UNIT 1: DESIGNING AN EFL COURSE: DESIGNING A SYLLABUS

SYLLABUS DESIGN
- The ​CURRICULUM​ is concerned with ​beliefs​, ​values​ and ​theory​.
- The ​SYLLABUS​ is concerned with the s​election and grading of content and can
include information on tasks and activities.

CURRICULUM vs. SYLLABUS

“Curriculum is concerned with the planning, implementation, evaluation, management and
administration of education programmes- Syllabus… focuses more narrowly on the selection
and grading of content.” Nunan (1988, pg. 8)

● Curriculum​ embodies at least four different kinds of decisions:

1) Decisions about the objectives or goals of the programme
2) Decisions about the content-form which the ​syllabus​ will be derived
3) Decisions about the methods of instruction
4) Decisions about how the programme is evaluated

● Syllabus design:​ the following planning tasks for syllabus may be carried out.

1. Needs analysis
2. Defining context
3. Stating the objectives of the course
4. Identifying topics, themes and situation
5. Listing the grammar and functional components
6. Designing learning acts and tasks
7. Selecting suitable material
8. Instructing students
9. Monitoring and assessing students
10. Evaluating the course

Kathleen Graves argues that one can begin designing a course at any point. It’s more
cyclical, more organic, no starting point, no finishing point. Maybe the T is asked to teach a
course once it has started. AS a T you find yourself at this stage. As a T, are you the person
who sets the objectives?
→ Critical Framework
1. STEP ONE:
● Needs ANALYSIS

2. STEP TWO:
● Defining the ​CONTEXT​:
​ xperience​?
Specific group of people (who are you SS; lawyers? What is their learning e
specific setting, specific amount of ​time…
What does the learner need/want to do with the target language? Which one is their
objective​?

All these factors have a bearing on tasks!

We need to find out this things when designing a course. All of these factors will have an
influence on how we design the activities.

❏ Brainstorm with your partner ideas for the headings:

- People​: age, gender, experience, jobs, purpose…

- Physical setting​: location, class size, furniture, light, noise...
- Nature of course​: mandatory, open, enrollment, required test… → it makes a big
difference whether the subject is compulsory or not because it influences their
engagement.
- Time​: nº hours, length of class, frequency, punctuality
- Teaching resources​: IWB (Interactive White Blackboard), projector, course book,
tablets, laptop, p/copier… → in a specific context it’s difficult to have teaching
material but nowadays their religion is a lot of material online.
- Constraints/Limitations​: monthly, exam, course book, topics, ??? → topics are
important because they are closely related with student’s motivation. The exam is a
type of constrain to the course design because you have to stick to what is in the
exam (Selectividad).
All these aspects will influence student’s motivation. For this reason, at the beginning of the
course when preparing the syllabus these aspects must be considered.

Whether the course is mandatory or not, whether there is a final exam... all these things
affect the students engagement and the teachers dynamics.

● How all these factors affect motivation: whether the course is mandatory, open
enrolment, whether there is a continuous assessment, etc…
● These will affect the dynamics of the classroom (teacher centered, student
centered?)
● These facts will affect the teacher on his/her planning. These factors will have a
bearing on tasks.
● There may be constraints: IWB (interactive white blackboard) / maybe the T is
obliged to assess SS once a month, etc...

UNIT 2: DESIGNING BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING

STATING YOUR BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING

- Classes must be a mix, not just teacher-centered neither student-centered +

humanistic approach
- There must be a balance in the different skills (speaking, listening, reading, writing,
use of english…)
- Repetition is important
- Patience (time, different students…)
- Practice EFL
- Importance of the subject
- Adequate contents
- Passionate
- Teacher qualities
- Great and safe environment

This has to do with beliefs. ​Beliefs are ideas that you support about teaching and learning.
They are your views, what you think that is relevant, important.
It is important to bear in mind that beliefs are different sometimes, not everyone share the
same believes.

“​Your view of ​what ​language​ is or what being proficient in a language means, ​affects​ what
your ​teach​ and how you teach it” (Graves 2000:28)

As teachers, we are going to design activities according to our own beliefs. We are not
always aware of this.

Many experts think that our beliefs come from other experience, our values...
My view of language affects my teaching.
What does it mean?
= ​what I consider important​ will affect my teaching:
- Beliefs are ​‘ingrained’​, rooted → quite difficult to change
- If I am a ‘grammar freak’, I will have a strong grammar focus...
- We don’t teach what we preach ‘I am a communicative Teacher’, but then I am
grammar focused... (automatic pilot). I do the same I have always done.
Is there another possible way to do it?

