RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E/205E)

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Syllabus: Principle of working, OTEC power stations in the world, problems

associated with OTEC.

OTEC or ocean thermal energy thermal conversion is a technology which converts

solar radiation absorbed by the oceans to electric energy. The ocean’s can be
considered as the world’s largest solar energy collector as it covers two thirds of
the earth surface.
There are different temperatures in the different layers of the oceans. This is
because of the heat input from the sun at the surface of the ocean. The surface at
the top of the oceans are the warmest and gradually the temperature decreases with
the depth. But in the polar regions the temperature at the surface of the ocean is
low, so there is no gradual change in temperature.

Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems

● Closed cycle
● Open cycle
● Hybrid cycle

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF OTEC: The water at the surface of the ocean

is warmer than the water at deeper depths. This temperature difference can be used
by Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems to generate electricity.

Construction:
Warm water intake: OTEC requires a large amount of warm surface seawater to
drive the heat engine. The temperature of this water should be around 20-25°C
(68-77°F) or higher, depending on the specific OTEC design.
Cold water intake: OTEC also requires a large amount of cold deep seawater to
condense the working fluid of the heat engine. The temperature of this water
should be around 5-10°C (41-50°F) or lower, depending on the specific OTEC
design.

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Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger is the component that transfers heat from the
warm seawater to the working fluid, which is typically a low-boiling-point fluid
such as ammonia.
Turbine: The working fluid vaporizes as it is heated and expands through a
turbine, which generates electricity.
Condenser: The working fluid is then cooled and condensed back to a liquid state
using cold seawater in the condenser, ready to be used again in the heat exchanger.

Working:
● In an OTEC plant, the energy of warm surface water is used to convert low
boiling point liquid ammonia into a gaseous state.
● The vapor of ammonia at high pressure is used to spin the turbines of
generators converting the Ocean thermal energy to electricity.
● The used vapor passes through the condenser where cold water, pumped
from the deeper parts of the ocean condenses ammonia vapor back into a
liquid.
● This process is repeated again and again ,to get continuous production of
electricity.

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● Essential condition for it to operate properly: The temperature difference

between the warmer water at the surface and colder water at depths up to 2
km should be 293 K (20°C) or more.

TYPES OF OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

Closed Cycle: Closed cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion systems use a
working fluid with a low boiling point, Ammonia, for example, and use it to power
a turbine to generate electricity. Warm seawater is taken in from the surface of the
oceans and cold water from the deep of the sea. The warm seawater vaporises the
fluid in the heat exchanger, turning the generator’s turbines. The fluid now in the
vapor state is brought in contact with cold water, which turns it back into a liquid.
The fluid is recycled in the system, which is why it is called a closed system.

Open Cycle: Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to
make electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped into a low-pressure chamber,
where it undergoes a drop in boiling point due to the pressure drop. This causes the
water to boil. This steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an
electrical generator. The advantage this system has over a closed system is that, in

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In the open cycle, desalinated water is obtained in the form of steam. Since it is
steam, it is free from all impurities. This water can be used for domestic, industrial,
or agricultural purposes.

OTEC POWER STATIONS IN THE WORLD

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) power stations are still in the
experimental stage and there are currently only a few small-scale demonstration
plants in operation around the world. Here are a few of the most notable ones:

OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s and the first bench size
demonstration model was constructed in 1926. Currently operating pilot-scale
OTEC plants are located in Japan, overseen by Saga University, and Makai in
Hawaii.

