance. The steel
structure is a type of metal construction where the main steel segments connect with one
another to transport stacks and provide complete rigidity. Structural steel is a steel construction
material created with a particular shape and synthetic structure to suit a project’s applicable
specifications (Sharma et al., 2017).

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 introduction

Steel construction refers to the use of steel in the construction of buildings and other
structures. Steel is a strong, durable, and versatile building material that has been used for
centuries in a variety of construction applications. It is made from iron ore that is melted in a
furnace and combined with other elements, such as carbon, to create a range of steel alloys
with different properties. Steel construction has many advantages, including its high
strength-to-weight ratio, which allows for the construction of tall buildings with a smaller overall
mass and a reduced foundation size. It is also highly resistant to fire and other forms of
damage, making it a safe choice for building construction. In addition, steel is easy to transport
and can be fabricated off-site, which can reduce construction time and cost.

However, steel construction also has some limitations, such as its susceptibility to
corrosion if not properly protected, and the need for regular maintenance to ensure its long-term
durability. In addition, the production of steel has significant environmental impacts, including
greenhouse gas emissions and the consumption of natural resources. Overall, steel
construction is a popular choice for a wide range of building projects, from residential and
commercial buildings to infrastructure and industrial facilities. Its strength, durability, and
versatility make it an important material in modern construction.

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2.2 types of steel construction

2.2.1 light gauge steel

Light gauge steel is a type of steel that is used in the construction of lightweight,
non-load-bearing structures. It is made from thin sheets of steel that are typically 0.5 to 1.5
millimeters thick and are used to create framing for walls, floors, and roofs. Light gauge steel
has several advantages over other building materials, such as its strength, durability, and
resistance to fire and pests. It is also lightweight, making it easy to transport and handle during
construction. In addition, it can be easily fabricated off-site, which can reduce construction time
and cost.

Light gauge steel is commonly used in residential construction, such as in the construction of
prefabricated houses and apartment buildings. It is also used in the construction of commercial
and industrial buildings, such as warehouses and office buildings. However, light gauge steel is
not suitable for use in the construction of load-bearing structures, such as bridges and tall
buildings, due to its limited strength and stiffness. For these types of projects, heavier gauge
steel or other building materials, such as concrete, may be more suitable.

2.2.2 structural steel

Structural steel is a type of steel that is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, and other
structures. It is a strong, durable, and versatile building material that is widely used in the
construction industry. Structural steel is made from iron ore that is melted in a furnace and
combined with other elements, such as carbon, to create a range of steel alloys with different
properties. It is then shaped into various forms, such as beams, columns, and plates, which are
used as structural elements in construction.

Structural steel has several advantages over other building materials, including its high
strength-to-weight ratio, which allows for the construction of tall buildings with a smaller overall
mass and a reduced foundation size. It is also highly resistant to fire and other forms of
damage, making it a safe choice for building construction. In addition, structural steel is easy to
transport and can be fabricated off-site, which can reduce construction time and cost.

However, structural steel also has some limitations, such as its susceptibility to corrosion if not
properly protected, and the need for regular maintenance to ensure its long-term durability. In
addition, the production of steel has significant environmental impacts, including greenhouse
gas emissions and the consumption of natural resources.Overall, structural steel is an important
material in modern construction, and it is widely used in a variety of building projects, including
residential and commercial buildings, bridges, and infrastructure.

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2.2.3 mild steel

Mild steel is a type of low-carbon steel that is commonly used in the construction industry and
for making a wide range of products, including pipes, wires, and automotive parts. It is called
"mild" steel because it has a relatively low carbon content, which gives it good formability and
machinability, as well as moderate strength. Mild steel has a number of characteristics that
make it a popular choice for many applications. It is relatively inexpensive, easy to work with,
and has good weldability and ductility. In addition, it is resistant to corrosion, although it may rust
if not properly protected.

Mild steel is commonly used in the construction of buildings, bridges, and other structures, as
well as in the manufacturing of pipes, wires, and other products. It is also used in the automotive
industry and in the production of a variety of consumer goods. However, mild steel has lower
strength and stiffness compared to other types of steel, such as high-carbon steel and structural
steel. It is not suitable for use in applications that require high levels of strength and stiffness,
such as in the construction of load-bearing structures or in the production of high-strength
components.

2.2.4 rebar steel

Rebar, short for reinforcing bar, is a type of steel bar that is used to reinforce concrete
structures. It is made from carbon steel and is typically ribbed or patterned to improve its
bonding with the concrete. Rebar is used in a wide range of construction projects, including
buildings, bridges, roads, and other infrastructure. It is used to add strength and support to
concrete structures, particularly in areas that are subjected to high levels of tension or stress,
such as at the base of columns or in the corners of walls.

Rebar is available in a range of sizes and grades, and it is typically used in combination with
other reinforcing materials, such as wire mesh, to create a reinforced concrete structure. It is
placed in the formwork before the concrete is poured, and it is designed to transfer the loads in
the structure to the concrete, thereby increasing the overall strength and stability of the
structure. Overall, rebar is an important component of many concrete structures, and it plays a
vital role in ensuring the structural integrity and safety of these structures.

