Mat 110 Module 3 (B) Introduction To Calculus (Review 2013)

MAT 110 - FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
MAT 110
MODULE 3 [B]
INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS
Founder of Calculus
Sir Isaac Newton
MUKUBA UNIVERSITY
MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
Copyright
© MUKUBA UNIVERSITY-2013
MUKUBA UNIVERSITY
MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
P.O. BOX 20382
KITWE
COPPERBELT PROVINCE
ZAMBIA
Acknowledgements
MUKUBA UNIVERSITY - MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT wishes to thank those below
for their contribution to this MAT 110 - FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS:
Mr. Banda P.P. Lecturer [H.O.S]
Mr. Kangwa E. Lecturer [H.O.D]
Mr. Mwewa Lecturer.

Contents
About this Module 1
How this module is structured 1
Module overview 3
Welcome to module 3- MAT 110 3
Is this for you? 3
Course outcomes 3
Timeframe 4
Study skills 4
Need help? 5
Assignments 5
Assessments 6
Getting around this module 7

Margin icons 7
Unit 3 11
Introductory Differential Calculus 11
3.0 Introduction 11
3.1 Limits of Functions 12
3.1.1 Definition of a Limit 12
3.1.2 Existence of a limit 14
3.1.3 Properties of Limits 15
3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of functions 16
3.2 Derivative of a function 17
3.2.1 Definition of a derivative 17
3.2.2 Rate of change 17
3.2.4 Gradient of function at a point using the first principle 21
3.2.5 Differentiation of polynomials 22
3.2.6 Rules of differentiation 24
The Second differential coefficient. 28
3.2.7 Implicit differentiation of Functions 29
3.3 Stationary points 32
3.3.1 Definition 32
3.3.2 Nature of stationary points 33
Using the value of the function 35
The first derivative test 36
The second derivative test 39
3.3.3 Solving Practical Problems 41
3.4 Asymptotes of functions 45
ii Contents
Unit 3 summary 60
Assignment 60
Assessment 61
Unit 3 Solutions to Activities 61
Unit 4 64
Elementary Integration 64
4.0 Introduction 64
4.1 Integral Calculus 64
4.1.1 Definition of Integration 64
4.1.2 Indefinite Integral 65
4.1.3 Techniques of Integration 65
Integration of a sum or difference of functions 67
Integration by Substitution (change of variable) 68
Integration by parts73
4.2 Definite Integrals 76
4.2.1 Area Under a curve 76
Unit summary 83
Assignment 84
Assessment 84
About this Module

MAT 110 Foundation Mathematics.Module 3[B]. Introduction to
Calculus has been produced byMukuba University. All Modules
produced by Mukuba University are structured in the same way, as
outlined below.
How this module is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you
determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
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 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
1
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide
you with a list of additional resources at the end of this MAT 110 -
FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS; these may be books, articles or
web sites.
Your comments
After completing FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS we would
appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your
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Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance
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2
Module overview
Welcome to module 3- MAT 110

Introductory to Calculus, which deals with Dofferential Calculus
and Integral Calculus and their properties.
Is this for you?

This course is intended for diploma holder teachers of mathematics
and science and is part of foundation mathematics course..
Course outcomes
During and Upon completion of FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS
MAT 110 you will be able to:
 Use concept of a limit, continuity and discontinuity.

 Give the definition of a derivative( as rate of change) and
differentiation from first principles
Outcomes  Apply rules of differentiation (sums, differences, products,
quotients) and chain rule
including
 Find the derivatives of polynomials functions, rational functions,
radical functions
 Implicit differentiation; higher order derivatives;
 Applications of derivatives to gradients of plane curves,
increasing and decreasing functions;
 Determine concepts of stationary points, minimum,
maximum, and points of inflexion and sketching of curves,
 Concept of asymptotes (both vertical and horizontal
asymptotes, rates of change.
 Find Integration as reverse process of differentiation;
 Evaluate Indefinite integrals, integration of algebraic
expressions, fractions, etc.
 Apply basic methods of integration (e.g. substitution,
integration by parts, partial)
 Calculate fractions and simple definite integrals,
application to areas under the curves.
3
Timeframe
The expected study time is 200 hours
How long?
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to
that from your school days: you will choose what you want to
study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for
doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities
around other professional or domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning
environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself
in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which
you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a
number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links
are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills
resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine
essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for
reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student
Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a
“where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note
taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills
4
(“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing
skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning),
memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a
learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At
the time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look
for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study basics”,
“self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.
Need help?
Is there a course web site address?
What is the course instructor's name? Where can s/he be located
(office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)?
Help
Is there a teaching assistant for routine enquiries? Where can s/he
be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail
address)?
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address)?
Is there a learners' resource centre? Where is it located? What are
the opening hours, telephone number, who is the resource centre
manager, what is the manager's e-mail address)?
Who do learners contact for technical issues (computer problems,
website access, etc.)
5
Assignments
Two tutor marked assignments will be considered for
assessment.
To be submitted to the University College through the selected
District Resource Centers before or at stipulated times in the
Assignments required two units.
Assessments
There will be several self - marked tasks during and end of each
unit.
Assessments A two hour test will be administered at the university college

during a residential school as advised.
6
Getting around this module
Margin icons
While working through this module you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular
piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been
included to help you to find your way around this module.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you
familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before
starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
7
9
Unit 3
Introductory Differential Calculus

3.0 Introduction
Mathematics has several branches. Calculus is one of such
branches that will be the focus of this unit.
According to the Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/) , Calculus which forms a
major
part of modern mathematics is Latin, which means a ‘small
stone used for counting’ focuses on limits, functions,
derivatives, integrals, and infinite series.
Calculus is the study of change, in the same way that
geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of
operations and their application to solving equations.
Calculus is broadly divided in two parts, differential
calculus and integral calculus.
In this unit we shall deal with differential calculus and
related concepts.
During the course of study of this unit you will be required
to work out activities and the solutions are at the end of the
unit.
During and upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
i. Understand the concept of limits
ii. Appreciate basic Differentiation rules
iii. Differentiate polynomial functions
Outcomes
iv. Apply the concept of differentiation in
a. Establishing gradients of curves
b. determining stationary points
v. identify asymptotes
11
3.1 Limits of Functions

3.1.1 Definition of a Limit
Recall from module 2 A when we looked at functions that they
display different types of characteristics and are defined over
certain domains. Some functions are not defined over given points
in the domain. We now explore more properties of functions.
Consider this case
Consider the linear function which is obviously
one-valued.
We want to access the behaviour of as the as
approaches say 2.
We will use value close to 2 from either direction. Picking values
as close to 2 as possible
Now complete the following table;
x 1 1.99 1.999 1.999999 2.0 2.00001 2.001 2.01
f(x) 5 9
If you did the correct computations you should have found

the following values
8.96, 8.996, 8.999996, 9.00004, 9.004, and 9.04 respectively
should have been found.
What is your observation over the range and the domain?