Summary:
● Your view ​of language​: it is a maneas of getting things done? E.g. at the bank, etc. A
means of learning about oneself?
● Your view of t​he social context of language - culture, customs, context, e.g. cultural
norms: active participation may not be part of SS learning needs. Culture: local or
target language? (We were presented with the British culture only)
● Your view of ​learning and the learners - in community or individual,
inductive/deductive, critical thinking, etc. e.g. Teachers may take for granted that SS
will understand; SS may not write a good paragraph, not accustomed to reading,
etc...
● Your view of ​teaching - knowledge transmission, facilitation of learning, collaboration
etc e.g. who the T is and what they represent: a figure of authority: clearly more
respect Mr./Mrs./ active participation or just transmission.

All the decisions that the teacher makes regarding the context will influence our student’s
use of english, of the language, of the culture…

In what ways can beliefs affect the content of a course?

BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING

Triangle of Beliefs
 ● Triangles of beliefs, and how the T perspective can affect the course design and the
S’s perspective can affect the course design.
● What my SS want will affect my teaching. E.g. business men: can you eliminate the
speaking part of the course? Prominent people, embarrassed, potential loss of face...
● Visualising the different elements within a classroom
● How T has conceptualized his/her beliefs? Has T covered this area? Included this?
● The T always plans an initial syllabus, but a ​good T will keep on adapting his/her
course to SS.

A novice teacher sticks to the lesson plan always, but it is only a plan, you have to adapt to
the students.

UNIT 3: DESIGNING STRUCTURAL

CONTEXTUALISING CONTENT
“What you choose depends on the constraints of your teaching context” (Graves 2000:38).

What are the constraints of your context?

- What will you explicitly teach? (Will the T use a coursebook. Is it plausible?)
- What will you explicit focus on?
- What will the organising principle be? How will the T organise all the information?
- What is most important for my SS to learn?
- What is feasible?

Pedagogical REASONING-Schulman (1987)

How do we transform subject matter into something that can be taught and learned?
In order to construct a course, we have to use our pedagogical reasoning:
-Think of steps
-Facilitate learning

PRACTICE SESSION 1
1. Define Practice groups
2. Define your target group
3. Design a needs analysis questionnaire for your target group

SYLLABUS TYPES

1. STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS:
- Grammatical. Grammar translation
- Discrete items (discrete units of vocabulary: concrete nouns)
- Synthetic (all broken down in various parts. Itemized compartmentalized. An
inventory of lists that have to be covered).
- Controlled
Graded (the level of grammar is graded). It is very structured, clear order of the syllabus.
Simple to complex (the syllabus moves as the S gains in the acquisition).

● Selection and gradation: based on the complexity and simplicity of grammatical

items. The teacher regards the items from the point of view of levels or stages. for
example, beginning, intermediate, advanced, or grades (1, 2, 3, etc).
From simple grammar structures to complex ones.

Order (very clear order to the syllabus. There is a ​predetermined order ​that the S is
supposed to acquire. Idea of sequence. ​Behaviourism​: once SS have acquired something,
you feed them with something more complex). The T does not move onto anything new, if
SS have not acquired the previous knowledge yet. The T is reinforcing the stages, the S’s
predetermined order. If the S brings something from his/her personal experience which is not
in the predetermined order of the syllabus, there is an absence of response. Academy:
INLINGUA: Behaviourist approach. If Present Simple has not been taught, I cannot teach the
Past Simple.
(All courses have a hidden syllabus, even communicative courses…)

BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES

Clear for the T SS do not lear on a need to know basis. In

class you may have emergent language
‘Taming’ the enormous complexity of which has not been prepared for the T. In
language. Modal verbs: obligation, Audio Lingual method SS are not allowed to
permission. It is a way of putting certain use emergent language.
constraints. VIDEO: What do you remember from the
video? How does it reflect this type of
A rule of thumb. A rule which is 80% syllabus?
correct. There are 4 conditional types, but
we also have mixed conditionals.

UNIT 4 AND 5: DESIGNING FUNCTIONAL

2. FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS

● 1970s a ‘broader view of language’ provided by philosophers of language and

sociolinguistics.
● FUNCTIONS = Communicative purposes for which we use language
● NOTIONS = the conceptual meanings expressed through language (abstract
concepts, definitions. “This is mine”, “I have got”, “possessives” = ownership: notion.
The language needed to express possessions. “I am = existence”). Some syllabus
are called functional-notional.
FUNCTIONAL VS NOTIONS
- Functions = communicative purpose for which language is used
- Notions = conceptual meanings e.g. states of affair, logical relationships etc.

