I.

Introduction
Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. They are sugars, starches and
fibers found in plant foods and dairy products.
Carbohydrates are found mainly in plant foods. They are also found in dairy products
in the form of milk sugar called lactose. High-carbohydrate foods include bread, pasta,
beans, potatoes, rice, and grains. Carbohydrates serve multiple roles in the body,
including providing energy.
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients and are required by the body in
large amounts. Carbohydrate by-products are involved in the immune system, disease
development, blood clotting, and reproduction.
II. Main contents
1. Role in nutrition and health
Carbohydrates are an essential part of our diet. Most importantly, they provide the
energy for the most obvious functions of our body, such as moving or thinking, but also
for the ‘background’ functions that most of the time we do not even notice. During
digestion, carbohydrates that consist of more than one sugar get broken down into their
monosaccharides by digestive enzymes, and then get directly absorbed causing a
glycaemic response. The body uses glucose directly as energy source in muscle, brain
and other cells. Some of the carbohydrates cannot be broken down and they get either
fermented by our gut bacteria or they transit through the gut without being changed.
Interestingly, carbohydrates also play an important role in the structure and function of
our cells, tissues and organs. (“The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body | Eufic”)
It is typically suggested that adults take 45-65% of their total calories per day in the
form of carbs. Carbohydrate requirements, on the other hand, are determined by a variety
of factors, including body size, activity levels, and blood sugar control.
Foods include a variety of carbohydrates, including the following:
 Dietary fiber is a kind of carbohydrate that the body finds difficult to break
down. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans, and whole grains all naturally contain
it. dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that protects heart and gut health.
(“Carbohydrates: Uses, health benefits, nutrition, and risks”)
 Total sugars, which comprise added sugars, which are frequently found in
baked goods, candies, and desserts, as well as sugars that naturally present in
foods, such as dairy products. Sugars are easily absorbed and digested by the
body. Eating large amounts of foods that contain added sugars can contribute to
obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
  A form of carbohydrate that the body can not completely digest is called
sugar alcohol. It tastes sweet and contains less calories than sugar. In foods like
chewing gum, baked goods, and confectionery, sugar alcohols are used as low-
calorie sweeteners.
Simple carbohydrates are sugars. They are made up of only one or two molecules.
They give a quick dose of energy, but the person quickly becomes hungry again. White
bread, sugar, and candy are among examples. Long chains of sugar molecules make up
complex carbohydrates. This includes entire grains and fiber-rich meals. Fruits,
vegetables, legumes, and whole grain pasta are among examples. Complex carbs provide
greater health advantages than simple carbohydrates because they contain more vitamins,
minerals, and fiber.
Despite the fact that most ingested glucose is transformed into energy, part of it is
converted into ribose and deoxyribose, which are crucial components of significant
macromolecules including RNA, DNA, and ATP. Additionally, glucose is needed to
create the molecule NADPH, which is crucial for defense against oxidative stress and is
involved in several other chemical processes throughout the body. Excess glucose can be
converted into fat if the body's demands for creating, storing glycogen, and energy are all
satisfied. This is why a diet that is overly heavy in calories and carbs might cause you to
gain weight.
2. Function, Quantity and Quality
2.1 Function
Carbohydrates are a crucial macronutrient in human nutrition, serving as the
primary source of energy and playing essential roles in various physiological
functions.
Energy Source: Carbohydrates are primarily responsible for providing energy
to the body. When consumed, they are metabolized into glucose, which is
transported through the bloodstream to cells, where it serves as a primary source
of energy. This energy is vital for powering essential physiological processes,
daily activities, and physical exercise.
Brain Function: The brain is highly dependent on a constant supply of glucose,
which is derived from carbohydrates. Glucose is the brain's preferred fuel, and any
fluctuations in its supply can affect cognitive function. Adequate carbohydrate
intake ensures optimal brain function, supporting concentration, memory, and
decision-making. (“Macronutrients - Definition, Importance, Examples -
Microbiology Note”)
 Muscle Function and Exercise: Carbohydrates play a specific role in muscle
function, especially during exercise. They are stored in muscles as glycogen, a
complex carbohydrate. During physical activity, glycogen can be rapidly broken
down into glucose to provide energy. This glycogen reserve is critical for
endurance, strength, and peak exercise performance.
Protein Sparing: Carbohydrates also have the specific function of sparing
proteins from being used as an energy source. When sufficient carbohydrates are
available, the body prioritizes using glucose for energy, allowing proteins to focus
on vital functions such as tissue repair, immune system support, and enzyme
production.
Metabolic Regulation: Carbohydrates are essential for metabolic regulation,