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● NELHA OTEC Demonstration Plant, Hawaii, USA

● Makai Ocean Engineering OTEC Pilot Plant, Hawaii, USA
● Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
OTEC Test Facility, Okinawa, Japan
● Seascape OTEC Pilot Plant, Martinique, France
● Deep Ocean Water Utilization Center, Okinawa, Japan

It should be noted that while these plants are capable of producing electricity, they
are still in the testing and development phase and not yet commercially viable on a
large scale.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH OTEC

● Conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4% due to the small temperature
difference between the surface water and deep water.
● OTEC power generation system gives less efficiency, as stated above.
However, because of the OTEC requirement for parasitic power (such as for
pumping up the cold water supply) and other losses, the achievable net
conversion efficiency is only about 2.5 percent (Carnot efficiency 7%). This
compares a net efficiency of 30 to 40% associated with conventional power
plants.
● High capital cost and maintenance cost makes them uneconomical for small
plants.
● Energy required to pump the sea water from depths may be huge, which
otherwise needs a diesel generator.
● Construction of OTEC plants and pipes in the ocean may cause damage to
onshore marine ecosystems and reefs.
● As this technology has been tested only in small-scale, it is not feasible for
an energy company to invest in this project.
● Electricity produced from OTEC would currently cost more than that
produced from fossil fuels.

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TIDAL ENERGY

Tidal Power: Tides and waves as energy suppliers and their mechanics;
fundamental characteristics of tidal power, harnessing tidal energy,
advantages and limitations.

FORMATION OF TIDES/ PRINCIPAL OF TIDAL POWER

Tides are produced mainly by the gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun
on the water of solid earth and the oceans. About 70% of the tide producing force
is due to the moon and 30 % to the sun. The Moon's gravity causes the water on the
side of the Earth facing the Moon to be pulled towards it, creating a high tide. At
the same time, the water on the opposite side of the Earth is pulled away from the
Moon, also creating a high tide. Thus high tides occur in these two areas with low
tides at intermediate points. As the earth rotates, the position of a given area
relative to the moon changes, and so also do the tides. There are thus a periodic
succession of high and low tides.

Two high and low tides are generated in a single day due to the interaction between
the gravitational force of the Moon and the rotation of the Earth. The Earth
completes one rotation on its axis in approximately 24 hours, which means that any
point on its surface will pass through the two tidal bulges created by the Moon's
gravitational force twice each day. As the Moon's gravitational force pulls the
Earth and its oceans towards it, the water closest to the Moon experiences a
stronger gravitational force than the Earth's center. This causes the water to bulge
towards the Moon, creating a high tide.
At the same time, the water on the opposite side of the Earth, farthest from the
Moon, experiences a weaker gravitational force than the Earth's center. This causes
the water to be pulled away from the Moon, also creating a high tide on the
opposite side of the Earth. In a period of lunar day( 24 hrs 50 minutes) , there are
therefore, two high tides and two low tides. These are called semi-diurnal tides
That is to say, the time between high tides and low tide at any given location is a
little over 6 hours. The rise and fall of the water level follows a sinusoidal curve,

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shown with point A indicating the high tide point and point B indicating the low
tide point.

The average time for the water level to fall from A to B and then rise to C is
approximately 6 hours 12.5 min. The difference between high and low water levels
is called the range of the tide.

R = water elevation at high tide - water elevation at low tide.

Because of the changing positions of the moon and sun relative to the earth, the
range varies continuously. At times near full or new moon, when sun, moon and
earth are approximately in a line, the gravitational forces of sun and moon enhance
each other. The tidal range is then exceptionally large, the high tides are higher and
low tides are lower than the average. These high tides are called spring tides.

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On the other hand, near the first and third quarters of the moon, when the sun and
moon are at right angles with respect to the earth, neap tides occur. The tidal
range is then exceptionally small; the high tides are lower and the low tides higher
than the average. Hence the range is not constant.

The variations in the periodicity and monthly and seasonal ranges must, of course,
by taken into account in the design and operation of tidal power plants. The tides,
however, are usually predictable, and fairly accurate tide tables are usually
available. Tidal ranges vary from one earth location to another. They are influenced
by such conditions as the profile of the local shoreline and water depth. Ranges
have to be very large to justify the huge costs of building dams and associated
hydroelectric power plants. Such tides occur only in a few locations in the world.