● Organized around communicative functions such as: identifying, describing,

transactional exchanges, etc.
● The communicative purpose of the task/activity is the main focus of the syllabus.
● Selection of functions is often based on frequency and usefulness.
● Allows for learners to develop communicative abilities for the real world.
● This type of syllabus represents an atomistic approach to syllabus design

Functional-notional syllabuses are considered analytic (Widdowson).

- Analytical syllabuses: SS are exposed to language which has not been
linguistically graded, are more likely to result from the use of experiential rather than
linguistic content as the starting point of syllabus design. (Instead of learning about
“the past simple”, SS might be required to “talk about the things you did last
weekend”.).

FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS

Realistic learning tasks

Every-day real world language

Receptive tasks before premature performance

Real purpose for speaking

Motivation- expressing basic communicative

Functions

More flexible

STRUCTURAL VS. FUNCTIONAL

1. What are they?
● Structural​: organized in grammatical structure and lexical items that form the
language.
● Functional​: organized around language functions (product focused - type A)

2. What knowledge do they focus on?

● Structural​: language as a system made up of phonology, morphology, grammar, lexis
and discourse.
● Functional​: linguistic and communicative competence

3. What capabilities do they prioritize?

 ● Structural​: correct and accurate production of the skills, moving from receptive to
productive skills
● Functional​: appropriate social use of language

4. On what basis do they select and subdivide what is to be learned?

● Structural​: reflects organization of the language system
● Functional​: based on language systems used in functions in social life

5. How do they sequence and grade what is to be learned?

● Structural​: receptive to productive, simple to complex. · criteria for grading:
complexity, frequency and usefulness.
● Functional​: form general functions to specific functions - most needed to less needed
functions

6. What is their rationale?

● Structural​: well-established, language presented as rule-governed, metalinguistic,
e.g. categorizing
● Functional​: meaningfulness as motivational factor, achievement in social context.

INBUILT SYLLABUS
Two studies show that learners acquire certain grammatical items in a certain order Dulay
and Burt (1973) and Bailey, Madden and Krashen (1974).

No matter how the syllabus is organized that human beings have their own inbuilt syllabus:
- First we learn past simple
- But, we teach 3rd person singular at very early stages, but SS don’t acquire it until
late. Quite clearly SS will not take it in because it is not in their order. Organic side.

FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS
A single function being fulfilled by several structures:
● Function: Greeting (informal) → Hello
● Function: Leave-tasking (informal) → So long, bye
● Function: acknowledging an introduction (informal) → please to meet you
(formal) → how do you do?
● Function: expressing and acknowledging gratitude (formal/informal) → thank you,
you are welcome

Language utterances or statements which stem from the function, the situation and the topic:

Possible exponents in one example

● Please open the window
● Open the window, please
● Would you open the window?
● Would you mind opening the window?
● I wonder if you would mind opening the window?
 ● It might be a good idea to open the window

And also variations of language as a result from dialects, informality, formality, mode and
wishes.
Sample Unit Function: Making an appointment, persuading, refusing…
No one-to-one relationship between form and function. Meaning of an utterance is derived
from the whole situation and not from the form.

FORM AND FUNCTION

Request:
- It’s cold here (statement)
- Would you ease close the door (requesting)
- I wonder if some one could close the door (suggestion)
- You have left the door open (threat)

CRITICS
● Dividing language into items is against the nature of language
● It neglects linguistic items and gives more attention to fixed expressions and formulas
● Grading is problematic and subjective
 UNIT 6: DESIGNING COMMUNICATIVE

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully
comes through having to COMMUNICATE REAL MEANING.

When SS are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language
acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.

→ Example: Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information
about their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves
MEANINGFUL COMMUNICATION.
→ Classroom activities: As a result there may be more emphasis on skills than systems,
lessons are more learner-centered, and there may be use of authentic materials: running
dictation; show and tell; information gap activities.

ACTIVITY: ​Live Listening

PPP paradigm: Presentation, Practice, Production

1. Presentation​: Language presented in context, no expectations for the learner to

produce. It is a semi-authentic tasks because it is real, but the T is adapting the task
to the SS’s level. T models past simple. T wants SS to practice the past simple.
2. Practice​: controlled practice. SS focus on the language. SS notice the language.
3. Controlled production:​ T chooses the topic for SS. Scaffolding.
4. Freerer production​: SS choose the topic

Multi-skill lesson: SS practice listening, speaking, writing.