7
3.0 types of steel gradation

3.1 stainless steel

Stainless steel is a type of steel that is made up of at least 10.5% chromium and is highly
corrosion resistant. It is a popular material for a wide range of applications, including cookware,
cutlery, and medical instruments, as well as construction materials, such as screws, nails, and
structural supports. Stainless steel is also used in the production of automobiles and aircraft.
One of the main advantages of stainless steel is its ability to resist corrosion, which makes it a
long-lasting and durable material. It is also easy to clean and maintain, which makes it a popular
choice for a variety of applications.

3.2 carbon steel

Carbon steel is a type of steel that is made up of iron and carbon. It may also contain other
elements, such as manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium. Carbon steel is
an alloy, which means that it is made up of a combination of elements. The main advantage of
carbon steel is that it is strong and durable, making it ideal for a wide range of applications. It is
also relatively inexpensive compared to other types of steel, such as stainless steel. However,
carbon steel is prone to rust and corrosion if it is not properly treated or maintained. As a result,
it may not be the best choice for applications where corrosion resistance is important.

3.3 alloy steel

Alloy steel is a type of steel that is made up of iron and one or more other elements, in addition
to carbon. The other elements may include manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
vanadium, and others. These additional elements are added to the steel to improve its
properties, such as its strength, hardenability, or corrosion resistance. Alloy steels are used in a
wide range of applications, including the production of tools, automotive parts, and construction
materials. They are also used in the aerospace, defense, and energy industries. The specific
properties of an alloy steel depend on the particular elements that are used in its production.

3.4 tool steel

Tool steel is a type of steel that is specifically designed to be used for making tools. It is known
for its toughness, wear resistance, and ability to hold a cutting edge. Tool steel is typically used
for applications where the tools will be subjected to high levels of stress, such as in the
construction of aircraft, automobiles, and machinery. There are several different types of tool
steel, including high speed steel, hot work steel, and cold work steel. Each type of tool steel is
designed for a specific purpose and has unique properties that make it suitable for that purpose.
For example, high speed steel is known for its ability to retain its hardness at high temperatures
and is often used for cutting tools. Cold work steel is known for its ability to hold a sharp edge
and is often used for tools that will be used at low temperatures.

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4.0 key components in steel structure

4.1 primary framing

In steel construction, primary framing refers to the main structural elements that make up the
frame of a building. These elements include the columns and beams that support the floors,
walls, and roof of the building. Primary framing is a critical component of any steel building. It is
responsible for supporting the majority of the building's loads, including the weight of the
structure itself, as well as any external loads such as wind, snow, and earthquakes. Primary
framing is also responsible for transferring these loads to the foundation of the building.

There are several types of primary framing systems that are used in steel construction, including
rigid frame, braced frame, and moment frame. The choice of primary framing system will
depend on the specific requirements of the building, including the size and shape of the
structure, the types of loads it will be subjected to, and the availability of materials and labor.
Primary framing is typically made of steel or other structural materials that have a high
strength-to-weight ratio, such as aluminum or composite materials. It is designed to be both
strong and lightweight, so that it can support the loads on the building without adding
unnecessary weight.

4.1.1 rigid frame

In steel construction, a rigid frame is a type of structure that is composed of beams and columns
that are connected using rigid connections. A rigid connection is one that resists both rotation
and translation, allowing the beams and columns to act as a single unit. Rigid frame structures
are commonly used in the construction of buildings, bridges, and other structures. They are
particularly well-suited for situations where large spans are required, as the rigid connections
allow the beams and columns to resist both bending and torsional forces. One advantage of a
rigid frame structure is that it is relatively simple to design and construct. The structural behavior
of a rigid frame is easy to predict, and the connections between the beams and columns do not
have to be adjusted for different loading conditions. This makes them a cost-effective option for
many building projects. However, rigid frame structures do have some limitations. They are not
well-suited for situations where the structure needs to be able to absorb large amounts of
energy, such as during an earthquake or other natural disaster. They also require more material
than other types of structures, which can make them more expensive to build.

9
4.1.2 beams and columns

In steel construction, beams and columns are structural elements that are used to support
loads. A beam is a horizontal structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the
external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending
moment. Beams are typically made of steel, concrete, or timber. A column is a vertical structural
element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other
structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. It can be square,
rectangular, or circular in cross section, and it can be made of concrete, steel, timber, or other
materials. Beams and columns are commonly used in construction to form a structure's
skeleton. The beams support the floors and roof of the structure, while the columns support the
beams. Steel beams and columns are widely used in the construction of buildings and other
structures because of their strength, durability, and versatility. They can be used in a variety of
different structural configurations to suit the needs of the specific project.