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UTILIZATION OF TIDAL ENERGY

The generation of electricity from water power requires that there should be a
difference in levels (or heads) between which water flows. The power generation
from tides involves flow between an artificially developed basin and the sea.
Tidal energy generation typically involves building a dam or barrage across a tidal
estuary or bay, which creates a reservoir on one side and a lower water level on the
other side. As the tide rises and falls, water flows through turbines in the dam,
generating electricity.
The amount of electricity generated depends on the size of the dam or barrage, the
speed of the tidal currents, and the tidal range (the difference in water level
between high and low tide). However in order to have a more or less continuous
generation, this basic scheme can be elaborated by having two or more basins.
(1) Single basin arrangement
(II) Double basin arrangement.

(I) SINGLE BASIN ARRANGEMENT

● In a single basin arrangement there is only one basin interacting with the sea.
● The two are separated by a dam (or barrage) and the flow between them is
through sluice ways located conveniently along the dam.
● A dam is constructed in such a way that a basin gets separated from the sea
and a difference in the water level is obtained between the basin and sea
● The constructed basin is filled during high tide and emptied during low tide
passing through the tunnel called sluice and turbine.
● The potential energy of the water stored in the basin is used to drive the
turbine which in turn generates electricity as it directly coupled with
generator.

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The generation of power can be achieved in a single basin arrangement either as

(a) Single ebb-cycle system
(b) Single tide-cycle system
(c) Double cycle system.

The three main components of a tidal power plant are :

➔ The power house
➔ The dam (barrage) to form basin
➔ Sluice ways from the basin to the sea and vice versa.

When the level of the water is above sea level then it is called as flood/high tide.
When water level is below sea level it is called as ebb tide.

(a) Single ebb cycle system:

● When the flood tide (high tide) comes in, the sluice gates are opened to
permit sea-water to enter the basin or reservoir, while the turbine sets are
shut.

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● The reservoir thus starts filling while its level rises, till the maximum tide
level is reached.
● At the beginning of the ebb tide the sluice gates are closed.
● Then the generation of power takes place when the sea is ebbing (flowing
back of tide) and the water from the basin flows over the turbines into the
lower level sea water.
● After two or three hours when there is sufficient difference between the full
reservoir level and the falling tide level, to run the turbines, they are started.
● And they keep working until the rising level of the next flood tide and the
falling reservoir level together reduce the effective head on the turbines to
the extent where it can no longer work safely and efficiently.
● The turbines are then closed and the sluice gates opened again; to repeat the
cycle of operations.
● Since in an estuary, the ebb tide has a long duration than the flood tide, the
ebb operation provides an increased period of actual work.
● The ebb operation plant will be of smaller size, but will operate over a large
period.

(b) Single tide cycle system

● In single tide cycle system, the generation is affected when the sea is at flood
tide.
● The water of the sea is admitted into the basin over the turbines.
● As the flood tide period is over and the sea level starts falling again, the
generation is stopped.
● The basin is drained into the sea through the sluice ways.
● Flood operation scheme needs larger size plant, operating, for shorter period
and hence less efficient as compared to ebb tide operation
● It has been estimated that the energy produced by an ebb cycle system can
be as much as 1.5 times that by a tide cycle system.
● The main disadvantage in both the ebb-cycle as well as the tide cycle
systems is the intermittent nature of their operation.

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(c) Double cycle system

● In double cycle system, the power generation is affected during the ebb as
well as in flood tides.
● The direction of flow through the turbines during the ebb and flood tides
alternates, but the machine acts as a turbine for either direction of flow.
● In this method, the generation of power is accomplished both during
emptying and filling cycles.
● Both filling and emptying processes take place during short periods of time,
the filling when the ocean is at high tide while the water in the basin is at
low tide level, the emptying when the ocean is at low tide and the basin at
high-tide level.
● The flow of water in both directions is used to drive a number of reversible
water turbines, each driving an electrical generator. Electric power would
thus be generated during two short period during each tidal period of 12 h,
25 min. or once every 6h, 12.5 min.