You should have noticed that as x approaches the value 2, from
below or above, the values gets closer and closer to the value 9 and
is not above 9.
In a diagram form we could sketch it as shown below
12
Figure 3.1 Limit of a function
Thus it is seen that, as x approaches the value of 2, from above or

below, approaches the value 9, and this value is said
to be the limit, or limiting value of the function when x tends
to the value 2.
Symbolically this can be written as,
Read as, ‘the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 9’.

What follows is not the precise definition but what would be
referred to as a working definition.
The limit of the function f(x) is L as x approaches a provided we

can make f(x) as close to L as we want for all x sufficiently close to
a from both sides, without actually letting x be a.
lim f ( x)  L
xa
Let us look at examples of how to establish the limits of functions

over a certain values.
Example 3.1
Evaluate
By the definition, we test the behaviour of the limit when as

close to 2 as possible, thereby letting x =2 is the starting
point as the ultimate is to access its value as close as
possible.
13
Activity 3.1 [Self marked]

Equally the following can be derived using this approach.
Can you evaluate the following:
lim(2 x  5) lim(2  3x)
a) x 5 b) x 3
lim(2 x  5)
c) x 1
 4 
lim 
x  5 1 - 2x
 lim(2 x 2  5)
d)   e) x 5
There as well some cases that would not easily allow us to

get the limits unless with special approaches. For instance
Look at these two cases.
and
What would you say about the limits at the points in

question?
In the first limit if we plugged in x =4 we would get and

in the second limit if we “plugged” in infinity we would get
Both of these are called indeterminate forms. In order for

us to get the limits we need to simplify the expressions
before we proceed.
Also note that , which means that each time we get

such values then the limits are not real values, therefore
they do not exist.
For the two limits above we would work them by first
simplifying as follows;
14
Also =
As you may have realised that it’s not always that a limit will exist.
There are conditions that would allow the existence of a limit at a
point. From the previous illustration in figure 1, as we were
approaching the 2 from either side, the values were getting closer to
some value.
3.1.2 Existence of a limit
In order for a limit to exist, the limit from the left and
the limit from the right must exist and be equal
Example 3. 2
 x  1 if x  0
f ( x)  x  
If  x  1 if x  0
Since and the left and right
hand limits are not the same , therefore does

not exist
Now having noted that its always that a limit exist, there are a number
that can be used to evaluate limits of functions. Below are some of the
properties .
3.1.3 Properties of Limits

The following properties can used to evaluate these limits
Let and be two functions and assume that
lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M
xa xa , where L and M are real
numbers (and in both limits exist) then:
(I)
lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  [lim f ( x)]  [ lim g ( x)]  L  M
xa xa xa
lim kf ( x)  k lim f ( x)  kL for any cons tan t k

(II) xa xa
15
lim[ f ( x).g ( x)]  [ lim f ( x)][ lim g ( x)]  LM

(III) xa xa xa
f ( x) lim f ( x) L
lim  xa  , if  0
xa g ( x) lim g ( x) M
(IV) xa
lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x)  n L where L  0

xa xa
(V)
Using the properties above, work out the following activity
Activity 3.2
1. Find all limits if they exist,
lim (2 x  1) lim(3 x  2) lim 7
i) x2 (ii) x 1 (iii) x2
2. Evaluate the following limits if they exist;

3x 2  15 x
lim
x  0 3 x 2  14 x  5
a) b)
4x 2  x
lim
c) x 0 x
x2  4 n 2  2n
lim lim
n  n 2  1
d) x  x e)
Having looked at ways of evaluating limits, we want now
to establish the connection between limits and the nature of
function, whether continuous or not.
3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of fu-*nctions
A function is said to be continuous at a point where x = a if

three conditions hold:
If a is a limit then is continuous at a if and only if

exists and is equal to
16
Let us consider the following illustration

Example 3.3
Determine whether the function continuous or not
We need to test the conditions that would qualify a function to be

continuous or not.
Testing the conditions
Condition 1: and
Both exist, hence satisfied
Condition 2: existence of a limit :
Since the limits are not the same, hence not

continuous.
Would you test your understanding by exploring the questions
below.
Activity 3.3
Given that
and
Determine whether the functions are continous or not.
Having successfully covered the concept of limit, let us now look

at how this can be used in differential calculus.
The first concept to discuss in the idea of what a derivative is.
17
3.2 Derivative of a function

3.2.1 Definition of a derivative
As it has been described that this mathematics is
concerned with change, in your daily life, can you think of a
quantity that changes over given conditions?
You could have thought of several issues, for example
‘body weight gain or loss over a time’. You should have
realised that you are simplifying looking at how much a
certain quantity is changing with respect to another. Let us
look at rates of change
3.2.2 Rate of change

Consider a ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of
and that its height (h) in metres after t seconds is
approximately .
Can you determine its average speed in the following time
intervals.
a)
Given the average speed to be change of distance in
the time given
Since distance is given as a function of height in the

time taken, then
b)
Equally the average speed to be change of distance in
the time given is worked out as
Since distance is given as a function of height in the

time taken, then
c)
18
Similar approach gives us
d)
e)
f)
This would give us 5.9996
What do you think is the best solution to of the speed

when ?
A general approach can be used to find the best estimate

in the given interval. As you may realise that the speed at
is arrived at as you narrow the interval to the
reference point.
To establish the average speed using the height function,

we need to have a smallest interval possible.
Assuming we have the interval from to,

Then the height will be based on and
, also the time difference
From the above we can see that for us to get the best
value of the estimate is to let the interval be as small as
possible, thereby approaching zero. This can be written as
19
This gives a general expression that can be used for

establishing the value of the speed.
From the previous example, the average speed at 0.25s
would be given by
Comparing the two, can be generalized that the

average speed can be found using the same
expression, say after 0.5 seconds,
This limit gives us the change of distance with time .