4.1.3 rafters

In steel construction, rafters are structural elements that are used to support the roof of a
building. Rafters are typically made of steel or other structural materials and are arranged in a
series that runs from the peak of the roof to the eaves. Rafters are typically supported by a ridge
beam at the top and by the wall of the building at the bottom. Rafters play a critical role in the
structural integrity of a building. They are responsible for supporting the weight of the roof, as
well as any other loads that are placed on the roof, such as snow and rainwater. Rafters also
help to transfer these loads to the walls and foundation of the building. There are several
different types of rafters that can be used in steel construction, including common rafters, hip
rafters, and valley rafters. Common rafters are the most basic type of rafter and are used to
support the majority of the roof. Hip rafters are used to support the corners of the roof, where
two sloping roof planes meet. Valley rafters are used to support the intersection of three or more
roof planes. In addition to supporting the roof, rafters also play a role in determining the overall
shape and appearance of the roof. They are often visible from the interior of the building and
can be used to create a specific design aesthetic.

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4.1.4 trusses and girders

In steel construction, trusses and girders are types of structural elements that are used to
support loads. A truss is a structural element that is made up of a series of interconnected
triangles. Trusses are used in a wide variety of construction projects, including bridges,
buildings, and other structures. They are particularly well-suited for spanning long distances
because they are able to distribute loads evenly across their entire length. Trusses are highly
efficient structures because they use a relatively small amount of material to support large
loads. A girder is a large beam that is used to support the floor or roof of a building. Girders are
typically made of steel or reinforced concrete and are used in the construction of bridges,
buildings, and other structures. Girders are typically supported by columns or other types of
supports and are used to transfer loads from the floor or roof to the supports. Girders are
typically designed to carry loads that are much larger than those that can be carried by a single
beam or column. Trusses and girders are commonly used in the construction of buildings and
other structures to provide support and stability. They are particularly useful in situations where
long spans are required or where the loads to be supported are very heavy.

4.1.5 single slope

A single slope steel frame is a type of building frame that has a sloping roof that is supported by
a single set of sloping rafters. The rafters are typically supported by a single set of columns or a
concrete wall. Single slope steel frames are commonly used in the construction of warehouses,
industrial buildings, and other utilitarian structures.

One advantage of a single slope steel frame is that it allows for the easy installation of natural
lighting and ventilation. The sloping roof also allows for rainwater and snow to easily run off,
reducing the risk of water damage to the building. Single slope steel frames are also relatively
simple to design and construct, making them a cost-effective option for many building projects.
However, they are not well-suited for buildings that require a more complex roof shape or more
structural support.

4.2 secondary framing

In steel construction, secondary framing refers to the structural elements that are used to
support the cladding or exterior finish of the building. These elements include purlins, girts, and
eave struts. Purlins are horizontal structural members that are attached to the primary framing of
a building and support the roof cladding. They are typically made of steel and are spaced at
regular intervals along the length of the building. Girts are horizontal structural members that are
attached to the primary framing of a building and support the wall cladding. Like purlins, they are
typically made of steel and are spaced at regular intervals along the building. Eave struts are
diagonal structural members that are attached to the primary framing of a building and support
the roof cladding at the eaves. They help to distribute the loads from the roof cladding evenly
along the length of the building. Secondary framing is typically designed to be lightweight and is
not responsible for supporting the primary loads on the building. Its main function is to provide a
surface for the attachment of the cladding or exterior finish of the building.

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4.2.1 cold formed steel

Cold formed steel, also known as light gauge steel, is a construction material that is made by
forming steel sheets or coils into shapes through a process known as roll forming. The steel
sheets or coils are fed into a roll forming machine, which shapes the material into the desired
cross-sectional shape using a series of rolling dies. Cold formed steel is commonly used in the
construction of buildings, including residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. It is
particularly well-suited for use in the construction of framed buildings, as it can be easily shaped
into the desired cross-sectional shape and has a high strength-to-weight ratio. There are several
advantages to using cold formed steel in construction. It is relatively inexpensive compared to
other types of construction materials, and it can be easily fabricated and assembled on site.
Cold formed steel is also lightweight, which makes it easier to handle and transport. It is also
very strong and durable, and it is resistant to fire, rot, and pests. However, cold formed steel
does have some limitations. It is not as strong as hot rolled steel, which is another type of steel
that is commonly used in construction. Cold formed steel is also more prone to buckling under
certain loading conditions, so it must be designed carefully to ensure that it can withstand the
expected loads.

4.2.2 girts and purlins

In steel construction, girts and purlins are types of secondary framing elements that are used to
support the cladding or exterior finish of a building. Purlins are horizontal structural members
that are attached to the primary framing of a building and support the roof cladding. They are
typically made of steel and are spaced at regular intervals along the length of the building. Girts
are horizontal structural members that are attached to the primary framing of a building and
support the wall cladding. Like purlins, they are typically made of steel and are spaced at
regular intervals along the building. Purlins and girts are typically used in conjunction with the
primary framing of a building to provide a surface for the attachment of the cladding or exterior
finish. They are not responsible for supporting the primary loads on the building, but rather help
to distribute these loads evenly along the length of the building. Purlins and girts are typically
made of cold formed steel, which is a type of steel that is made by forming steel sheets or coils
into shapes through a process known as roll forming. They are lightweight and easy to install,
and they can be used in a variety of different building configurations to suit the specific needs of
the project.