particularly with regards to blood sugar levels. The consumption of carbohydrates
influences the production of insulin, a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar.
This function is crucial in preventing conditions like diabetes and maintaining
overall metabolic health.
Digestive Health: Dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate, is vital for maintaining
digestive health. It adds bulk to the diet, promotes regular bowel movements, and
helps prevent constipation. Moreover, dietary fiber supports the development of a
healthy gut microbiome, which is increasingly recognized as pivotal for overall
well-being.
Carbohydrates are an indispensable component of human nutrition, serving
various essential functions that support overall health and well-being. They are the
body's primary energy source, play a pivotal role in brain and muscle function,
help spare proteins from being used for energy, regulate metabolism, and support
digestive health. By recognizing and appreciating the critical functions of
carbohydrates, individuals can make informed dietary choices that promote a
balanced and healthy lifestyle.
2.2 Quantity
The quantity of carbohydrates in human nutrition is a crucial factor that
significantly impacts overall health and well-being. The recommended quantity of
carbohydrates in human nutrition is influenced by several individual factors and
dietary guidelines, providing a foundation for precise dietary choices. Scientific
research offers insights into the optimal carbohydrate intake for various
populations.
The dietary guidelines established by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services recommend that carbohydrates should constitute approximately
45-65% of daily caloric intake for adults. This guideline provides a flexible range
that accommodates individual preferences and needs, emphasizing the importance
of a balanced diet.
The quantity of carbohydrates in the diet is closely linked to an individual's
physical activity level. Highly active individuals, such as athletes and those with
physically demanding jobs, often require a higher percentage of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy during exercise, supporting
performance and post-exercise recovery.
Age is another significant determinant of carbohydrate quantity. Children and
adolescents typically require a higher proportion of carbohydrates to support their
growth and development. In contrast, older adults might need to adjust their
carbohydrate intake to manage metabolism and prevent excessive weight gain.
Personal health goals play a pivotal role in determining the appropriate
quantity of carbohydrates. Individuals seeking weight loss or blood sugar
management may benefit from adjusting their carbohydrate intake. This should
often be done in consultation with healthcare professionals to ensure safety and
effectiveness.
The quantity of carbohydrates in human nutrition is not a one-size-fits-all
concept. Dietary guidelines, physical activity levels, age, and individual health
goals collectively influence the precise quantity of carbohydrates needed.
Understanding these factors and their interactions is critical for making informed
dietary choices that support overall health and well-being.
2.3 Quality
The quality of carbohydrates in human nutrition is a pivotal consideration that
transcends quantity.
The quality of carbohydrates encompasses several key factors that determine
their impact on human nutrition. These factors guide the selection of
carbohydrates for a balanced and health-conscious diet.
Opting for whole grains is a hallmark of carbohydrate quality. Whole grains
like brown rice, whole wheat bread, quinoa, and oats contain the entire grain
kernel, including the bran, germ, and endosperm. They are rich in dietary fiber and
essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Whole grains have
a lower glycemic index, providing a steady release of energy and aiding in blood
sugar control.
 Fruits and vegetables are carbohydrate sources that provide natural sugars,
fiber, and a plethora of essential vitamins and minerals. They are an integral part
of a high-quality carbohydrate diet. The fiber content in fruits and vegetables
supports digestive health and helps maintain a feeling of fullness, aiding in weight
management.
Legumes, such as beans, lentils, and chickpeas, are excellent sources of
complex carbohydrates. They are rich in fiber, protein, and essential nutrients.
Consuming legumes enhances the quality of carbohydrates by promoting satiety,
supporting digestive health, and contributing to a balanced diet.
A crucial aspect of carbohydrate quality is the limitation of added sugars in the
diet. Added sugars, often found in processed and sugary foods and beverages,
contribute empty calories and are linked to weight gain and various health issues.
Reducing their intake improves the overall quality of carbohydrate consumption.
High-fiber foods, including those rich in complex carbohydrates, are essential
for maintaining digestive health. Dietary fiber aids digestion, helps control hunger,
and stabilizes blood sugar levels. Foods with high fiber content, like whole grains,
fruits, and vegetables, should be prioritized for their quality.
The quality of carbohydrates is significantly influenced by the level of
processing. Highly processed foods often contain refined grains and added sugars,
which can lead to weight gain and health problems if consumed excessively.
Opting for minimally processed or unprocessed carbohydrates improves overall
dietary quality.
Carbohydrate quality is an essential consideration in human nutrition. Opting
for whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and foods with high fiber content
contributes to a diet rich in high-quality carbohydrates. Conversely, limiting added
sugars and avoiding highly processed carbohydrates are equally important to
maintain dietary quality.
3. Deficiency
While carbohydrates are a fundamental component of human nutrition, the
deficiency of carbohydrates can lead to significant health challenges.
Carbohydrate deficiency leads to an inadequate supply of glucose, the primary
source of energy for the body. This results in fatigue, weakness, and an inability to
perform daily activities efficiently. Prolonged carbohydrate deficiency can lead to
persistent low energy levels, impairing overall quality of life.
 The brain relies heavily on glucose as a source of energy. (“The importance of
glucose: Understanding its role in the human body.”) A deficiency of carbohydrates
can lead to impaired cognitive function, including difficulties with concentration,
memory, and decision-making. Severe deficiency can result in confusion,
disorientation, and even unconsciousness.
In the absence of carbohydrates, the body resorts to breaking down proteins in
muscles for energy, resulting in muscle wasting and weakness. This not only impairs
physical performance but also affects overall body strength and function.
Carbohydrate deficiency often leads to significant weight loss, largely due to the
breakdown of stored glycogen and the loss of body water. Prolonged deficiency can
result in malnutrition, as it reduces overall caloric intake and limits the consumption
of essential nutrients found in carbohydrate-rich foods.
Carbohydrate deficiency can lead to low blood sugar levels, causing symptoms
such as dizziness, shakiness, sweating, and irritability. Severe cases may lead to
hypoglycemic coma, a life-threatening condition.
Carbohydrates, particularly those in the form of dietary fiber, play a crucial role in
maintaining digestive health. A deficiency in fiber can result in constipation and
gastrointestinal discomfort, as well as an increased risk of developing conditions like
diverticulitis.
A lack of carbohydrates can lead to metabolic dysregulation, potentially
contributing to insulin resistance and an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
The body's ability to control blood sugar levels is compromised in the absence of
carbohydrates.
Carbohydrate deficiency in human nutrition leads to a range of specific
consequences, affecting energy levels, cognitive function, muscle strength, body
weight, and overall health. Understanding the impact of carbohydrate deficiency is
vital to making informed dietary choices that support optimal well-being.
4. Metabolism
Carbohydrates, a primary macronutrient in human nutrition, undergo intricate
metabolic processes within the body, influencing energy production and overall
health.
Digestion: The journey of carbohydrates in human nutrition begins with digestion.
Complex carbohydrates are broken down into their constituent glucose molecules,
whereas simple sugars are absorbed directly. The enzyme amylase, present in saliva,
initiates the digestion of starches in the mouth, while most digestion occurs in the
small intestine.
Absorption: Once broken down, glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream. This
absorption is facilitated by glucose transporters in the small intestine, which carry
glucose molecules across the intestinal wall and into the bloodstream.
Blood Sugar Regulation: After absorption, glucose enters the bloodstream,
impacting blood sugar levels. To maintain homeostasis, the pancreas releases insulin
in response to increased blood sugar. Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells
for energy or storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Glycogen Storage: Excess glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a
complex carbohydrate. This glycogen serves as a readily available source of glucose
during periods of increased energy demand, such as exercise.
Energy Production: Glucose, the ultimate product of carbohydrate metabolism, is
utilized by cells for energy production. It enters cellular mitochondria, where it
undergoes glycolysis and the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), producing adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell's primary energy currency.
Conversion to Fat: Excess glucose, if not used for immediate energy or stored as
glycogen, is converted into fat through de novo lipogenesis. This fat is stored in
adipose tissue for future energy needs.
Carbohydrate metabolism in human nutrition is a highly orchestrated process,
encompassing digestion, absorption, blood sugar regulation, glycogen storage, energy
production, and fat conversion. The intricacies of these metabolic pathways ensure the
efficient utilization of carbohydrates for energy, while maintaining blood sugar levels
within a narrow range for overall health.
Understanding carbohydrate metabolism is pivotal for making informed dietary
choices and optimizing energy utilization. It empowers individuals to tailor their
carbohydrate intake to their specific needs, promoting a balanced and health-
conscious lifestyle.
5. Enzyme action: Digestive enzymes
Digestive enzymes are crucial players in the complex process of carbohydrate
metabolism, ensuring that dietary carbohydrates are efficiently broken down and
absorbed for energy and other essential functions.
Salivary Amylase: The digestive process of carbohydrates begins in the mouth
with the action of salivary amylase. Produced in the salivary glands, amylase initiates
the breakdown of complex carbohydrates, specifically starches. It catalyzes the
