4th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing
On Gait Recognition with Smartphone Accelerometer
Renato Ferrero, Filippo Gandino, Bartolomeo
Montrucchio, Maurizio Rebaudengo, Alejandro Velasco
Dipartimento di Automatica e Informatica
Politecnico di Torino
Torino, Italy
{renato.ferrero, filippo.gandino, bartolomeo.montrucchio,
maurizio.rebaudengo, alejandro.velasco}@polito.it
Abstract—Besides revealing useful information, like gender, age,
existing impairments, the gait of every person is acknowledged to
be so distinctive to allow the personal identification and it is
regarded as a valid biometric authentication, similarly to
fingerprinting and face recognition. Although the first analyses
on the gait were conducted in laboratories with dedicated
equipment, portable sensors have been exploited as they become
available thanks to the technology miniaturization. Aiming at an
even more unobtrusive analysis, recent proposals rely on the data
acquired from the 3-axis accelerometer embedded in most of the
smartphones commercially available on the market. Nevertheless
the analysis must be tailored to the lower-grade accelerometer
and the limited computational capability of the smartphone. This
paper identifies the guidelines that the state-of-the-art research
proposes for the gait recognition through a smartphone and
discusses the procedures that are found as more appropriate.
Keywords- gait analysis; biometric authentication; mobile
phone; 3-axis accelerometer
I. INTRODUCTION
Independent studies in medicine [1] and psychology [2]
recognize that each individual owns a distinctive walking style
that allows his recognition. The identification of that gait
patterns has attracted much research [3]. Although the first
studies were conducted in laboratories equipped with dedi-
cated facilities, the current trend is to use portable sensors, in
particular 3-axis accelerometers [4], for analyzing the human
walk. Conforming to the paradigm of ubiquitous computing,
many state-of-the-art researches propose to exploit the
accelerometer embedded in the majority of the smartphones
available on the market [5-13]. In fact, smartphones frequently
include an accelerometer, in order to align the display when
the orientation of the smartphone changes or for videogames.
Although the accelerometers included in commercial
smartphones may be low-grade with respect to ad-hoc sensors,
comparative tests acknowledge that they provide a satisfactory
performance, so they can be regarded as a low-cost and viable
alternative [5]. In addition, the gait recognition can be an added
value for the smartphone user, because it is regarded as a
promising biometric authentication and it can grant access to
the smartphone functionalities in an unobtrusive way [6-12].
Actually, a smartphone stores big amount of sensitive data,
such as the telephone book and e-commerce applications, but
This work has been partially sponsored by Project OPLON (Opportunities for active and healthy longevity), Call "Smart Cities and Communities", funded by
Ministero Istruzione, Università e Ricerca, Italy.
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MECO - 2015 Budva, Montenegro
Imane Benkhelifa
Department of Theories and Computer Engineering (DTISI)
Center of Research on Scientific
and Technical information (CERIST)
Algiers, Algeria
i.benkhelifa@cerist.dz
their value is often underrated by the user. In fact, mobile
phones are usually not protected by any password or PIN, and,
if they are, in most of the cases it is required only once at the
power-on and not after a recover from stand-by [14]. The main
reason is that typing a password is an annoying task. Instead,
through gait recognition, the smartphone can recognize the user
when he/she is walking, so no further authorization is required.
The other advantage, common to all the methods based on
biometric characteristics such as fingerprinting, is the impos-
sibility of stolen or forgotten the login information, which can
happen instead with a password. However, the authentication
based on accelerometer data should be combined with another
security mechanism in case the user is not moving.
This paper identifies the common procedures and reviews
the main techniques proposed for analyzing the gait with an
accelerometer embedded in a smartphone. The study is
experimentally supported with the acceleration data collected
with a Samsung Galaxy S5. The fundamental phases followed
by the main state-of-the-art approaches are listed in Fig. 1 and
are detailed in the remainder of the paper. The first step is the
data collection: the information about the acceleration signal
should be acquired by keeping the smartphone in a natural
position, as discussed in Section II. In the preprocessing phase,
the data are cleaned to enhance their quality and to remove
irregularities, as described in Section III. The next step is the
cycle detection: Section IV explains how the repetitive patterns
are searched inside the data. These patterns are then processed
during the analysis phase both in the time and in the frequency
domain, as discussed in Section V and VI, respectively. The
presented techniques are discussed in Section VII and some
conclusions are drawn in Section VIII.