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4.2.3 wall and roof braces

Wall and roof braces are used in steel construction to provide lateral support for walls and roofs.
These braces help to resist wind and seismic loads and prevent the walls and roofs from
collapsing. There are several types of wall and roof braces that can be used in steel
construction, including:

● Diagonal braces: These are the most common type of wall braces and are used to
provide lateral support for walls. They are typically installed at a 45-degree angle
between the wall and the foundation.
● Horizontal braces: These braces are used to provide lateral support for walls and are
typically installed a mid-height or near the top of the wall.
● Vertical braces: These braces are used to provide lateral support for roofs and are
typically installed at the eaves or at the ridge of the roof.
● Cross braces: These braces are used to provide lateral support for roofs and are
typically installed at a 45-degree angle between the rafters.

It is important to properly design and install wall and roof braces to ensure that they can
effectively resist the loads they are subjected to.

4.2.4 eave struts

Eave struts are structural elements that are used in steel construction to provide lateral support
for the eaves of a building. They are typically installed at the intersection of the roof and the wall
and are used to resist wind and seismic loads. Eave struts can be either diagonal or horizontal
in orientation and are typically connected to the roof and wall with bolts or other fasteners.

In addition to providing lateral support, eave struts can also serve as a point of attachment for
other building elements such as gutters and downspouts. It is important to properly design and
install eave struts to ensure that they can effectively resist the loads they are subjected to.

13
4.2.5 headers and jambs

Headers and jambs are structural elements that are used in steel construction to provide
support for door and window openings. A header is a horizontal beam that spans the top of the
opening and supports the weight of the wall above the opening. A jamb is a vertical member
that runs along the sides of the opening and helps to transfer the load from the header to the
foundation.

In steel construction, headers and jambs are typically made of steel beams or steel channels.
They can be either structural or non-structural, depending on the size and load requirements of
the opening. It is important to properly design and install headers and jambs to ensure that they
can effectively support the loads they are subjected to and to prevent the opening from
collapsing.

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4.3 fasteners in steel construction

Fasteners are mechanical elements that are used to hold two or more steel members together
in a construction project. There are several types of fasteners that are commonly used in steel
construction, including:

● Bolts: These are fasteners that consist of a head, a threaded shaft, and a nut. They are
used to hold two or more members together by tightening the nut onto the threaded
shaft.
● Screws: These are similar to bolts, but they have a threaded shaft that is designed to be
self-tapping. This means that they can be installed directly into a material without the
need for a separate nut.
● Welds: These are fasteners that are created by melting and fusing two or more steel
members together. Welds are commonly used in steel construction because they are
strong and provide a permanent connection between the members.
● Rivets: These are fasteners that consist of a head and a shaft. They are installed by
driving the shaft through the two members to be joined and then peening the end of the
shaft to create a head.

It is important to select the appropriate fasteners for a steel construction project based on the
load requirements and the type of connection that is needed.

15
3.0 CASE STUDY 1 : PENCAWANG PEMBAHAGIAN UTAMA , TAMAN SRI MUDA.
3.1 Project background

This main electricity substation building is a building that has been standing for 20 years.
This building is located in Section 25, Taman Sri Muda in Shah Alam and this substation is the
main electricity supply for the nearest settlements in the area of ​Taman Sri Muda. It is located at
a location approximately 3.4 kilometers from Mydin Mart and 3.2 kilometers from Masjid Taman
Sri Muda. This building has a common exterior design and an interior design that has a large
area to place generators and electrical cables. So, this project came about as a result of the
flood incident in Taman Sri Muda. It resulted in the entire settlement in the area being affected
by flooding including the electricity substation building itself. So, after the incident, TnB has
taken the initiative to repair the substation building by making physical changes to the building.
TnB has decided to upgrade the building by raising the building from one storey to two storey
height. On the ground floor, the client proposed to raise a steel structure as high as 2.2m height
from the ground to avoid floods damaging the building or the equipment in the building. So, this
project does not use steel elements on all elements, it is because this project is a repair project,
so only a few elements use steel structure.

PROJECT TITLE CADANGAN MEREKABENTUK DAN MEMBINA

BANGUNAN TAMBAHAN UTAMA (PPU)

LOCATION BANGUNAN TAMBAHAN UTAMA (PPU) 33/11KV SEKSYEN

25, TAMAN SRI MUDA, 40400 SHAH ALAM, SELANGOR
DARUL EHSAN.

AREA OF SITE

COMPLETION DATE

16
3.2 PARTIES INVOLVE

ROLES PARTIES ADDRESS

CLIENT0 TENAGA NASIONAL 7TH FLOOR, WISMA TNB

BERHAD SUBANG JAYA, JALAN USJ
10/1A, USJ 10 47620
SUBANG JAYA SELANGOR

CONTRACTOR HORT ART SDN. BHD. NO. 46-1, PERSIARAN 65C,

PEKELILING BUSINESS
CENTRE, OFF JALAN
PAHANG BARAT, 53000
KUALA LUMPUR

CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL CNA ENGINEERING NO. 46-1B, PERSIARAN

ENGINEER CONSULTANT 65C, PEKELILING
BUSINESS CENTRE, OFF
JALAN PAHANG BARAT,
53000 KUALA LUMPUR

17
Drawings of Cadangan Merekabentuk Dan Membina Seksyen 25, Taman Sri Muda, 40400
Shah Alam, Bangunan Tambahan Utama (Ppu) 33/11kv, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