hydrolysis of starch molecules into simpler sugars, such as maltose and dextrins,
preparing them for further digestion in the small intestine.
Pancreatic Amylase: The bulk of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small
intestine. Pancreatic amylase, secreted by the pancreas into the duodenum, continues
the process initiated by salivary amylase. It breaks down remaining starches into
maltose, maltotriose, and dextrins, which are further converted into glucose.
Disaccharidases: In the lining of the small intestine, specialized enzymes called
disaccharidases play a vital role in carbohydrate digestion. These enzymes include
maltase, sucrase, and lactase. Maltase breaks down maltose into two glucose
molecules, sucrase acts on sucrose to yield glucose and fructose, and lactase breaks
down lactose into glucose and galactose.
Transporter Proteins: To facilitate the absorption of the digested carbohydrates,
transporter proteins play a crucial role in the small intestine. These proteins transport
glucose, galactose, and fructose from the intestinal lumen into the bloodstream,
ensuring that these simple sugars reach the cells for energy production.
Hexokinase and Glucokinase: In the liver and muscles, glucose is phosphorylated
by enzymes called hexokinase and glucokinase. This phosphorylation step traps
glucose inside the cell and prepares it for further metabolic processes.
Digestive enzymes are central to carbohydrate metabolism, ensuring that complex
carbohydrates are efficiently broken down into simple sugars for absorption and
subsequent utilization. Understanding the specific functions of these enzymes is vital
for appreciating how the body extracts energy and nutrients from dietary
carbohydrates, ultimately influencing overall health and well-being.
6. Transformation of carbohydrate during processing and preservation
Carbohydrates are a vital component of many foods and can undergo significant
transformations during food processing and preservation.
Caramelization: It is a heat-driven reaction involving carbohydrates, particularly
sugars, that occurs in processes such as baking and roasting. During this reaction,
sugars are thermally broken down, resulting in the development of brown color,
complex flavors, and aromas. Caramelization is commonly employed in the
production of baked goods, coffee, and confectionery.
Starch Gelatinization: Starch, a complex carbohydrate found in various foods, can
undergo gelatinization when exposed to heat and moisture. In this process, starch
granules swell, absorb water, and eventually burst. Gelatinization is critical in the
preparation of starchy foods like rice, pasta, and pudding, as it influences texture and
consistency.
Pectin Hydrolysis: Pectin, a carbohydrate found in fruits, plays a crucial role in the
formation of gels in products like jams and jellies. Pectin can undergo hydrolysis
during processing, resulting in changes in texture and the setting properties of these
products.
Maillard Reaction: The Maillard reaction involves the reaction of reducing sugars
with amino acids or proteins and occurs at elevated temperatures during processes like
baking, grilling, and frying. This reaction leads to the formation of complex flavor
compounds, browning, and the development of desirable flavors in various foods.
Fermentation: Carbohydrates, mainly sugars, can be fermented by microorganisms
in processes such as brewing, winemaking, and bread baking. Yeasts and bacteria
convert sugars into alcohol, carbon dioxide, and organic acids, influencing the taste
and texture of these products.
Osmotic Dehydration: Osmotic dehydration is a preservation method where food
is subjected to osmotic solutions containing sugars. Carbohydrates from the osmotic
solution penetrate the food, replacing water, and thus preserving it. This process is
used for preserving fruits, like dried fruits and candied products.
Carbohydrates undergo a multitude of transformations during food processing and
preservation, impacting the sensory attributes and shelf life of various food products.
Caramelization and the Maillard reaction are responsible for the development of
flavors and colors, while gelatinization influences texture. Pectin hydrolysis can alter
the properties of jams and jellies, and fermentation contributes to the creation of
alcoholic beverages and bread. Osmotic dehydration preserves foods by manipulating
carbohydrate concentrations.
7. Control reactions for carbohydrate occuring in food
Carbohydrates are a crucial component of food and can undergo a range of control
reactions during food processing and preparation.
Enzymatic Browning Inhibition: Enzymatic browning is a reaction in fruits and
vegetables, driven by the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Control reactions, such as the
addition of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or blanching, inhibit this enzymatic activity and
prevent the browning of fruits and vegetables. These reactions are commonly used in
food preservation and in the preparation of products like canned fruits.
 Starch Gelatinization: Controlled cooking with heat and moisture swells starch
granules, transforming them into a gel-like structure. This reaction influences the
texture and consistency of the final food product.
Pectin Gel Formatiom: Control reactions involve the addition of pectin and acid to
achieve the desired gel formation, enhancing the quality and texture of these products.
Sugar Concentration : High sugar concentrations in products like jams and syrups
create an osmotic environment that preserves food by inhibiting microbial growth.
Control reactions involve adjusting sugar levels to achieve the desired preservation
and sweetness in these foods.