This measure of how one factor changes in
response to change in other factor is what is called
a derivative.
In this case the derivative of is given
by
Generally when given any function, say ,

the derivative of y with respect to x is illustrated as
figure 1
Figure 3.2 Derivative of a function
Recall that this is the same as the gradient of the tangent

of the function at A(x, y). So the derivative of a function at
a point is the gradient of the function at the point. The
process of finding the derivative is called differentiation.
20
This approach of finding the derivative is what is referred

to as the first principle of differentiation.
Example 3.4
Find the derivative of the function with respect to
using the first principle.
Simplifying
The derivative of would have been found to be .

We can as well explore the gradient of a function at a point, as you
may remember that gradient is also change of vertical axis with
respect to change in the horizontal axis.
3.2.4 Gradient of function at a point using the first principle

Using the Example 4, we can find the gradient of
the curve at x = 2. As earlier worked out,
Simplifying
21
Can you compare this answer to that of Example 4, what is

your conclusion?
You will discover the derivative of a function is the same as the

gradient function .
Then since we have now a gradient function
The gradient at x = 2 is found by substituting this value in

the gradient function.
Activity 3.4
1. Can you find the derivative of the following using
the first principle.
a)
y  x4 b)
yx c)
y  4x 2
1
y
d) x2
2. Determine the gradients of the functions at stated
points.
5
y
a) y  2x :
2
b) x2 :
c) y  2x :
3
we can now extend this concept to include polynomials with

several terms.
3.2.5 Differentiation of polynomials

Consider the equation y = t.
What do you think is the orientation of this equation on the
coordinate plane, the XOY axis?
22
This line represents a straight line parallel to the x –axis and so it

has a gradient of zero. Why do you think its gradient of zero?
This has to do with change in both the vertical and horizontal axes,
one of them is not changing.
Which means that the as the equation would

equally be expressed as and applying the first
principle, this would give us zero.
The gradient of any constant is equal to zero and the

derivative of a constant is zero;
Given , then
Also that when given the gradient is and hence the
From the Activity 1, you should have observed that the

derivatives of x, x2, x3 and x4, were 1, 2x, 3x2, and 4x3
respectively.
when given where is rational, then
When , the index of the variable being differentiated

should reduce by 1 and the base to be multiplied by the index
before being reduced.
This can be extended to any polynomial
as it’s simply a sum of several such
terms.
Example 3.5
1. Find the derivative of y with respect to
dy
 5  (4) x 4 1  3  2 x 2 1  6  x 11  0
dx
dy
 20 x 3  6 x  6
dx
23
2. Find the coordinates of the point where the function

y  x 3  2 x 2  x has a gradient of 0.
dy
 3x 2  4 x  1
dx
and we let
the formed equation can be solved using any method you

are comfortable with as covered in the earlier modules.
solving by factorisation we get
3x 2  3x  x  1  0
3x( x  1)  1( x  1)  0
x  1  0 or 3x  1  0
this gives us
to get corresponding values of y, we substitute in

the equation y  x  2 x  x
3 2
getting coordinates .
Activity 3.5
1. Find for the following

1
a) y  x b) y  7 x  2 x  3 c) y  1  x
5 5 2
1
y  x 4
d) 2 x
2. Determine the value of x at which the function
has a gradient of zero.
3. Differentiate the following with respect to x
a) x(2  5 x) b) x (2  5 x) d) 2 x(2  5 x)
2 2
c) ( x  2)( x  3)
From the activity above in question 3, you may have realized that
in order for you to find the derivatives the terms should have
been expanded first. Now this may not easily be done if the
24
powers were higher than the ones we dealt with and as well as
rational ones. It is with this reason that we will deal ways of
handling such.
3.2.6 Rules of differentiation

In some cases you will be required to find derivatives of products
of functions as well as quotients of functions.
Recall from module 2 how we dealt with composite functions. We
were able to deal with functions within given function (somehow).
Let us see how to handle such cases.
Function of a function
Would you think of how to differentiate a function like .
The immediate approach probably you thought of is first
expanding as you did in binomial expansions and followed by
differentiating the expression.
Of course you are right.
The trouble is for instance when given a power say 20. This is the
whole reason of looking at a simpler approach.
Suppose we want to differentiate the function
We would want to make it simpler by letting
Which means that now is now the function of u, hence creating

another function in terms of u.
Let us now find the derivatives of and
the two functions in terms of the variable ( )
This lead us to and
we can arrange the expression as
This would result to
you may now check the question.

In what variable is the solution expected to be?
25
Since implies that we need to derivative of y with respect to x,

we therefore expect to get back to the initial form.
hence having our solution
Generally when we have a function of u, and u is a function of x,

then
if , then
Example
if then
let us now look at a case when given a product of functions.

Product Rule (a product of two functions in the same
variable)
Suppose you have a product of two functions in the same variable,
Using the first principle of differentiation,
Getting the limit as h approaches zero,
26
If where u and v are functions in x,

Then
Where are derivatives of the
functions.
Example 3.6
1. Differentiate
Then letting u and v be
respectively and .
Then
That can be simplified as
2. Given that , you can equally show that
When given a quotient, what do we do?

Quotient Rule
In a similar way we can derive the formula for differentiating the
quotient of functions
If where u and v are functions of the same variable

say x, then
or using notation
27
Example 3.7
Differentiate with respect to x.
Using ,
Then
You may now attempt the questions after looking at the rules
above.
Activity 3.6
1. Differentiate the following w. r.t. x using any appropriate
method;
a) 5x2( 2x3-1)-2
b)
c) (2x3 –8)-2(3-2x )-4
2. Find the derivatives of the following; w.r.t. x
a) b)
c) ,
Hence determine the gradient of (2c) at the point where

x=1
The Second differential coefficient.