18
Plan of ground floor and raise floor for Cadangan Merekabentuk Dan Membina Seksyen 25, Taman Sri Muda, 40400 Shah Alam,
Bangunan Tambahan Utama (Ppu) 33/11kv, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

19
20
21
22
Photograph of construction at Cadangan Merekabentuk Dan Membina Seksyen 25, Taman Sri
Muda, 40400 Shah Alam, Bangunan Tambahan Utama (Ppu) 33/11kv, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

23
4.0 CONSTRUCTION DETAIL
Construction:

Sequence Foundation Steel Structure

A sequence foundation is a type of foundation that is used to support a steel structure. It is

typically made up of a series of concrete piers or columns that are spaced at regular intervals
and connected by beams or girders. The steel structure is then attached to the foundation using
bolts or other fasteners.

The purpose of a sequence foundation is to transfer the load of the steel structure down to the
ground, where it can be safely supported. The foundation must be designed to withstand the
loads that the steel structure will impose on it, as well as any additional loads that may be
applied, such as wind, snow, or earthquakes.

To design a sequence foundation, engineers will consider a number of factors, including the size
and shape of the steel structure, the type of soil at the site, and the loading conditions that the
foundation will be subjected to. They will also consider any other requirements or constraints
that may be applicable, such as site access, utilities, or environmental concerns.

Once the foundation has been designed, it can be constructed using a variety of methods,
depending on the site conditions and the size and complexity of the project. Some common
construction methods for sequence foundations include cast-in-place concrete, precast
concrete, and driven piles.

Sequence frame steel structure

A sequence frame is a type of steel structure that is made up of a series of interconnected

beams and columns. The beams are typically horizontal members that span between the
columns, while the columns are vertical members that support the beams. The beams and
columns are connected using various types of fasteners, such as bolts or welds, to form a rigid
frame.

Sequence frames are used in a wide variety of applications, including commercial, industrial,
and residential buildings. They are known for their strength, durability, and versatility, and can be
used to support a variety of loads, including live loads (such as people and furniture) and dead
loads (such as the weight of the building itself).

There are several advantages to using a sequence frame steel structure. One of the main
advantages is that it allows for a large amount of flexibility in terms of layout and design.

24
Sequence frames can be easily customized to fit the needs of a particular project, and can be
configured to accommodate a wide range of spans and heights. They are also relatively quick
and easy to assemble, which can save time and reduce construction costs.

Other advantages of sequence frames include their ability to resist lateral loads (such as wind
and earthquakes), their low maintenance requirements, and their ability to be easily
disassembled and relocated if necessary.

4.2 Foundations

Sequence of floor steel structure

In a steel structure, the floor is typically made up of a series of horizontal beams or girders that
are supported by vertical columns. The beams and columns are connected using bolts or other
fasteners to form a rigid frame. The floor is then covered with a variety of materials, such as
concrete, wood, or steel decking, to create a surface that can be walked on.

The sequence of a floor steel structure refers to the order in which the different components are
assembled. In general, the sequence of construction for a steel floor would involve the following
steps:

Preparation of the site: This includes grading the land and preparing the foundation for the steel
structure.

Erection of the steel frame: The steel beams and columns are erected and connected to form
the structure of the floor.

Installation of the floor deck: The floor decking is installed over the steel frame to create a
surface that can be walked on.

Finishing: The floor is finished with materials such as concrete, wood, or tile to create a smooth,
durable surface.

Final inspection: The floor is inspected to ensure that it meets all relevant building codes and
standards

Construction terms of installation

Prefabrication process off-site

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4.3 FRAME

Steel constructions were employed for the frames, floor and roof for this extra building project
for Tetuan Tenaga Nasional Berhad. This project was conducted to replace an existing structure
that had been destroyed as a result of the flood. As a result, this framework has been replaced
with a steel construction, which is stronger and less prone to damage.

Before construction on the site starts, the prefrabrication work off-site will take place before
installing steel structures like columns and beams on site. The process of erecting a building or
other structure with steel as the main structural material first takes place off-site at the
manufacturers before being supplied to the site. Prefrabrication work is done off-site, which has
its own benefits as on-site work is essentially restricted to quick assembly. Additionally, because
structural steelwork is used, local populations are spared from much of the inevitable noise and
dust that other construction projects unavoidably produce. Firstly, an engineer or architect
develops the design of the steel structure while considering the planned purpose of the building,
regional building codes, and other elements into consideration.

The structure's steel parts are then created at a factory or workshop. To create the different
structural parts, such as beams, columns, and girders, this usually entails cutting the steel to the
appropriate size and shape, followed by either welding or bolting the pieces together and with
three coats of paint for painting work for fire protection. The finished steel components are
transported with trailer from Puchong to the building site, where they will be put together to form
the frame. Following that, the steel parts are put together on site using cranes and other large
machinery and being linked with 16mm bolts and welded to the foundation. After the steel frame
is built, they will proceed with the construction of the walls.