Fermentation Control: Control reactions, such as regulating temperature and pH,

influence the rate and extent of fermentation, ensuring the desired flavors and alcohol
content.
Control reactions are essential in food processing, preservation, and preparation to
manipulate carbohydrates and achieve desired food quality, safety, and sensory
attributes. The Maillard reaction contributes to the development of flavors and colors,
while enzymatic browning inhibition prevents fruit and vegetable discoloration.
Starch and pectin gelatinization affect texture and consistency, sugar concentration
preserves food, and fermentation control produces alcoholic beverages and bread.
III. Conclusion

In conclusion, carbohydrates are fundamental macronutrients that serve various

essential roles in nutrition and biology. They are the body's primary source of energy and
play a vital role in supporting brain function, physical activity, and overall metabolic
processes. Additionally, carbohydrates are involved in cellular structure, immune
function, and can act as a dietary fiber that promotes digestive health.

The quantity, quality, and function of carbohydrates in human nutrition are of great
significance. Balancing carbohydrate intake with individual dietary needs, physical
activity levels, and the quality of carbohydrate sources is essential for maintaining
optimal health and preventing chronic diseases.

Moreover, carbohydrates undergo a series of intricate transformations during

processes like glycolysis and the Maillard reaction, contributing to the development of
flavor, color, and texture in food. Understanding these transformations is crucial for those
involved in food science and culinary arts, allowing them to craft delicious and appealing
dishes.
 Control reactions play a pivotal role in influencing the characteristics of carbohydrates
in food, from inhibiting enzymatic browning to managing fermentation and achieving
desired textures in products. By harnessing the power of control reactions, food scientists
and chefs can optimize food quality and safety, creating culinary experiences that delight
the senses.

In both nutrition and food science, carbohydrates remain a versatile and essential
component, with their quantity, quality, and the influence of control reactions shaping the
way we nourish our bodies and savor our meals. Understanding the multifaceted nature of
carbohydrates and their impact on human health and the culinary world is key to making
informed dietary choices and crafting exceptional gastronomic experiences.