● WEAK CLT: PPP learn the language then use it

● STRONG CLT: learn a language by using it
● Whenever possible, ‘authentic language’: language as it is used in a real context,
should be introduced.
● Being able to figure out the speaker’s or writer’s intentions is part of being
communicatively competent.
● The TL is a vehicle for classroom communication, nor just the object of study.
● SS try to state the reporter’s predictions in different words. One function can have
many different linguistic forms. Since the focus of the course is on real language use,
a variety of linguistic forms are presented together. The emphasis is one the process
of communication rather than just mastery of language forms.
Moreover,

● SS unscramble the sentences of the newspaper article. SS should work with

language at the discourse or suprasentential (above the sentence) level. They must
learn about cohesion and coherence, those properties of language which bind the
sentences together.
● Games are important because they have certain features in common with real
communicative events - there is a purpose to the exchange. Also, the speaker
receives immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not he or she has
successfully communicated. In this way they can NEGOTIATE meaning. SS work in
small groups to maximize the amount of communicative practice.
● SS should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.
● A student makes an error: the teacher and other students ignore it. Errors are
tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills.
Since this activity was working on fluency, the teacher did not correct the student, but
simply noted the error, which he will return to at a later point.
● One of the teacher’s major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote
communication,
● SS work with a partner to predict what the next picture in the strip story will look like.
Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among SS. it gives
SS an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning.
● SS are to do a role play. They are to imagine that they are all employees of the same
company. The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving
meaning to the utterances.
● T moves from group to group offering advice and answering questions. T acts as a
facilitator in setting up communicative activities and as an advisor during the
activities.
● After a role play is finished, SS elicit relevant vocabulary. The grammar and
vocabulary that SS learn follow from the function, situational context and the roles of
the interlocutors.
● SS should be given opportunities to listen to language as it is used in authentic
communication. They may be coached on strategies for how to improve their
comprehension.

Text about CLT: ​http://scotthorbury.wordpress.com/2010/08/15/c-is-for-communicative/

 UNIT 7: LEXICAL SYLLABUS

You shall know a word by the company it keeps (​ Firth, J.R. 1957:11)

“Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar” ​(Michael Lewis, 1993)

It is very difficult to separate lexis and how the word works grammatically. In the past,
vocabulary was learn by giving students long list of vocabulary in an isolated way. When we
follow this lexical approach it means that it is very important to teach this words to students
but make them aware of all the words that come before and after these words. Not to learn
words in isolation.

LEXICAL CHUNKS
A group of words which are commonly found together, for example:
● If I were you, I would go to the party
● By the way, did you meet Paul last week?
● Scuba-diving! This is completely out of my mind

COLLOCATIONS
A pair of lexical content words commonly found together. Word combinations that usually are
presented this way. In order to know this collocations, students need to practice and to be
presented with these collocation in class.
● Mental Health
● Job security
● Unskilled workers
● Hourly wage

DESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE
Adverb+adjective combinations. This are combinations that language allows and always
work in the same way:
● Sadly missed
● Deeply troubled
● Bitterly disappointed
● Severely wounded

“​You shall know a word by the company it keeps” (​ J. Firth, 1957)

“​Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar” ​(Michael Lewis, 1993)
● Lexis is more important ​than grammar!!!
● It’s very ​difficult to separate lexis ​and how the word works ​grammatically.
● Chunks ​of language. Not isolated words (not memorise)
● Prefabricated phrases; formulaic language; frozen language…

THE LEXICAL APPROACH

Michael Lewis coined the term ‘Lexical Approach’ and this book ‘The Lexical Approach’
favours ​vocabulary and lexical chunks ​as the main design focus for syllabus.

Criteria:
The frequency of words and the frequency of usage is crucial to choose the different words
or pair of words that we are going to use. Type of language that native speakers use, for
example.
- This approach emerged from studies in ​CORPUS research ​and especially in
collocation, formulaic language (chunks) and ​word frequency.
- Corpus ​research: a bank of language (Birmingham). The study of corpora: study of
real language
- Study the ​frequency of words
- It focuses on ​meaning

For example, the modal verb “must”. The main meaning when using the word “must” was to
express positive deduction. However, in schools normally the modal verb “must” was taught
as a model to express “obligation”. This means that even nowadays, some textbooks do not
present the language which is used by native speakers.
○ It must have rained (it has rained and the floor is wet).

The Lexical Approach (1993)

- Meaning-making ​function of vocabulary
- Blurred distinction between vocabulary and grammar - ​not separable.
- Acquisition is ​not linear. ​It moves away from a simplistic way of acquisition
(Structural); e.g. maybe SS need a more complex structure at an early point in
learning, and in the textbook it is presented at the very end… Maybe the function is
important for SS but because of the structural syllabus this is not placed until the end.
Language cannot be categorised that way. ​Learning ​is ​not ​going to take place ​the
way the coursebook dictates.