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The walls for this project only use bricks and the bricks used are clay bricks. The use of clay
brick for this project can contribute many advantages, namely, it can absorb heat better and it
also has high durability compared to ordinary bricks. The difference in durability is up to two to
three times compared to normal brick. The sequence method for brickwalls is the same as any
other construction project by only using mortar.

Selection of suitable bricks : The first step is to determine the number of bricks you need for
your project. Bricks come in many different shapes and sizes, with the standard brick measuring
215mm long x 102.5mm deep x 65mm high. In addition, the size of the thickness of the mortar
should also be calculated to get the right amount for the number of bricks to be used.

Prepare the foundation : One of the most important parts of a brick wall is the foundation. This is
the support for the wall, and the size of the trench will depend on the width and height of
brickwall. However, for this project the bricks are placed on the footing pad that has been built
by concrete and then the bricks will start to be arranged on the footing.

Mark the guide notes:

Once the foundation is in place, a measuring rod is needed to ensure the brickwork is at a
consistent level. The easiest way to do this is to get a piece of wood and cut it to the height of
the wall to be erected. Next, mark the 65mm lines to determine where each line should be.
Make sure these are free standing and in the ground at either end of your stone wall. This step
can help to get a beautiful and neat arrangement of bricks. Therefore, it is strongly
recommended that for each brick level that is to be installed, please make sure there is a
marker used as a benchmark for the height of the brick, either using a rope or a measuring rod.

Mix Mortar:
Next, mix the mortar on the old damp boards. Make sure the mixing process follows the
manufacturer's instructions, because the strength of the brick wall will depend on the mortar mix
produced. Then, soak the brick in water and let it dry. This will ensure that it is properly bonded
to the mortar. Even so, make sure no water runs off the bricks as it can make the mortar too
wet.

Place the first brick:

Once the base is dry, place the mortar on the base and make a 'v' shape along the mortar using
a trowel. Creating a 'v' shaped trench spreads the mortar out and makes it easier to lay the path.
Place the brick in the mortar and press it firmly into place, being careful to make it flat. Repeat
the process for the first course. Check that the bricks are flush using a spirit level. Also, make
sure to keep a consistent 10mm of mortar between the bricks. Otherwise, the strength of your
wall may be compromised.

Repeat the process:

Begin the row by placing the cut bricks on a bed of mortar. Make sure the string line is in the
right place and the brick meets the string. Place the next brick, check that it is flush and
continue. Repeat the process until the construction of the wall is complete. Continue moving up

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until it reaches the predetermined wall height. Move the string line with each row and make sure
your wall is level and add 10mm for mortar.

Finishing the wall:

Once the wall reaches its final height, finishing work will begin. Once you have all the bricks, do
a quick check and patch any gaps with mortar along the wall using a trowel. Go over the brick
wall using a soft brush to remove any excess mortar before it dries. Be sure to clean up any
mortar that falls on the ground as well. Then the wall also needs to be covered overnight with
tarpaulin or polythene to protect it from the elements such as rain or frost. This is temporary and
only required for the first night. Bolts or other fasteners are used to secure the brickwall to the
steel frame.

5.0 Fire Protection

Steel structures often lose load-bearing capability and incur significant deformation at
temperatures ranging from 450°C to 650°C, causing steel columns and steel beams to bend. As
a result of the extreme distortion, they can no longer be used. Unprotected steel buildings are
refractory in general. The time restriction is around 15 minutes. This duration is also proportional
to the rate at which the component absorbs heat. As a result, steel constructions have a

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significant disadvantage in terms of fire resistance. A fire will result in significant loss of property
and lives. As a result, fire protection measures for steel structures are an essential component
of steel structure buildings.

The speed of heat absorption of the steel component is also connected to the fire resistance
time. Treatment for fire prevention must be carried out. The objective is to increase the fire
resistance limit of steel structures to the design code limit range. Various measures are in place
to keep the steel structure from rapidly rising and deforming during a fire. The idea is to use
multiple strategies for different scenarios. Delay the steel structure's temperature increase and
the time for its strength to deteriorate.

Therefore, to maintain the quality and endurance of this steel structure, the project for Tetuan
Tenaga Nasional Berhad in Taman Sri Muda employed a three-layer paint technique. The first
layer is composed of two packs of epoxy zinc-rich primer, with a minimum thickness of 60
microns. This substance is utilised as the initial layer since it has been particularly developed to
protect the steel structure and performs well up to 90% zinc content. This zinc component
functions as an anti-rust agent, protecting steel in any situation. The second layer is a high-build
epoxy zinc micaceous iron oxide primer with a minimum thickness of 160 microns. This
substance is utilised as a second layer since it is a high-build primer. The thick build is a zinc
epoxy primer with thick coating qualities. This substance comprises micaceous iron oxide, which
is processed and manufactured with the intention of producing high-quality and non-toxic natural
iron. It also has outstanding anti-rust capabilities, as well as good conductivity and thermal
conductivity, as well as being anti-rust, wear-resistant, thermo-stable, strong adhesion, and
cost-effective. As a result, it has a distinct fragment structure and greater cost performance.
Micaceous iron oxide is the most effective anti rust pigment and anti rust medium in industrial
antirust coatings nowadays. It is the most essential component portion of the international
anti-rust coating formulation system. It is widely used as a highly durable anti-rust coating
system, and in accordance with high-quality epoxy resin, the service life of the coating may
reach more than 15 years. Finally, for the last layer it uses Protective polyurethane finish color.
This layer of paint acts as a finish and to protect the first and second layers from being easily
damaged. This last layer will coat the steel structure twice with a thickness of 50 microns for
each layer.