If y is a function of x, is also a function of x ( or a
constant). Hence we can differentiate with respect to x.
this gives us the second differential coefficient
28
which is written as (read dee two y dee x two). The

2’s are not squares but symbolise differentiating twice. The
square of , for instance, is written as
is sometimes written as where y = f(x
When you have repeated differentiation, say twice, you can write this as
Say
and
This can even be generalised for higher derivatives such as
In order to help you consolidate the concept, would you work out
this question.
Activity 3.7 (Self marked.
Find and , for the equation , given that
3.2.7 Implicit differentiation of Functions

What do you think is the difference between an explicit and
implicit function?
When an expression can be written in the form y = f(x), such
that
y = x3 – 2x + 3,
y is said to be an explicit function of x.
29
But when an expression can not easily be expressed one

variable of the other is said to be an implicit function.
such as,
y 3 + x2 = x + y 2
Cannot be written in the form y = f(x).
y is Implicit Function of x and y or y can be an implicit
function of x
It is now necessary to differentiate an implicit function of y,
with respect to x; that is, to find
Let us consider and use the first principle to

determine the derivative.
Using the small increments in x and y
can be written as
Using the binomial expansion we get
Rearranging the terms
notice that the first set of the expression is equal to zero.
Since we are interested in finding , we will let the
increments approach zero and
The terms in the expression will now approach zero and
Finally we have
And we can as well rearrange it to have
30
Therefore
Can you notice what has happened to the terms in the in

from
The terms have been differentiated with respect to x and

terms with y the chain rule has been applied.
Where like the first term
To find from an implicit equation, differentiate each

term with respect to x using the chain rule;
for any function then
Example 3.8
1. Differentiate wrt. x: 2y3 + x2 = x + y2
, collecting like terms
31
2. Determine the gradient of at (1,1)

First task is to for you to establish
The gradient is
Can you now attempt working out the following:
ACTIVITY 3.8
1. Differentiate the following implicit functions, w.r.t x.
a) y2 + y3 = 4x3 b) 3y4 +2 =
c) xy =10
2. Find
a) y3+ 3xy –x3 = 3

b) 5x2 +5y2 -6xy=13, hence determine its gradient at (1,2)
c) x2 + y3 =12, hence write down the equation of the
tangent at (2,2)
3. The point (2, 1) lies on the curve Ax2 + By2 = 11 where A and B
are constants. If the gradient of the curve at that point is
6, find the value of A and B.
let us now shift our attention some features that the functions
display when plotted on graphs.
32
3.3 Stationary points

3.3.1 Definition
Would you consider the orientation of the curve and the tangents
in figure 3.
At What points do you think the curve changes its orientation?
Figure 3.3 Stationary points

What could be the values for the gradients at the identified
points?
Recall that the derivative f’(x) of a function f(x) expresses the rate
at which f(x) changes with respect to x:
Observe the following;
If f’(x) > 0 then f(x) is increasing as x increases
If f’(x) < 0 then f(x) is decreasing as x increases
If there is a point where f’(x) = 0, then f(x) is momentarily neither
increasing nor decreasing: f(x) is said to have a stationary value.
Can you examine figure 4 below;
33
Figure 3.4 Location of stationary points

From figure 4, A ,B and C shows the stationary points and the
gradients are zero as the tangents at the points are parallel to x-
axis. [the tangent to the curve at these points is horizontal or
parallel to the x-axis].
What is happening to the gradients between stationary points?
Note that between the stationary points the gradients are either
increasing or decreasing in value.
How can you distinguish the stationary points?
3.3.2 Nature of stationary points
When a function is increasing, what do you expect the value of the

gradient to be? Also what is your observation when the function is
decreasing?
Functions with a positive gradient throughout is said to be an
increasing function and also a decreasing function if the gradient
is through out negative. Figure 5 below shows this picture.
34
Figure 3.5 Decreasing functions
Can we now explore further the graph in figure 4.

When moving from the left through A, what do you think will be
gradient changes?
You should have noted that as through A from left to right, the
gradient changes from positive [increasing], to zero at A, and then
becomes negative [decreasing]
At A there is a turning point. The value of y at A is called a
maximum value and A is called a maximum point.
Moving through B from left to right, the gradient changes from

negative, to zero at B, and then becomes positive. At B there is a
turning point. The value of y at B is called a minimum value and A
is called a minimum point.
The terms “maximum” and “minimum” apply only in the vicinity of

a stationary point, not to the curve overall: we may call the point a
local maximum or a local minimum.
Near C the gradient goes from positive, to zero at C, to positive

again. At C, the rate of change with respect to x of the gradient
itself has changed sign: to the left of C, the gradient gets smaller
and smaller (less positive) [so the rate of change of the gradient is
negative] whereas to the right of C, the gradient gets bigger (more
positive) [so the rate of change of the gradient is positive]. Points
of inflexion
35
A point where the sign of the rate of change with respect to x of

the gradient itself does not changes is called a point of inflexion.
The point C is a special type of point of inflexion that has a

horizontal tangent so that it is also a stationary point. Not all
points of inflexion have zero gradients. For example there are non-
stationary points of inflexion at D and E. Between A and D, the
gradient is negative and getting more negative, whereas between
D and B the gradient, although still negative, is getting less
negative.
The tangent is not necessarily horizontal at a point of

inflexion.
Distinguishing the nature of stationary points

How can you tell if the stationary point is a maximum, minimum or
point of inflexion?
Using the value of the function

From the figure 4, observe the following:
Just to the left, and just to the right, of A the value of y is
less than it is exactly at A.
Just to the left, and just to the right, of B the value of y is
greater than it is exactly at B.
Just to the left of C, the value of y is less than it is exactly at
C, but just to the right of C, the value of y is greater than it
is exactly at C.
This leads to the following rules for the values of y on each side of
the stationary point as compared to y exactly at the stationary
point:
36
both smaller both larger 1 larger, 1

smaller
local maximum local minimum point of

inflexion
Table 1
This only works if the points chosen for comparison are sufficiently
close to the stationary point.
Apart from the value of the function we can as well make use of
the gradient.
The first derivative test