- Language ​use is highly ​predictable ​e.g. Giving advice- ‘If I were you.../ Hadn't you
better… If you use a certain function (giving advice), you expect the speaker use a
specific conditional type. In a formal context, you expect a certain degree of formal
words… The ‘company a word keeps’ is predictable for Native Speakers.
- Native speakers have a ​bank of words, ​phrases and collocations at their disposal.
NS know the collocations and this gives ​speed ​of processing; NS have this bank of
knowledge. ​FLUENCY

The Lexical Approach:

● Helps SS develop their stock of phrases
● Help SS gain fluency
● Helps sensities SS to accept collocations

As for your target group, p.e.:

● Advise
● Encourage
 ● Follow the pattern: VERB+OBJECT+INFINITIVE

- Deborah ​advised me to buy​ that history book

- The tennis coach ​encouraged him to play ​harder

→ LEXIS AND GRAMMAR ARE CLOSELY RELATED!

The Lexical Approach (1993)

● OHE- Observe, Hypothesize, Experiment (in contrast to PPP). The lexical approach
moved away from the PPP and proposed OHE. Let’s look for OHE information on the
website.
- PPP (Teacher presenting grammar, controlled practice/freerer practice)
- OHE:
○ Observation: ​input = a text for SS to observe chunks. It is not the T
presenting, language is presented in the text​. T provides input in the
form of a text.
○ Hypothesise: ​Hypothesise what is the meaning
○ Experience: ​use it
○ Finally ​noticing ​technique - text based approach: e.g. ‘look for
adj+noun collocations’.

20/04/2020
 UNIT 8: TASK-BASED INSTRUCTION

What is a task?
“A task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is
focused on mobilising grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning” (Nunan
1989:10).

● The whole purpose is to express meaning!

Three step task:

1. Rank the following movies from best (1) to worst (5):
GLADIATOR AVATAR IRONMAN TITANIC DIVERGENT

They will have to use likes and dislikes, sharing opinions, agreeing, disagreeing…

2. Language of discussion – disagreeing politely…

In my opinion…
Well, I'm not sure if that is the best movie…. This one is better because
I see what you are saying but… Actually, I think….
I don’t see it that way… I’m afraid I disagree
I agree with you to a point…

3. Select the 5 best holidays destinations:

The same intention, it wants to achieve the same aim that exercice number 1.

In this type of structure, students have to use an specific language, and we present
this by using different tasks.
The big difference between the task-based approach and the communicative
teaching approach is that in the first one they will learn functional language (many
different grammatical forms), while in the communicative one, the teacher is
interested in teaching a very specific grammatical form.

Tasks: what are they?

● Differs from CLT (PPP)
● TB: the ​reserve of PPP. ​It starts with SS production. It starts on the TASK.
● A task is presented. SS are left on their own. T does not present anything.
● T observes the language SS need.

→ TASKS GENERATE THE LANGUAGE TO BE USED AND LEARNED!

Task-based Syllabus
“The designer conducts ​a needs analysis which yields a list of ​the target tasks
that the
targeted learners will need to carry out in the ​‘real-world’​ outside the classroom”
(Nunan, D.)

● It is based on the real world.

● A holistic approach.
● Hopefully the tasks will be based on ​need analysis, ​e.g. ESP: a course for an
airline crew will include very clear set of tasks that the SS would be able to
perform in their jobs.

Task-based instruction
1. Ranking activity: we do this activity to test SS linguistic resources, to
diagnose.
2. T provides SS with useful language, it is not ‘prescriptive’. Expressions SS
can use.
3. 5 best holiday destinations. Task repetition. Good for fluency, SS produce
more accurate language.

STRONG-WEAK APPROACH
- STRONG: T elicits language and adapts input selection.
- WEAK: T provides useful language. More prescriptive. Show SS doing a task
and then SS repeat.

What is the rationale for using tasks?

● Basically, ​developing implicit knowledge, ​effort to communicative, info-gap
requires learners to understand and create communicative messages.
Automatization - gain fluency when forced to use L2 in real operating
conditions.
● Focus on form: ​primary focus is on meaning but not exclusive. Essential
elements focus on form.
- What does R. Ellis say? TB is not an alternative to PPP. Combine both
through focus on form. SS may attend meaning and also specific
language forms. So, you have the best of both worlds: PPP and TB.