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5.0 DIFFERENCES IN THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF STEEL AND REINFORCED
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
5.1 Advantages of steel compared to reinforced concrete construction
Steel construction
Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio,
meaning that it can support a lot of weight
while being relatively lightweight. This makes
it easier to transport and handle during
construction.
Steel is highly durable and resistant to
corrosion, so it can last a long time with
minimal maintenance.
Steel constructions are easily adjusted or
expanded upon because steel members can
be added or deleted.
Because steel members may be
prefabricated off-site and quickly installed
on-site, steel construction can be faster than
concrete building.
Steel structures are also more resistant to
natural disasters such as earthquakes and
high winds.
Reinforced concrete construction
Concrete has a low strength-to-weight ratio,
meaning that it is heavy and requires more
material to support the same weight as a
steel structure.
Concrete takes a long time to cure and reach
its full strength, which can delay construction.
Concrete is prone to cracking and can be
damaged by freezing temperatures.
Concrete constructions are more difficult to
modify or expand than steel structures
because the concrete must be broken and
replaced to make modifications.
Concrete becomes more corrosive if the
reinforcing steel bars are not properly coated
or protected.
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5.2 Disadvantages steel construction compared to reinforced concrete construction

Reinforced Concrete Construction Steel Construction

Strength: RC is extremely strong and can Vulnerability to corrosion: Steel is susceptible

withstand large loads, making it suitable for to rusting if not properly coated or
use in high-rise buildings and other structures maintained, which can weaken the structure
that need to support heavy loads. over time.

Durability: RC is resistant to corrosion and Limited use in earthquakes: Steel structures

can last for many decades with proper may not perform as well as RC structures in
maintenance. earthquake-prone areas, as steel is more
prone to lateral movement.

Fire resistance: RC has a high fire resistance Limited use in high-rise buildings: Steel is not
rating, making it a safe material for use in as effective at resisting vertical loads as
buildings. concrete, making it less suitable for use in tall
buildings.

Sound insulation: RC has good sound

insulation properties, making it suitable for
use in buildings where sound insulation is
important.

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5.3 Design consideration between steel construction and reinforced concrete construction

In construction industry, design consideration is very important when starting a

construction for a building. Moreover, to properly plan, develop, and run all facilities, a
successful efficient design must be created through a complex sequential process requiring
significant interaction between numerous professions. The following choices will emerge as a
result of involvement. In order to help designers apply the universal accessible design principles
and standards to buildings and facilities, design considerations have been developed. They can
also be used to detect obstructions in already-built structures. For convenience of reference, the
design considerations are divided into smaller groups and presented as bullet points. The
relevant best practices section for each subgroup's significant challenges has been identified.
Then, the designer should refer to the applicable Ordinances and Design Manuals for
compliance with statutory and other requirements. These considerations are meant to serve as
a design guideline and planning tool with regard to universal accessibility. The designer must
also ask the project's client for any pertinent advice and take into account any unique design
standards and needs. Nevertheless, inadequate performance, lost efficiency, and delays in the
construction schedule might occur if certain design considerations are not taken into account
(Clouse, Alex Lee, Krothapalli, Britton, P.E., M.ASCE, n.d, 2022).

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5.4 Plant and machineries requirement during the construction period

Plant and machineries are one of an important resource in construction project. Without
plant and machineries, the project will not successfully finish. Plant and machinery are business
assets that are used to run the business. The right use of plant and machinery helps save
money, improve quality and safety, and finish the project quickly and on time. Construction Plant
refers to any vehicle specifically built for use on a construction site, including but not limited to
excavators (in all of their forms), compaction rollers, and specialised tools like trenchers and
telehandlers. Concrete delivery trucks and mobile cranes are two examples of the types of
devices that fall under this category. Aside from mobile cranes, static cranes, concrete pokers,
hand tools, and specialised equipment like floor polishers, the term "equipment" is used to
include all other sorts of mechanised construction work machinery (Edwards & Holt, 2009).

There are many plants and machineries that are used in steel structure. For the
manufacture and assembly of steel structures, gantries, welding transformers, cutting machines,
winches, grinders, drills, trailers, ovens, and welders' equipment are needed. The number and
variety of each equipment type differs across projects. For loading, unloading, and movement of
materials in the warehouse and fabrication yard, mobile hoist cranes with a capacity of 5 to 10
tonnes are necessary. Large, heavy plates are often used for plate girders or for bending them
into the form of large-diameter pipes. These cranes must often load and unload these plates. In
addition, the mobile cranes handle components that have been manufactured (Structural Steel
Work Equipment, n.d.) .