It is now a known fact that at a stationary point, the gradient is
zero
As we pass through a stationary point, the sign of the gradient

may change.
Just to the left of A the gradient is positive and just to the right of
A the gradient is negative. [Check figure 4]
Just to the left of B the gradient is negative and just to the right of
B the gradient is positive.
Just to the left, and just to the right, of C the gradient is positive.
This leads to the following rules for the sign of the gradient on
each side of the stationary point:
37
local local point of inflexion

maximum minimum
+ 0 - - 0 + + 0 + or - 0 -
sign of
graphically:
Figure 3.6 Use of derivatives
Figure 3.7 Quality of Derivative
Let us now look at how we can use the above methods of

identification
Example 3.9
1. Find the stationary points on the curve and state
their nature
(i.e. whether they are maxima , minima or points of
inflexion).
At stationary points,
38
4x + 12x2 = 0 at stationary points
Solving the equation 4x (1 + 3x) = 0
Either 4x = 0 or 3x = -1
Therefore
To find the coordinates for stationary points we will use

the values of in the original equation.
Starting with
Can you show that the corresponding value will be zero.
When .
the stationary points are at and
let us now use the gradient with reference to the stationary

points.
Using the gradient function and
Picking points just before and after
When x = -0.0001,
When x = 0,
When x = 0.0001,
So the gradient goes progresses from -ve to zero and to +ve,

Can you check from figure 7
You can conclude that the point is a minimum point.
a similar approach can be used for
39
When x = -0.3334,
When x = -0.3333...,
When x = -0.3332,
Using figure 7 we can conclude that the is a maximum

point.
Now let us look at another method of testing the nature of

the stationary points.
The second derivative test
Recall that
As we pass through a stationary point we can also examine the

sign of the rate of change of the gradient with respect to x: the
second derivative.
The test states that:
If and then there is a local maximum.
If and then there is a local minimum.
If and then this test fails
If the second derivative is zero, the test fails because, while

a point of inflexion always has zero second derivatives, it is
also possible for a turning point to have zero second
derivatives.
Let us look at some examples.

Example 3.10
40
1. Find the nature of the stationary points of the function
Solution
We first establish the stationary points
Figure 3.8 Cubic equation

The stationary points are where f’(x) = 0.
The stationary points are located at .
Can we establish the second derivative.
The second derivative at x=+1 is positive so this is a local

minimum.
41
The second derivative at x = -1 is negative so this is a local

maximum.
Can you now attempt the following questions.
Activity 3.9
1. Find and determine the nature of the stationary points if
they exist;
a) b)
c) d)
2. Sketch the following after finding the stationary points;

a) b) c)
Apart from the algebraic questions, you will be able to solve
questions that involve practical situations. Let us look at such
questions.
3.3.3 Solving Practical Problems

This method of finding maxima and minima is very useful and can
be used to find the maximum and minimum values of all sorts of
things.
Example 3.11
1. Find the least area of metal required to make a closed
cylindrical container from thin sheet metal in order that it
might have a capacity of 2000 π cm3.
The total surface area of the cylinder, S, is 2 π r2 + 2 π rh
The volume = π r2h = 2000 π
Therefore π r2h = 2000 π.
Therefore
42
Therefore S = 2πr2 + 2πr
S= 4000π + 2πr2
r
So we have an expression for the surface area.
To find when the surface area is a minimum, we need to
Find
(π)
When , then
(π) = 0
Solving the r we able to get
r = 10
You should then check if this is indeed a minimum using

the technique above.
So the minimum area occurs when r = 10. This minimum

Area is found by substituting into the equation for the area
the value of r = 10.
S = 2 π r2 + 2 π rh
S = 600π
Therefore the minimum amount of metal required is
600π cm2.
2. A farmer wants to put up a fence of length 80m against an
existing structure. He intends to form a rectangular shaped fence
( 3 sides) with the other fourth side against an existing fence.
What is the maximum area that he can enclose?
43
Solution:
Sketching the diagram
Let’s call the length of the long side L and the length of each of the
other two sides w so that L + 2w = 80 metres. The area is A = wL.
In general, the area will change as both L and w change.
However, L and w are not independent because of the constraint
L + 2w = 80m, so there is only one independent variable, say L.

We can use this constraint L + 2w = 80 metres to express the area
A in terms of the length L of one side only:
Now the area is expressed in terms of one independent variable L.
We must determine the maximum area.
44
We need to find the maximum value of
The maximum value occurs at the turning point:
Figure 9 Vertical axis (Area)

and Horizontal axis (L)
By setting the first derivative to zero we see that the maximum

area occurs where L = 40 metres.
We substitute this back into the expression for the width
L + 2w = 80 metres to find w
45
And
We can now use the expression for area.
So maximum area is 800m2 and dimensions are 40m by 20m.
Would you now work out the following questions.
Activity 3.10
1. Two numbers x and y are connected by the relation x + y =
6. Find the values of x and y which are a stationary point
of the function T = 2x2 + 3y2 and determine whether they
make T a maximum or minimum. Hint: express T in one
variable
2. A rectangular box, with a lid, is made from thin metal. Its

length is 2x cm and its width is x cm. if the box must have a
volume of 72cm3,
a) show that the area A cm2 of metal used is given by
b) find the value of x so that A is a minimum

let us also look at another feature of functions when plotted .
3.4 Asymptotes of functions

I would like us to explore some special types of functions that
when plotted on graphs display a unique feature.
Consider the curve
Can we analyse the orientation of the graph if plotted using the

values in the table
46
X -1000 -1 -0.01 0 1 1000 10000

Y -0.001 -1 -200 1 0.001 0.0001
Figure 3.10 Table of values
Figure 3.11 Graph for y=1/x
From the graph you can observe that as the values of x increase,
the values of keep reducing as close to zero. Also when the x
values keep reducing the values of y keep increasing up to infinity.
The common part is that the graph does not intersect the vertical
and horizontal axes for the graph. [ x =0 and y = 0]
These lines that the graph will not intersect whatever values you
use are referred to as Asymptotes.
As you would have noticed the two lines are horizontal and
vertical, hence the types of asymptotes.
Horizontal asymptote: The line y = y0 is a "horizontal asymptote"

of f(x) if and only if f(x) approaches y0 as x approaches + or - .
Definition of a vertical asymptote: The line x = x0 is a "vertical

asymptote" of f(x) if and only if f(x) approaches + or - as x
approaches x0 from the left or from the right.
In some cases we would still have asymptotes that are neither

vertical nor horizontal.
47
Slant asymptote: The line y = ax + b is a "slant asymptote" of f(x) if

and only if
Figure 3.12 Slant asymptote
The equations for the asymptotes can be identified using the concept of a
limit.
Example 3.12
Determine the equation of asymptotes
a)
Solution
And this is the axis where line does not

intersect.
b)
48
The equations of the asymptote are y = 2 and x = 2
Activity 3.11
Determine the equation of asymptotes
a)
b)
c)
3.5 CURVE SKETCHING

To sketch the curve of a polynomial function, we need the following;
(i) Find the points where the curve crosses the axes especially where it
crosses the y-axis;
(ii) Determine the behaviour of the value of the function for large of x as
well as for small value of x (x
(iii) Locate all stationary points where = 0 and determine the
Maxima and the minima.
(iv) Locate all points of inflexion that is where
(v) If necessary plot a few additional values.