II. DATA COLLECTION
Almost all the solutions adopted for carrying the smart-
phone during the experiments are similar. The smartphone is
usually placed at the hip of the user in one of these ways:
x it is worn on a belt [6, 10]
x it is carried inside a holster or a pouch [8, 9]
x it is put in the pants pocket [12, 13]
x it is externally tied in correspondence of the pants
pocket [11].
 4th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing
Figure 1. Common phases for gait recognition.
Few experiments tried different approaches, like securing the
device over the third lumbar vertebra, as this zone is supposed
to be the body’s center of mass during quit standing [5].
The acceleration data are obtained by means of the
embedded 3-axis accelerometer. As the name suggests, that
sensor simultaneously measures the acceleration along 3
perpendicular axes. Each measurement is characterized by a
different waveform: for instance, Fig. 2 plots the acceleration
data collected during a walk of 30 s. Here, the X-axis
corresponds to the vertical component, the Y-axis is the
forward-backward one and the Z-axis is related to the left-
right acceleration. Data are acquired by placing the Samsung
Galaxy S5 in the right back pocket.
III. PREPROCESSING
Although the three components of the acceleration are
jointly evaluated in some approaches [12, 13], often only a
subset of them is taken into account. The most valuable
components are the forward-backward and the vertical ones
and sometimes they are analyzed together [6]. Some studies
consider either the forward-backward component [10, 11] or
the vertical one [8, 9].
In order to reduce the influence of the smartphone orienta-
tion, some proposals analyze the absolute value of the
acceleration data [5] or the resultant vector obtained from the
addition of the components. Each element of the resultant vec-
tor can be computed with the signal vector magnitude [12, 13]:
= + + (1)
or with an alternative metrics [7]:
= arcsin . (2)
+ +
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MECO - 2015 Budva, Montenegro
Figure 2. Acceleration measured along X, Y, and Z axis.
Depending on the software that manages the accelerometer,
the data may not be acquired at regular intervals. In that case, a
linear time interpolation is required to guarantee the same
interval between two samplings [5, 8-13]:
( − )( − )
= + (3)
−
where and are the considered acceleration component
sampled at times and , respectively. is the new point
generated with interpolation between and .
Besides the movement, the measure obtained from the
accelerometer comprises also the earth’s gravitational force.
Some approaches prefer to remove that component from the
collected data before analyzing them [8, 9]. Theoretically, if
the smartphone is kept perpendicularly to the ground, only one
axis would be influenced by gravity and should be corrected.
However, in order to take into account changes in the
alignment and the instability of the measurements over the
time, the acceleration along each axis can be zero normalized
by subtracting the mean value [8]:
= − . (4)
The data acquired from the accelerometer contain an
additional noise component, for example due to the
 4th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing MECO - 2015 Budva, Montenegro

misplacement of the smartphone while moving, screen taps,

automatic vibrations generated by other software operating on
the phone, irregularities in the ground, etc. As a
countermeasure, in some analyses the acceleration data are
smoothed by means of a filter, in particular a low-pass filter [5,
11, 12], a high-pass filter [11, 12] or a weighted moving
average filter [10].
IV. CYCLE DETECTION
The time between two consecutive steps forms a cycle. The
cycles are identified by searching local maximums [5, 6, 11]
or, equivalently, local minimums [10]. A cycle ranges between
two consecutive peaks of almost maximum magnitude. Figure 3. Minimum salience vector of the X-component
However, some studies point out that the peaks inside the data of the acceleration shown in Fig. 2.
may not be distinct enough for the cycle detection. For
example, if a minimum is selected as a cycle start, it could be It should be remarked that in the literature the cycles can be
similar to (even slightly higher than) a local minimum inside detected inside the original acceleration data or the ones
the cycle. In order to facilitate the detection of a cycle, it is smoothed by a filter. In the latter case, the smoothed waveform
suggested to preliminarily estimate its average length. Several can be simply considered as a replacement of the original
approaches are proposed to accomplish that task. acceleration waveform [10], or it can be used only to
preliminarily identify the group of peak candidates [5]. Then,
The average cycle length can be estimated by looking for the true peaks are detected in the original acceleration
similarities between a small subset extracted from the center of waveform by searching around each peak candidate.
the acceleration waveform and other subsets of similar length
[10]. Then, the first cycle is detected starting from the peak V. ANALYSIS IN THE TIME DOMAIN
around the center of the waveform and moving forward: the The analysis in the time domain studies the distribution of
cycle ends when a peak is found at a distance similar to the the signal over the time. Its use in the context of gait
estimated cycle length, with a correction of  10%. Each new
recognition is based on the assumption that the walking style of
cycle is iteratively detected in the same way starting from the
every person remarkably affects the distribution of the samples
final point of the previous cycle. In addition, the process is
repeated moving backward from the center of the waveform. collected with the 3-axis accelerometer.