○ When is it a good time to give feedback? On the spot correction? Feedback

can be given ‘on-task’ or ‘post-task’.
○ Difficulties of recasting what SS said. Unpredictable SS language production.
○ Logistical problems of this method: large groups.
 ○ How do you cover the 4 skills? Reading and listening is more difficult. Written
production: ‘write an email to a friend inviting him to come over’.
○ Jigsaw activities: decision - making activities.
○ T doesn’t follow a syllabus, it is more functional.
○ Book: ‘Cutting Edge’ a good example.

● Rod Ellis video: ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdRibzXW2TI&t=172s

● Jack C. Richards video: ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJYbkDK3T-k

Real world vs. Pedagogical tasks

● A real world task is a task learners may be asked to perform in real world. E.g.
Transactional encounters.
● A pedagogical task is a task a learner is required to perform in the classroom.

Lesson stages

1. Pre-task
Teacher introduces the ​topic ​and gives SS clear instructions on what they will have
to do at the task stage and might help the students to recall some language that may
be useful for the task. (What is to see in Mallorca).

2. Task
The students complete a task in pairs or groups using the language resources that
they have as the teacher monitors and offers encouragement. (Give advice and
suggestions).

3. Planning
Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class what happened during
their task. They then practice what they are going to say in their groups.

4. Report
Students then report back to the class orally or read the written report.

5. Analysis
The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the
students to analyse. They may ask students to notice interesting features within this
text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the
report phase for analysis.

6. Practice
Finally, the teacher selects language areas to practice based upon the needs of the
students and what emerged from the task and report phrases. The students then do
practice activities to increase their confidence and make a note of useful language.

*Review functional: examples, possible exponents in one example and requests.

 UNIT 9: DESIGNING CBT AND CLIL

Content Based Teaching (CBT)

● Originated 199s in Canada.
● Both the content and the language are targets for leaning. For example, the
class is studying geography in one unit.

→ What is ‘content’?
- Curtain and Pesola (1994) limit the definition of CBT to those “curriculum
concepts being taught through the foreign language… appropriate to the
grade level of the students…” (p.35).
- Genesee (1994) suggests that content ‘need not be academic; it can include
any topic, theme, or non-language issue of interest or importance to the
learners.’ (p. 3).
- Met (1991) proposes that “... ‘content in content-based programs represents
material that is cognitively engaging and demanding for the learner, and is
material that extends beyond the target language or target culture” (p. 150).

● Teaching should build on student’s previous experience: T asks SS what they

know about a specific topic ‘the globe’.
● SS work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language and content within
the context of authentic material and tasks.
● When learners perceive the relevance of their language use, they are not
motivated to learn. They know that it is a means to an end, rather than an end
in itself.
● SS fill in the vocabulary words in the blanks in the modified cloze passages as
they watch the video. Vocabulary is easier to acquire when there are
contextual clues to help convey meaning.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

The term CLIL was ‘invented’ by David Marsh, University of Jyväskylä, Finland in
1994.

“CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a
foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning of content and the
simultaneous leaning of a foreign language”.

● Dual-focused teaching method: “two for the price of one”.

● Learning content ​through t​ he language.
● Syllabus based on conceptual content of subject.
 ● Language focuses on that needed to understand and express understanding
of concepts.
● Inclusion of ICT and visual organisers to facilitate learning.
● Learning to learn may also be part of the syllabus.

Types of CLIL

1. Hard CLIL

The objective of the teacher is that he would focus mainly on content. This teacher
would teach the subject matter, the context, by means of a target language,
however, this teacher would not assess language at the end of the course.
It would be content-driven. The objective is the content, the focus is on the content,
and this is what the teacher is going to focus in class and to assess at the end of the
course.

2. Soft CLIL

Where the focus is on language. This is for example what happen when doing
“physical education” in English. They want the students to learn the language. The
teacher will focus on language, the content would be as an excuse. It would focus on
language. Teacher wants their students to be proficient in language, and he uses the
content to motivate the students. As a side-effect they will learn the content, but the
overall objective will be language.
 3. Mid CLIL

It prioritizes both, content and language. At a certain extent, en equal parts, in a

balanced way. In theory, the idea way to teach clil would be the mid-clil (language
and content, both assessed). However, in most high schools, teachers use the hard
clil.

When we visit a school, teachers are supposed to teach subjects in English, and
sometimes, the teacher who is to teach this, does not master the specific contents,
or does not match the language (he is a learner of the target language).