Example 3.13
Sketch the curve of the function 2
Solution
(i) When , y=0 thus the graph crosses the y-axis at y=2.
49
If f(x) =0 or y=0
The function crosses the x-axis at irrational roots.

(ii) When x is large and positive –y is also large and positive.
When x is large and negative –y is also large and negative.
(iii) Stationary points where =0
That is = 0
Therefore the critical value are either x= 2 or x=-1
When x= -1 then
When x= 2 then
Hence the critical points are
We need to determine the nature of these critical or stationary points by
using second differentiation that is
, thus is a
maximum point.
, thus is a
50
minimum point.
(iv) Now we can find the point of inflexion that is where
When then
Hence the critical points are .
We can now sketch the curve
-1 2 x
51
Activity 3.12
be a function
(i) Determine the intervals where the function is increasing
and where it is decreasing,
(ii) Use the second derivative test to determine and classify
the extreme points of the function.
(iii) Hence sketch the graph of the function.
3.6 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
3.6.1 Important limit of
To find the differential coefficient of sinx, it is necessary to know the
limit of the
Fraction as x tends to zero. We shall assume that x is measured
in radians, that OAB is a sector of a circle of radius r whose angle
x radians and that the tangent at A to the circle meets OB produced
at N
r B r.tanx
O x A
52
Then from the figure: area of
area of
but
Or
But as
3.6.2 The differential coefficient of y = sinx
Let x have a small increment , consequently y has a small

increment
Therefore the function y = sinx becomes .

Using notion of gradient
53
As and
That is
3.6.3 The differential coefficient of y = cosx
Using a similar notation, the gradient of the chord joining the points
(x, cosx) and [x+ , cos(x + )] on the curve y = cosx
54
( )
Examples 3.14
1. Differentiate wrt x
a)
Solution
;` =
by letting u = ax + b and differentiating u wrt x and also

differentiating y wrt u
we have and becomes so
that
And now
b)
Solution
by letting u = ax + b and differentiating u wrt x and also

differentiating y wrt u
55
we have and becomes so
that
And now
c)
Solution
For we use the product rule. By letting u = x2 and v =

cosx
Product rule states
=2xcosx – x2sinx
ACTIVITY 3.13
1. In each of the following find
a)
b)
c)
d)
56
e)
f)
2. If find the value of when
3. Given where A and B are constants,
show that + 4y = 0. if also y = 3 when and that
= 4, when x = 0, find the value of A and of B.
3.7 The exponential coefficient of the exponential
function
The function y = is called an exponential function. To

differentiate this function we
let u be f(x) so that y = is now written as . Now differentiate

u with respect
to x and y with respect to u.
Examples 3.15
1. differentiate wrt to x
a)
Solution
57
let u = ax + b ; and
so that
Now
b) y = ;
Solution
This is composite, you will break the function in this manner:
let and Using quotient rule
where and
ACTIVITY 3.13
1. Differentiate the following with respect to x
a) , b) , c)
2. Find the coordinates of the point where the curves

and meet and the gradient of each curve at that point.
58
3. Given that find the values of x for which y is a

stationary point.
4. If show that and hence find
5. Find the gradient of the curve where x = 0.
3.8 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions y = ln x
Simple logarithm function
Transforming into the equivalent indicial equation gives

. y is now an implicit function of x. Differentiating with
respect to x
Substituting
3.8.1 Logarithm of a composite function
The general rule used to differentiate a composite function ln f(x)
. Suppose that . By substitution; let u = f(x)
so that y = ln u
59
Example 3.16
If the logarithm function contains a compound function such as

, differentiate y wrt x.
Solution
The function can be differentiated as a function of a function, ie
Therefore in the above function:
Example 3.17
Given that . Find .
Solution
Let then hence
and .
By Chain Rule
60
i.e
, since
Activity 3.14
1. Differentiate the following with respect to the appropriate

variable
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
2. Differentiate wrt x
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
61
3. Differentiate . Hence find the gradient of the

curve y = where
4. Differentiate . Hence show that
Unit 3 summary
In this unit you learnt:
How to evaluate limits , basic rules of differentiation and
differentiation of polynomial functions. The application of the
the concept of differentiation in establishing gradients of
curves and determining stationary points. You also looked how
to identify equations of asymptotes.
62
Assignment
One assignment will be given and to be submitted at an appropriate time
at the DRC.
Assessment
Here are a few general questions to review some concepts.
1. Find the gradient for the equation at the point
(-1, 2).
2. Differentiate with respect to x
3. Sketch the graph , showing all stationary points

4. The running costs C of a long distance train in millions of kwacha is
given in terms of it’s a average speed for a journey by an
equation . Find the value of that makes C have its
minimum value.
5. Determine the equation of the asymptote for
Unit 3 Solutions to Activities

Activity 3.2
1. i) 5 ii) 1 iii) 7
2. a) b) None c) -1 d) 1 e) 1
Activity 3.3
63
Not
Activity 3.4
1. a) b) 1 c) d)
2. a) 8 b) 10 c) 13.5
Activity 3.5
1. a) b) c) d)
2. 1
3. a) b) c)
d)
Activity 3.6
1. a)
b)
c)
2. a)
b)
c)
Activity 3.8
1. a)
b)
c)
64
2. a)
b) c) 12y + 4x = 32
3. A =3 , B = -1.
Activity 3.9
1. a) ( 0,-3) Min
b) ( 2, -15) min, (-2,17) Max
c) (0,0) max (1, -1) min min
d) ( 1,2) min (-1,-2) max