Another approach for evaluating the average cycle length A. Statistics of the cycles
relies on salience vectors [8, 9]. A minimum salience vector After the samplings of the accelerations are segmented
has as many entries as the acceleration samples: the i-th entry into cycles, a basic description of the gait can be obtained
counts how many values there are after the i-th sample from the statistics of the cycles [12]:
before another sample < is found. As a consequence, the x average maximum acceleration
entries in the minimum salience vector with a high value 1
correspond to significant minimums in the acceleration data. avg_max = max (5)
For instance, Fig. 3 plots the minimum salience vector
computed from the acceleration data along the X-axis reported where is the initial instant of the -th cycle
in Fig. 2. The entries with a value greater than minimum peak
height and at least as far as minimum peak distance are the x average minimum acceleration
candidate starting points of the cycles. Minimum peak height 1
and minimum peak distance are computed experimentally as a avg_min = min (6)
fraction of the interpolation frequency. The estimated cycle
length is the mean value of the distances between the candidate x average cycle length
starting points. Finally, the cycles are detected by means of the 1
maximum salience vector, which is defined in the same way as avg_length = − (7)
the minimum one, but counting the number of data before a
higher value. The peaks in the maximum salience vector x average cycle frequency, computed as the inverse of
greater than the minimum peak height and at least as far as the the average cycle length.
half of the estimated average cycle length are identified. The
cycles start at each local minimum before those peaks. B. Moments
The k-th moment of a random discrete variable about a
The initial and final instants of the cycles can be detected
by observing the peaks in the autocorrelation of the horizontal value is defined as:
component of the acceleration [12]. Details about the
autocorrelation are given in Section V-D. , = ( − ) = ( − ) (8)

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where is the probability mass function of . The importance
of the moments of the acceleration in the gait analysis is due to
their useful indications about the distribution of the samplings.
The cycles differ in length, i.e., the time taken for a step is
not always the same. A basic indication of the gait variability,
i.e. to which extent the cycles differ in length, can be obtained
from the first two moments. The first moment about zero is the
mean . The second central moment, i.e., the moment about the
mean, is the variance . The standard deviation is the
square root of the variance. The gait variability is estimated by
computing the coefficient of variation CV = / [5]. The
standard deviation is also considered per se as a discriminating
parameter of the gait [12].
The third and fourth order moments are regarded as other
two discriminant parameters of the acceleration waveform [6].
The third central moment is the skewness, which measures the
asymmetry of the data distribution about its mean. The fourth
central moment is the kurtosis, which reveals if the data are
peaked or flat with respect to a normal distribution.
The histogram is an effective graphical representation of
both the skewness and the kurtosis: it is suggested to be
concatenated as a vector and used for the gait identification [6,
12]. To this purpose, the range of values in the acceleration
waveform is split into disjoint intervals and a histogram with as
many bins as intervals is drawn. The height of each bin is given
by the number of values falling into the corresponding interval.
The histogram is normalized by the length of the values, so it
displays their relative frequencies.
C. Root mean square (RMS)
The acceleration data collected during a walk tend to form a
repetitive sequence of positive and negative values. A measure
of the magnitude of this waveform can be obtained by means
of RMS [5, 12], defined as follows:
1 DTW is an algorithm for comparing two discrete signals
= . (9)
The RMS is an indicator of the gait stability: the higher the
RMS value, the lower the degree of stability is [5].
D. Correlation
The use of the cross-correlation for the gait recognition is
based on the assumption that the shape of the acceleration
waveform is unique for every person [6]. Instead of punctually
comparing the values of two waveforms and at every
instant, with the cross-correlation their similarity is evaluated
by shifting one of them along the time domain:
( − ) − the optimal match between and , with the following rules:
( )= . (10)
is referenced to as time lag. The range of ( ) is [-1, 1].
The cross-correlation can be used to look for the presence of a
pattern inside a longer signal or to compare an input waveform
with a template of equal length [6].