● Role of the CLIL teacher: ​he’s got to be able to scuffle (help the students
providing language stems, produce output). The T should be also aware that
(BICS - basic interpersonal communicative skills , the teacher would teach
this type of language), but this one does not focus on this one, but on CALP
(cognitive academic language proficient), the general academic discourse.
This is going to be formal language, formal discourse, vocabulary…. The use
of connectors…

In both CBT and CLIL

● T supplies the missing language when the students have trouble in explaining
a concept in the target language. T 'scaffolds' the linguistic content, i.e. helps
learners say what it is they want to say by building together with the SS a
complete utterance.
 ● When SS work with authentic subject matter, SS need language support. For
instance, the T may provide a number of examples, build in some
redundancy, use comprehension checks, etc. p.e. T provides a number of
examples.

Scaffolding
Teaching technique that involves providing students with the supports needed to
complete a task or facilitate their learning of new concepts.

→​ Need to scaffold learning

Provide students with: visuals (flashcards, posters, etc), pp presentations, frames,
lists of words and sentences, recordings…

The need of scaffolding is essential for CLIL, because CLIL aims to guide language
processing and support language production in the same way as ELT by teaching
strategies for reading and listening and structures and lexis for spoken or written
language.

Communication
Many CLIL learners have a cognitive level higher than their linguistic level of the
vehicular CLIL language.
So, what can we do to allow our learners to access language fully and use it?

CLIL teachers needed need to give a special support for language, and, therefore,
plan language carefully, ​analysing what kind of language learners will be using.

Communicative competence
Communicative competence involves more than using language conversationally. It
also included the ability to read, discuss, and write about content from other fields.

BICS and CALPS

● Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS): The language necessary for
day to day living. Including conversations with friends, informal interactions.
- It helps ​interaction.

● Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALPS): The language necessary

to understand and discuss content in the classroom.
- Specific ​subject-related discourse: ‘photosynthesis’, ‘hypotenuse’.
- General ​academic discourse: ‘thus’, ‘whereas’.
- Formal, abstract, context reduced.
Resources
- British Council:
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/teaching-%20%20teens/resources/clil
 UNIT 10: TPR - TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
Principles
● Developed by James Asher, in 1970s.
● Widely used today for young learners.
● This teaching method involves a wide range of ​physical activities.
● The imperative ​is a powerful linguistic device through which the T can direct
S behaviour.
● The T gives a command in the TL and performs it with the SS.
● SS can learn through ​observing actions ​as well as by ​performing the
actions ​themselves.
● SS can initially learn one part of the language rapidly by ​moving their
bodies.
● SS’ role: imitators
● Focus: ​listening comprehension.
● SS say nothing. The SS’ understanding of the TL should be developed before
speaking.
● L2 learning is the same as ​L1 learning: comprehension before production.
This method draws on the basic principles of how young children learn their
L1 (‘Look at daddy’: the kid takes in all the language: sounds as patterns).
● There’s a lot of listening and comprehension.

The TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

● A general approach to foreign language instruction is the COMPREHENSION
APPROACH.
● It gives importance to Listening comprehension.
● Jane Asher (1960) claimed that ‘language learning starts first with
understanding and ends with production’.
● After the learner internalizes how the target language works, speaking will
appear spontaneously.
● Similarities with Stephen Krashen and Terrell ‘Natural Approach method’:
comprehensible input; affective filter.
● TPR fits within the Comprehension Approach.
● The TL should be presented in ​chunks, ​not just word by word. As for the the
Theory of language, basically a ​structuralists, grammar-based view of
language. Sentence-based syllabus ​with grammatical and lexical criteria
being primary, but focused on ​MEANING ​not form.
● Meaning in the TL can often be conveyed/clarified through ​actions. ​Memory
is activated through learner response.
● The T gives the SS commands they have not heard before. SS must develop
flexibility in understanding novel combinations of TL chunks. They need to
understand more than the exact sentences used in training. Novelty is also
motivating.
 ● English ​speaking delayed ​until SS are ready.
● SS will begin to speak when they are ​‘ready’. ​improvement comes from
supplying communicative input, not from forcing production. Dr Stephen
Krashen.
● Spoken language ​should he emphasized over written language.
● Beginning foreign language instruction should address the ​right hemisphere
of the brain, the part which controls nonverbal behaviour. Reduction of stress.
● An emphasis on​ learning as fun and stimulating.
● It is very important that SS feel ​successful​. Feelings of success and low
anxiety facilitate learning.
● SS are expected to make errors when they first being speaking. T should be
tolerant of them. ​Correction ​should be carried out in an unobtrusive manner.

Total Physical Response

TPR has limitations, especially when teaching abstract language and tasks, but is
widely considered to be effective for beginners and is still the standard approach for
young SS.

T who use TPR believe in the importance of having their SS enjoy their experience
of learning to communicate in a foreign language. In fact, TPR was developed in
order to reduce the stress people feel when they are studying other languages.