Activity 3.10
1) ( 3.6, 2.4) Min
2) X=3
Activity 3.11
a) y = 1
b) y = 2
c) y = 1
END OF UNIT 3
65
66 Unit 4 Elementary Integration
Unit 4
Elementary Integration
4.0 Introduction
Having looked at the differential calculus, we shall look at the
reversing these changes, Integration.
During and upon completing this unit you will be able to:
i. Understand the process of reversing derivatives.

ii. Find indefinite integrals of algebraic expressions
iii. Use basic methods of integration
Outcomes
iv. Apply integration in evaluating areas under curves.
4.1 Integral Calculus

4.1.1 Definition of Integration
We have so far looked at different ways of differentiating various

types of functions. Now we want to find a way of reversing these
derivatives.
For example
What function was differentiated?
Possible solutions would be or or even
As you may have noticed that several derivatives would give us the
same solutions. How would you know the exact function?
Among several questions this is one of the cases that we shall

explore in this unit.
66
This process of arriving at a function that was originally

differentiated is what referred to as Integration and an integral or
an Anti-derivative is the function that has resulted from the
process.
4.1.2 Indefinite Integral

Can you explore the integral for
There are several possible solutions that would result from the
derivative such as or or even .
Now how would take care of all these possible solutions?
In order to take care of this we assign an arbitrary constant as you

can see that all possible values are constants.
Since we are not sure of the value of the constant, it’s the
whole reason we call this an indefinite integral
The indefinite integral of is
To avoid using sentences some notation has been adopted where
We use the notation
, read as the ‘integral of f(x) with respect to x’.
‘integral of 2x with respect to x’
4.1.3 Techniques of Integration

General Integration Rules
67
Consider these examples on differentiation
and
From the derivatives above, we can observe that the functions

should have had , respectively as one of the terms.
which means that to reverse the process we need to increase the

power of the variable of integration by 1 and dividing by the
resultant to get rid of the constant as a result of the
differentiation.
For example, to get to , we have
Now note that even if the coefficient is not there, we still assume
it was there.
Recall that since we do not know the constant we simply add it to

the solutions.
dx = , where K is a constant and

.
cases where n = -1 will be explained at a later moment as when n
= -1 we .
This formula should work for any polynomial
Let us consider the function , where n is an integer

greater than or equal to 0.
68
For n = 0, what do you expect to be?

The result could be so obvious that we simply write it down: f(x) =
1, the integral can be found by
This would also apply to cases where a constant has been given.
as x0 =1,
Generally it means that , where T is a

constant or not the subject of integration.
if the subject of integration is different what ever is not in terms of
that variable, is treated as a constant.
Integration of a sum or difference of functions

Just like we looked at the differentiation of a sum or difference of
functions, the distributive law also applies for integration.
Example
Find the
Activity 1
Integrate the following with respect to x
a) b) c) d) e)
f) g) h)
69
Many integrals may not easy to perform at first hand. One smart
idea consists of “cleaning'' them through an algebraic substitution
which transforms the given integrals into easier ones.
Integration by Substitution (change of variable)

Let us look at these examples:
1. Find ,
It is clear that once we expand through the

binomial formula, we will get a polynomial function easy
enough to integrate.
But due to time and possibility of errors, we introduce a

shorter approach.
Letting and its derivative ,
Then
Which does not complete the answer since the indefinite

integral is a function of x not of u.
Therefore, we have to go back and replace u by U(x).
Giving us
2. Find
Let us consider the substitution
du = 2x dx and , therefore
We may check that the new integral is easier to handle since
Hence
70
3. Find using the correct substitution of
so that since x = u -
1 and du = dx
and simplifying we get
Reverting to x, we have
Generally
Would you now attempt the following.
Activity 2
Integrate the following using substitution method
a) integrate the following using the suggested substitution
71
i) ii)
iii) iv)
b) integrate using an appropriate substitution:
i) ii) iii)
iv)
C) i) ii)
Before looking at further techniques, let us complete a special

case that we had shelved.
Integration of
We have discussed ant-derivatives for powers of x, if
dx = , where K is a constant and

If then
.
We now deal with the exceptional case where n = -1. The formula
above for powers of x fails when n = -1 because there is a zero in
the denominator.
I believe you have realised that this function can still have
functions that would lead to this derivative.
We are looking for a function that will satisfy the requirement
72
Take note that when , then
It should follow from above that
For the
Recall also that for is not defined if x is less

than one, therefore we restrict x by letting it take absolute
values. That is
Examples
1. Find
By inspection you should notice that the expression can be
seen to be of the form and it can also be seen
that the numerator is the derivative of the denominator.
Which follows that if we let ,
then
which gives us
2. Find
Similarly, we let but as you can see that we do

not have an exact expression, so we manipulate the expression to
suit what we expect.
73
Getting
Let us as well extend the idea to some fractions that may not fall
within the cases discussed above, where before integrating, there
is need to make the fractions simple by expressing them into
partial fractions.(Review the techniques before proceeding)
3. Integrate
Expressing into partial fractions
Simplifying and letting x = -2 , we get

A = 1 and also when x = -1, we get B = -1
This simplifies to
Giving us
Activity 3
Find the integrals of the following with respect to x:
a) b) c) d)
e)
k) l) m)
n) p)
Let us now explore another technique that involves the

application of the product rule of differentiation.
74
Integration by parts
Recall
If where u and v are functions in x,
Then
Where are derivatives of the
functions.
If u and v are functions of x, in short we would write
Rearranging, we have:
Integrating throughout,
with respect to x,
We obtain the formula for
This is what is called the integration by parts.

This formula allows us to turn a complicated integral into more
simple ones.
We must make sure we choose u and dv carefully.
Function u is chosen so that is simpler than u.
Examples
1. Find ,using integration by parts technique.