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The cross correlation of a signal with itself is called
autocorrelation. The signal at the instant t is compared with its
value at the instant + :
[( − )( − )]
( )= . (11)
Some information can be extrapolated by varying :
x how quickly the signal changes along the time: if the
signal varies slowly, i.e. the values of and are
similar, then the autocorrelation is positive;
x the presence of periodic patterns, hidden by noise;
x the identification of the fundamental frequency of a
signal that contains several harmonic frequencies
instead of the noise component.
By varying the time lag around the cycle length, a
sequence of autocorrelation coefficients can be computed. The
maximum value of that sequence provides an estimation of the
gait balance: the higher the maximum, the more balanced the
gait is [5]. To speed up the computation of the sequence, each
coefficient can be estimated as follows:
1
( )= ( − )( − ) (12)
( − )
where is the number of acceleration data samples.
The numerator in (10) is referred to as the covariance
between and . A covariance matrix is built by comput-
ing the value of the covariance for all the possible values of .
Such a matrix expresses all the second-order statistics about
and can be used to define its similarity with a template [13].
Another distinctive description of the acceleration waveform
is given by the variance vector formed by the elements along
the principal diagonal of the covariance matrix [13]: by
definition, the covariance of with itself is the variance of .
E. Dynamic time warping (DTW)
= ( , , … , ) and = ( , , … , ) [15]. First, a
distance measure ( , ) needs to be defined to evaluate the
similarity of any two elements of the signals: the lower the
distance, the more similar the elements are. An x matrix is
built, where the value of the element at position ( , ) is equal
to ( , ). The goal of DTW is to find the warping path
through the matrix with the minimum cumulative distance.
The path starts at the element (1, 1) and ends at ( , ); it
includes only adjacent elements (horizontally, vertically or
diagonally), moving from left to right and from up to down.
Finding the optimal warping path corresponds to computing
x the first element of is aligned with the first element
of , as well as the last element of the two signals;
x a signal can be locally “warped” in the time dimension
to compensate a non-linear variation of the other one;
x no element of the signals can be omitted in the match.
 4th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing MECO - 2015 Budva, Montenegro

A recursive algorithm based on dynamic programming can

avoid the computation of all the possible warping paths in
order to determine the optimal one. The single iteration of the
algorithm consists in the computation of the optimal warping
path [ , ] between the first signal truncated at the i-th
element and the second signal truncated at the j-th element:
[, ]= , + min( [ − 1, ],
(13)
[ , − 1], [ − 1, − 1]).
[ , ] is computed recursively by applying (13).
DTW is exploited in the gait analysis to compare
acceleration patterns. It can be applied to a single acceleration
waveform: after detecting all the cycles, the distance of each Figure 4. Fast Fourier transform of the X-component
of the acceleration shown in Fig. 2.
cycle with the others is computed. If a cycle is too far from the
others, it is considered as irregular and rejected [9, 10]. On the A. Discrete Fourier transform (DFT)
other side, DTW is frequently exploited to compare two The acceleration samples can be converted in the
acceleration waveforms for the gait authentication [7, 10]. frequency domain by means of the DFT. The samples must be
Furthermore, DTW is the metric proposed to classify the gait equally spaced, so an interpolation is needed if they are not
features [8, 9, 11]. The evaluated gait waveform is checked collected at regular intervals. These samples are converted into
against all the models in a training data set and it is assigned to a linear combination of complex sinusoids with the same
the same class of the model with the lowest DTW value. sample values. The frequency of the sinusoids are integer
F. Cyclic Rotation Metric (CRM) multiples of a fundamental frequency, which is the inverse of
the sampling interval. More formally, let = ( , , … , )
Given two acceleration waveforms, denoted as reference set
be the input sequence of samples, then the output of the DFT
and input set, CRM aims to find the best matching pair of
is the list of coefficients = ( , , … , ) of the finite
cycles in the two sets [9]. Each cycle of the reference set is
combination of sinusoids, ordered by their frequencies:
compared several times against each cycle of the input set.
Every time, the cycle in the reference set is shifted before
= ∀ ∈ [1, ] (15)
repeating the comparison. The tests end when the reference set
has done a full rotation. The metric adopted in the
where is the imaginary unit. The DFT is O(N2), because there
comparisons is the Manhattan distance , which is the sum
are N output coefficients, each one given by the summation of
of the horizontal and vertical differences for all the points:
N terms. A faster computation, with complexity O(N log N), is
( , ), ( , ) = | − | + | − | . (14)
achieved with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm.