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(II) DOUBLE BASIN ARRANGEMENT

● It requires two separate but adjacent basins. In one basin called "upper
basin" (or high pool), the water level is maintained above that in the other,
the low basin (or low pool).
● In this system the turbines are located in between the two adjacent basins.
● At the beginning of the flood tide, the turbines are shut down, the gates of
upper basin A are opened and those of the lower basin B are closed.
● The basin A is thus filled up while the basin B remains empty.
● As soon as the rising water level in A provides sufficient difference of head
between the two basins, the turbines are started.
● The water flows from A to B through the turbines, generating power.
● The power generation thus continues simultaneously with the filling up the
basin A.
● At the end of the flood tide when A is full and the water level in it is the
maximum, its sluice gates are closed.

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● When the ebb tide level gets lower than the water level in B, its sluice gates
are opened whereby the water level in B starts falling with the ebb.
● With the next flood tide the cycle repeats itself.
● The operation of the two basin scheme can be controlled so that there is a
continuous water flow from upper to lower basin.
● However since the water head between the basins varies during each tidal
cycle, as well as from day to day, so also does the power generated.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF TIDAL POWER GENERATION

Advantages
● The biggest advantage of the tidal power is besides being inexhaustible, it is
completely independent of the precipitation (rain) and its uncertainty. Even a
continuous dry spell of any number of years can have no effect whatsoever
on the tidal power generation.
● Tidal power generation is free from pollution, as it does not use any fuel and
also does not produce any unhealthy waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse.
● These power plants do not demand large area of valuable land because they
are on the bays (sea shore).
● Peak power demand can be effectively met when it works in combination
with thermal or hydroelectric system.

Limitations
● The tidal ranges is highly variable and thus the turbines have to work on a
wide range of head variation. This affects the efficiency of the plant.
● The tidal range is limited to a few meters.
● Construction in sea or in estuaries is found difficult.
● Sea water is corrosive and it was feared that the machinery may get
corroded.
● Cost is not favourable compared to the other sources of energy.
● It is feared that the tidal power plant would hamper the other natural uses of
estuaries such as fishing, er navigation.
● High power transmission cost.

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WAVE ENERGY

Wave energy is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the power of ocean
waves to generate electricity.
Wave energy is a type of ocean energy, which also includes tidal energy and ocean
thermal energy conversion.
Wave energy is generated using devices that capture the motion of waves and
convert it into electricity.
There are several different types of wave energy devices, including point
absorbers, oscillating water columns, and attenuators.

Oscillating Water Columns (OWCs): These are typically installed near the shore
and consist of a partially submerged chamber that is open to the sea. As waves pass
over the chamber, the air trapped inside it is forced through a turbine, generating
electricity.

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Point Absorbers: These devices use a floating buoy or platform that is tethered to
the seabed. As waves pass by, the buoy moves up and down, driving a generator
that produces electricity.
Attenuators: These devices are long, floating structures that are anchored
perpendicular to the direction of the waves. As waves pass along the attenuator, it
flexes and drives hydraulic cylinders, which in turn drive a generator.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WAVE ENERGY

Advantages
(1) The wave energy is naturally concentrated by accumulation overtime.
(2) It is a free and renewable energy source.
(3) Wave power devices do not use up large land masses unlike solar or wind.
(4) These devices are relatively pollution free and, because they remove energy
from the waves, leave the water in a relatively placid (calm) state in their wakes.

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Disadvantages
(1) The major disadvantage of wave energy, as compared to wind, is that the
energy is available on the ocean. The extraction equipment must operated in a
marine environment with all that implies in terms of maintenance, construction
cost, life time, and reliability.
(2) The energy may have to be transported a greater distance to shore.
(3) Wave, energy converters must be capable of withstanding very severe peak
stresses in storms.
(4) Wave energy conversion devices that have been proposed are relatively
complicated.
(5) Economic factors such as the capital investment, costs of the maintenance,
repair and replacement, as well as problems of biological growth of marine
organisms, are all relatively unknown and seem to be on the large side.

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