Electric winches are used for the assembly of prefabricated steel building components.
Most of the time, single-drum electric winches with a 5- to 10-ton capacity and a wire rope
thickness of 16 millimetres (mm) are the most effective tools for the work. Electric winches may
be strategically placed in winch sheds to cover the whole erection area, with the number of
sheds needed depending on the size of the site. There may be anywhere from three to four
winches in a single shed, and as many as four separate sheds can be designed. It is possible
that a power plant construction project may need 15 to 20 electric winches housed in five or six
sheds (Structural Steel Work Equipment, n.d.).

Another machine that are used in steel structure is pug cutting machine. These tools are
essential for cutting the steel plates to the correct dimensions. Nozzle sizes are maintained in

33
accordance with the table that comes with the pug cutter. These are great for straight and
precise plate and member cutting. These machines can often cut in a variety of directions,
including straight lines, circles, and even curved paths (Structural Steel Work Equipment, n.d.).

The drilling machine is another equipment used in the steel construction. Bolt holes of
precise diameter must be supplied in the manufactured parts for assembly. These holes can
only be drilled with the help of drilling machinery. Manual drills may both be put to good use.
Drilling machines also need drill bits of varying sizes. Storing a few extra parts on-site is always
a good idea (Structural Steel Work Equipment, n.d.).

For reinforced concrete structural, there are differences in terms of the plant and
machineries. The name of reinforced concrete itself has a concrete which concreting equipment
in reinforced concrete is important. One of concreting equipment is concrete pump. The use of a
concrete pump to convey liquid concrete from the manufacturing area to the casting area. One
piston pulls the concrete from the source, while the other pushes it into the discharge pipe. Two
kinds of concrete pumps exist: line and boom. Typically, line concrete pumps are used for
smaller building projects. Hence the name, it utilises a line pump mounted to the rear of a
vehicle. For large building projects, boom concrete pumps are used because they can pump at
varying heights and lengths. This makes it perfect for creating multi-story structures and bridges
(Common Types of Concreting Equipment Used in Construction | Cutting Technologies, n.d.).

A concrete vibrator is one of essential in equipment. Small bubbles will always occur in
freshly poured concrete. But if they are left to dry, these bubbles make holes in the concrete,
which affects its strength. Therefore, substantial vibrators are essential. A vibrator shakes
freshly poured concrete to drive air bubbles out. This results in a denser and more stable slab.
Most building projects use internal vibrators because they are often less expensive and more
versatile. For vertical structures such as walls, however, an external vibrator is preferable
(Common Types of Concreting Equipment Used in Construction | Cutting Technologies, n.d.).

Another reinforced concrete equipment is using electric rebar cutters. Electric rebar
cutters are equipment for cutting bars with diameters up to 16 mm. They can cut bolts and bars
with a high tensile strength. They take 25 minutes of charging time. When completely charged,
the machine can effortlessly cut 75 pieces of 16mm diameter and 110 pieces of 13mm diameter
bars. It has an adjustable, 180-degree-rotating head (Types of Rebaring Equipment for
Reinforcement Cutting and Bending, n.d.).

34
 To bend the rebar of reinforcement, the equipment that are used are electric automatic
rebar bender. The devices operate silently and only bend metal when necessary. This would
assist in preventing needless machine wear. The system comprises rollers and collars that
enable the use of a broad variety of bar sizes. In comparison to manual bending methods,
worker fatigue and injuries are reduced. There are flush-mounted start and stop buttons for
safety. These machines have a maximum capacity of up to 32mm. The diameter and angle of
bending vary from machine model to machine model (Types of Rebaring Equipment for
Reinforcement Cutting and Bending, n.d.).

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6.0 CONCLUSION

In the end, this steel structure is one of the strongest structures and it is a simple type of
construction compared to reinforced concrete structures. The number of buildings constructed
using steel components is increasing worldwide. The engineer found that steel was very useful
in construction work because of its tensile and compressive strength. Steel is also reasonably
priced for customers. Steel components are the strongest, sturdiest, and most reliable type of
building material that can stand the test of time (UKEssays, 2018). In addition, what was
concluded is that each type of structure that will be used needs to be studied first about the use
and shape of the building that will be built. This is because each type of structure used must be
according to the design and use of the building.

Therefore, this steel structure is mostly used for any type of building because it can withstand
high loads compared to reinforced concrete. Although this steel structure is able to support high
loads, its stability to support loads in tall buildings and during earthquakes will be reduced.

In addition, if compared to the reinforced concrete structure, this steel structure does not require
regular maintenance, but it only requires close care during the process of transferring the
structure and during construction. Therefore, the installation method is much more complicated
than reinforced concrete and it also requires labor and special plant and machinery.

Finally, compared to reinforced concrete structures, this steel construction offers several
advantages. It may also help conserve the ecology and the environment in construction since
steel structures can be reused rather than being demolished, as reinforced concrete structures
must. Steel structures help to decrease building waste. Once the steel manufacturing process is
done, it may be recycled indefinitely without losing quality. Steel manufacture costs a lot of
materials and energy, but its longevity reduces the environmental effect in the long term. Steel
constructions are so strongly suggested for usage nowadays.

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