After identifying the two cycles with the lowest Manhattan Since the output values of the DFT are ordered by their
distance, CRM is computed as their DTW. The DTW metric is frequency, the first ones contain the most significant
applied only once as the last step because it is O(n2), whereas information about the gait characteristics. In order to speed up
the computation of the Manhattan distance is O(n). the computation, the FFT is usually limited to the first 40
In the context of gait authentication, the input set is coefficients [6, 11, 12]. As an example, Fig. 4 plots the
acknowledged as belonging to the same owner of the reference Fourier transform of the X-component of the acceleration
set if their distance according to CRM is lower than a shown in Fig. 2. It can be observed that the frequency of all
threshold. the main sinusoids is lower than 10 Hz. The predominant
sinusoid is around 2 Hz, as confirmed in previous studies [11].
VI. ANALYSIS IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
B. Discrete cosine transform (DCT)
The analysis in the frequency domain reveals how much of
The DCT converts a finite number of samples into a sum
the signal is spread into the different frequency bands within a
of cosine functions. There are some variants for obtaining the
given frequency range. The mathematical operator defined for
real coefficients of the DCT; the definition adopted in the
converting a signal from the time domain to the frequency one
literature for the gait recognition is the following [12]:
is called transform. In the context of gait recognition, a
transform is applied to the acceleration waveform to study the 1 1
= + cos + ∀ ∈ [1, ] (16)
distribution of the frequency components. Information about 2 2
that distribution is extracted for each input pattern and
conveniently stored, for example in a vector, to be compared The most evident difference between the DCT and DFT is
with templates. that the first one uses only cosine functions to convert the
discrete input sequence, whereas DFT exploits both cosine and

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sine functions, expressed as complex exponentials. Like the
DFT, a direct computation of (16) requires O(N2) operations,
but there exist fast algorithms, i.e. O(N log N). The direct
application of the FFT for the DCT computation is also
possible, but O(N) pre- and post-processing steps are needed.
As pointed out for the DCT, the first coefficients of the
DCT are the most discriminant. For the gait recognition, only
the first 40 coefficients are suggested to be analyzed [12].
VII. DISCUSSION
Some common guidelines can be found in the state-of-the-
art proposals for recognizing the gait through the data collected
with the accelerometer embedded in a smartphone. First, the
data need to be selected and polished. The acceleration values
are sampled along three perpendicular axes, but, depending on
the smartphone orientation, some axes can reveal more
characterizing information, so the values of the other axes can
be dropped. In addition, the measures include noise and the
earth’s gravitational force, which should be taken into account
through filters and data normalization. The next phase aims at
recognizing the periodicity of the data, since they refer to a
sequence of steps. The pattern corresponding to two steps is
called a cycle. The methods for identifying the cycles are based
on the search of local peaks or on the estimation of the cycle
length. Finally, the cycles are analyzed and compared with
templates for recognition and authentication purposes. The
analyses are carried out both in the time and in the frequency
domain. In the time domain, the distribution of the samples
along the time is investigated by looking at the magnitude of
the collected values and by computing statistics about the
length of the cycles. The acceleration data are converted in the
frequency domain by means of a mathematical transform.
Here, the gait is characterized by its frequency components.
In the gait recognition, the input sample is accepted if its
similarity with the template is higher than a threshold. Two
kinds of errors can occur: false acceptance rate (FRR) and false
rejection rate (FRR). As the similarity threshold increases, FRR
decreases and FRR grows. The threshold when FRR is equal to
FRR is called equal error rate (ERR). The lower the ERR, the
higher the accuracy is. Although the gait recognition through a
smartphone is in its early stages, the results are promising: the
values of ERR provided in the studies range from a minimum
of 7% [6] to a maximum of 33.3% [8]. Nevertheless, a direct
comparison of the proposed techniques is not possible because
they consider different scenarios. A fair comparison should be
based on a common database of acceleration samples, which is
not yet publicly available.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has discussed how to recognize the gait of a
person through the data acquired from the 3-axis accelerometer
embedded in a smartphone. Some common phases are
identified: acquisition, preprocessing, cycle detection and
analysis. For each phase, the techniques adopted in the
literature are presented. Despite the low-grade sensor, the
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results obtained in the reviewed experiments show the viability
of the smartphone-based approach.
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