STAGES OF A LESSON
1. T modelling through commands. SS perform actions together with T.
2. SS perform commands ​alone​.
3. SS​ are ready to speak and ​issue commands.
Activities
1. When SS feel confident with the word or phrase, SS can direct each other or
the whole class.
2. Storytelling.
3. Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (every morning I clean my
teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast).
4. You can extend this by playing Simon Says. This time when you give a
command, students should only do it if you say "Simon says..." at the start. I
might say, "Simon says, 'slice some bread'" or "Simon says, 'chop an onion'"
and the students must do the action. However if I say, "Whisk an egg" the
students shouldn't do this. If anyone does the action that Simon doesn't say
then they are out and have to watch for the mistakes of the other students.

British Council TPR:

● https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/total-physical-response-tpr
● Unit 8, ‘​Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching’ ​by Diane
Larse-Freeman and Marti Anderson.
 UNIT 11: DESUGGESTOPEDIA

● Georgi Lozanov, Bulgarian educator, the originator of this method.

● An ​affective-humanistic ​approach = an approach in which there is respect
for student’s feelings.
● Often considered to be the ​strangest ​of the so-called “humanistic
approaches”, but certain elements of the approach survive in today’s ​good
practice.

Desuggestopedia
● The T should recognise that ​SS bring certain psychological barriers ​with
them to the learning situation. We set up ​psychological barriers ​to learning
and that is the reason for our ​inefficiency.
● We fear that we will be unable to perform, that we will fail, so we ​do not use
the full mental powers ​that we have. we may be using 5 to 10% of our
mental capacity.
● So, in order to make better use of our mental capacity, the ​limitations, ​we
thinks we have, ​need to be ‘desuggested’.
● The approach was based on the ​power of suggestion in learning, ​the
notion being that positive suggestion would make SS ​more receptive ​and, in
turn, stimulate learning.
● Lozanov holds that a relaxed but focused state is the optimum state for
learning.
● In order to create this ​relaxed state ​in the learner and to promote positive
suggestion, suggestopedia makes use of music, a comfortable and relaxing
environment, and a ​relationship between T-S that is asking to the
parent-child relationship.
● One of the ways the S’ ​mental reserves are stimulated ​is through
integration of the ​FINE ARTS. ​Fine art (art: reproductions of classical
paintings, music, drama) ​provides positive suggestions for SS.
● Songs ​are useful for ‘freeing the speech muscles’ and evoking positive
emotions.
● Calm state, ​such as one experiences when listening to a ​concert, ​is ideal for
overcoming psychological barriers ​and for taking advantage of learning
potential. It is desirable that SS achieve ​a state of ‘infantilization’ ​so that
they will be more open to learning.
● SS can learn from what is present in the ​environment (posters)​, even if their
attention is not directed to it = ​peripheral learning.
● The arrangements and physical atmosphere in the classroom ​are viewed
to be of vital significance.
● TL presents in ​dialogue​ form.
 ● Lozanov(268) puts emphasis on experiencing language material in “​whole
meaningful texts“​. It is good for building contextualized vocabulary.
● The T reads the dialogue with a ​musical accompaniment​. T matches her
voice to the rhythm and intonation of the music.
● Communication takes place on 'two planes'; on one the linguistic message is
encoded; and on the other are factors which influence the linguistic message.
On the conscious plane, S attends to the ​language​; on the s​ubconscious
plane​, the ​music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant​. The fine
arts (music, art, and drama) enable suggestions to r​each the subconscious​.
Music and movement ​reinforce the linguistic material.
● When there is a ​unity between conscious and subconscious, learning is
enhanced.
● The arts should, therefore, be integrated as much as possible into the
teaching process.
● SS assume a ​new identity (choose new names) which enhances their
security and allows them to be more open. ​Dramatization is a particularly
valuable way of playfully activating the material. Fantasy reduces barriers to
learning.
● In an ​atmosphere of play​, the conscious attention of the S does not ​focus
on linguistic forms, but rather on ​using the language​. Learning can be ​fun​.
● L1 ​allowed in class.
● Errors are corrected gently, not in a confrontational manner.
● Suggestopedia is aimed at overcoming psychological barriers and ​increasing
confidence.
● SS are in a ​relaxed ​but focused state when their minds are ​more disposed
for receiving and ​retaining new information.

Others
● Unit 6. Desuggestopedia, ‘​Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching’
by Diane Larse-Freeman and Marti Anderson.
● http://www.onestopenglish.com/methodology/methodoloy/teaching-approache
s/teachingapproaches-what-is-suggestopedia/146499.article