We would either let u = x or .
75
Once again, we choose the one that allows to be of a simpler

form than u, so we choose
Therefore
Substituting into the integration by parts formula, we get:
3. Determine , using integration by parts

technique.
We could let u = x2 or .
Considering the priorities given above,
we choose u = ln 4x and so we must let dv = x2 dx.
and
Substituting, we get:
76
Attempt the following questions
Activity 4
1. Using Integration by parts technique, integrate the following;
a) b) c)
d) e)
f)
2. Using integration by parts, integrate the following;
a) b)
c) d)
e)
solution
2 a) b) c) d) e) d)
4.2 Definite Integrals

4.2.1 Area Under a curve
Consider the shaded area in Figure 13 and the boundaries; we
would like to estimate its size.
How would you estimate its area?
77
Figure 13
One possible way is to create as many rectangular strips as

possible and add up the areas as shown in figure 14
Figure 14
Can we now analyse the area of such a strip and let its dimensions
be shown as in figure 15.
78
Figure 15
The change in area as a result of small changes in y and x be

Then its area will be
Taking the changes with respect to
As
or we can get the Area (A) by integration, to have
Note that A is a function in x and at say x = a, the value would be

A(a) and where the constant of integration
is include and this would give some area from a certain point say K
Area from x = K to x = a
Area from x = K to x = b
Therefore the area from a to b would be found by
A=
Which is the same as writing
79
In order to indicate that this area start from a to b we use the

notation
Where a I called the Lower limit and b the Upper limit
The integral for defining the area is also referred to as a

Definite Integral as we are able to get the value of the
constant.
As the area can be defined by a function, the integral can even be
evaluated and extended to any function as long as the limit is
indicated.
Let us explore some examples
1.
This can be integrated just as before
Taking care of
2. Given the function , find the area between x = 2 and x

= 5.
unit2
3. Find the area between and the x-axis between

the values x = –1 and x = 2.
Sketching the graph, we have
Figure 16
80
we need to evaluate the integral in the region

specified.
4. Determine the area bounded by x = -1 and x = 1 and the x-

axis for
Area =
From the sketch
Figure 17
You can realize that the area is visible and it cannot be

zero. what do you think is the cause of the zero?
When the curve is above the ‘x’ axis, the area is the same
as the area and is positive.
81
Figure 18
But when the graph line is below the ‘x’ axis, the area is negative.
The area is then given by:
Figure 19
Sometimes parts of the graphs may be both above and below

the axis, so there is need to take care of such. Consider the case
below figure
5. Find the area between the graph of: and the

‘x’ axis, from x = -2 to x = 3. The diagram below
shows the area .
82
Figure 20
In this case there are limits are at x = -2, -1, and x = 2, and the
three separate areas to be found are A1, A2 and A3:
We need to calculate three separate integrals as follows:
So the total shaded area would be found by adding all sections

A = A1 + A2 + A3
There are also cases where the areas in question are enclosed by
different graphs. The following examples illustrate this.
6. Find the area between from x = 1 to x = 2.
First we can sketch the graphs on the same axis.
83
Figure 21
Attempt the following :

Activity
1. Evaluate the following:
a) b) c) d)
e) f) g) h)
i) j) k)
2. Find areas enclosed by the x-axis and the following curves and straight lines.
a) , b)
c) d)
3. Find the area enclosed by function and the lines stated.

a) x and y – axes and the line x= 3
b) x =1, x= 4 and the x-axis
c) The x-axis and the curve
e) The y-axis and the
84
4. Sketch
the
following graphs of regions bounded by the curve and the axis, and
Hence, find the area of the enclosed regions.
i) ii)
Activity
1. The areas enclosed between curves:

i) ii)
iii) iv)
2. .Given an equation ,
i) Draw a sketch diagram showing the area between,
and the line x=1.
ii) Find the area enclosed by , the line x=1 and the x and y – axes.
85
Unit summary
In this unit you learnt
I. The process of reversing derivatives .
II. Integration of algebraic expressions
III. The use of basic methods of integration
IV. Application of integration in evaluating areas under curves.
Assignment
One assignment will be given and to be submitted at an appropriate time
at the DRC.
Assessment
One 3 hour test will taken during a residential school while at college.
86

Mat 110 Module 3 (B) Introduction To Calculus (Review 2013)

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Mat 110 Module 3 (B) Introduction To Calculus (Review 2013)

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MAT 110 - FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS

Sir Isaac Newton

Mr. Banda P.P. Lecturer [H.O.S]

Mr. Kangwa E. Lecturer [H.O.D]

Mr. Mwewa Lecturer.

Getting around this module 7

About this Module

How this module is structured

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

Welcome to module 3- MAT 110

Is this for you?

 Use concept of a limit, continuity and discontinuity.

Assessments A two hour test will be administered at the university college

Getting around this module

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Introductory Differential Calculus

3.1 Limits of Functions

x 1 1.99 1.999 1.999999 2.0 2.00001 2.001 2.01

If you did the correct computations you should have found

What is your observation over the range and the domain?

Figure 3.1 Limit of a function

Thus it is seen that, as x approaches the value of 2, from above or

Symbolically this can be written as,

Read as, ‘the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 9’.

The limit of the function f(x) is L as x approaches a provided we

Let us look at examples of how to establish the limits of functions

By the definition, we test the behaviour of the limit when as

Activity 3.1 [Self marked]

There as well some cases that would not easily allow us to

What would you say about the limits at the points in

In the first limit if we plugged in x =4 we would get and

Both of these are called indeterminate forms. In order for

Also note that , which means that each time we get

Since and the left and right

hand limits are not the same , therefore does

3.1.3 Properties of Limits

lim kf ( x)  k lim f ( x)  kL for any cons tan t k

lim[ f ( x).g ( x)]  [ lim f ( x)][ lim g ( x)]  LM

lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x)  n L where L  0

Using the properties above, work out the following activity

2. Evaluate the following limits if they exist;

3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of fu-*nctions

A function is said to be continuous at a point where x = a if

If a is a limit then is continuous at a if and only if

Let us consider the following illustration

We need to test the conditions that would qualify a function to be

Since the limits are not the same, hence not

Determine whether the functions are continous or not.

Having successfully covered the concept of limit, let us now look

3.2 Derivative of a function

3.2.2 Rate of change

Since distance is given as a function of height in the

Since distance is given as a function of height in the

Similar approach gives us

What do you think is the best solution to of the speed

A general approach can be used to find the best estimate

To establish the average speed using the height function,

Assuming we have the interval from to,

This gives a general expression that can be used for