Re-Previous Q&a

RADAR ENGINEERING-QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Unit-I
Basics of Radar: Introduction, Maximum Unambiguous Range, simple Radar range Equation,
Radar Block Diagram and Operation, Radar Frequencies and Applications. Prediction of Range
Performance, Minimum Detectable Signal, Receiver Noise, Illustrative Problems
Radar Equation : Modified Radar Range Equation, SNR, probability of detection, probability
of False Alarm, Integration of Radar Pulses, Radar Cross Section of Targets (simple targets -
sphere, cone-sphere), Creeping Wave, Transmitter Power, PRF and Range Ambiguities, System
Losses (qualitative treatment), Illustrative Problems.
Topic Name: Introduction to Radar

1. Define RADAR?What are the advantages and disadvantages of
RADAR?
Ans:
Definition: The name RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging .Radar is an object-
detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle or velocity of objects. It
operates by transmitting a particular type of waveform, a pulse-modulated sine wave for
example, and detects the nature of the echo signal.
or
RADAR is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as
aircrafts, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, people and natural environment
ADVANTAGES OF RADAR
1. RADAR acts as a powerful electronic eye.
2. It can see through: fog, rain, snow, darkness, haze, clouds and any insulators.
3. It can find out(determine) the location, range, angular position, and velocity of targets.
DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
1. RADARs can not resolve the targets in detail at short distances like human eye.
2. It is difficult to identify short range objects.
3. RADARs cannot recognize the colour of the targets.
4. . RADARs can not identify internal aspects of the target.

5. It can not see targets placed behind the conducting sheets.
6. It can not see targets hidden in water at long ranges.
2. Describe the functions performed by the radar

ANS:
• The function of radar is to detect and locate targets and to report information about them.
• RADAR is a method of using EM waves to remote-sense the position , velocity, and
identifying characteristics of targets.
3. Classify the radars based on frequency.

ANS:
Frequency based radar types
Following are the radar types based on frequency bands:
• HF Band Radars
• VHF and UHF band radars
• L-Band Radars
• S-Band Radars
• C-Band Radars
• X-Band Radars
• Ku,K,Ka Band Radars
• Infrared, Visible light band radars
4. Explain the differences between human eye and radar system.

ANS
Human eye uses live cells for the detection and location of objects Radar uses EM waves for
the detection and location of objects Human eye sees the object in 3 dimensions. The radar is
able to detect objects in three dimensions, while the LIDAR(Light Detection and Ranging)
can only detect in two dimensions.
Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects. It operates by
transmitting a particular type of waveform, a pulse-modulated sine wave for example, and
detects the nature of the echo signal. Radar is used to extend the capability of one's senses for
observing the environment, especially the sense of vision. The value of radar lies not in being
a substitute f r the eye, but in doing what the eye cannot do-Radar cannot resolve detail as
well as the eye, nor is it capable of recognizing the "color" of objects to the degree of
sophistication of which the eye is capable. However, radar can be designed to see through
those conditions irnpervioris to normal human vision, such as darkness, haze, fog, rain, and
snow. In addition, radar has the advantage of being able to measure the distance or range to
the object. This is probably its most important attribute.
.
5. Define Radar and list out the types of Radar?
ANS:
The name RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging .Radar is an object-detection
system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle or velocity of objects
6. Describe the brief history of Radar Communications

ANS:
HISTORY OF RADAR
1. The story of RADAR starts with the discovery of radio waves.
2. In 1864 the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed a series of equations that
predicted there existed electromagnetic waves, and that light was an example of such a
wave.
3. The basic concept of radar was first demonstrated by the classical experiments conducted
by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz from 1885 to 1888.
4. Hertz experimentally verified the predictions of James Clerk Maxwell‟s theory of the
electromagnetic field published in 1864.
5. Hertz used an apparatus that was similar in principle to pulse radar at frequencies in the
vicinity of 455 MHz. Hertz demonstrated that radio waves behaved the same as light
except for the considerable difference in frequency between the two.( Heinrich Hertz, in
1886, experimentally tested the theories of Maxwell and demonstrated the similarity
between radio and light waves.). Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected by
metallic objects and refracted by a dielectric medium, just as light waves can.
6. The potential of Hertz‟s work for the detection and location of reflecting objects was
advanced by another German, Christian Hulsmeyer. In the early 1900s he assembled an
instrument that would today be known as a monostatic (single site) pulse radar.It was
much improved over the apparatus used by hertz. In 1904 he obtained a patent in England
and other countries.
7. Radar was first patented and demonstrated in 1904 by the German engineer Christian
Hulsmeyer. Hulsmeyer‟s radar detected ships, and he exclusively marked it for
preventing collisions at sea. His methods were demonstrated before the German Navy,
but generated little interest. The state of technology at that time was not sufficiently
adequate to obtain ranges of more than about a mile, and his detection technique was
dismissed on the grounds that it was little better than a visual observer.
8. Marconi, the well-known pioneer of wireless radio, observed the radio detection of
targets in his experiments and strongly urged its use in a speech delivered in 1922 before
the Institute of Radio Engineers(now the IEEE).
9. Apparently unaware of Marconi‟s speech, A.H.Taylor and L.C Young of the U.S Naval
Research laboratory in Washington D.C, accidently observed , in the autumn of 1922, a
fluctuating signal at their receiver when a ship passed between thev receiver and
transmitter located on opposite sides of a river.This was called a CW wave-interference
system, but today it is known as bistatic CW radar.(Bistatic means the radar requires two
widely separated sites for the transmitter and receiver).
10. In 1925, the pulse radar technique was used by Breit and Tuve of Carnegie Institution in
washington D.C to measure the height of the ionosphere
11. The first detection of aircraft using the wave-interference effect was made in June, 1930,
by A. Hlyland of the Naval Research Laboratory.
12. In 1934, a team at the US Naval Research Laboratory developed a pulsed radio detection
system. It was able to detect an airplane over the Potomac River at a range of one mile. It
was crude, but it proved the concept, and it was considered the first RADAR system.
13. The invention of modern radar is generally credited to Sir Robert Watson-watt.
WatsonWatt is generally credited with initiating what would later be called radar; In
June17,1935,a radio-based detection and ranging was first demonstrated in Great Britain;
The first Radar system (ChainHome) used by the British comprised 21 stations placed
along the country‟s eastern coast.
14. Besides the war efforts of the US and Britain, several other countries, including
Germany, France, Russia, Italy and Japan also developed and implemented radars shortly
before and during WWII .
15. In 1939, the US Navy began using the term RADAR as an acronym for “RAdio
Detection And Ranging.”
16. The US and the UK weren‟t the only countries working on RADAR technology during
the war. The Germany, France, Russia, Italy and Japan were all developing their own
systems.
17. Radar was also used by ships and aircraft during the war. Germany was using radar by
1940 but Japan never used it effectively. The United States had a good radar system and
it was able to predict the attack on Pearl Harbor an hour before it happened.
18. Britain tended to have the best radar system during the early stages of the war and in
1940 the invention of the Magnetron cavity resonator enabled more centimetric waves to
be transmitted. It also enabled more compact high-frequency sets to be used by aircraft in
the Royal Air Force.
Topic Name: Maximum Unambiguous Range

1. Define maximum unambiguous range of a Radar?
ANS:
Definition: The range beyond which the target appears as second-time-around-echoes
is the maximum unambiguous range, Run and is given by
cTp c
R un  
2 2f p
Where
1
Tp  PRP 
fp
f p  PRF
• PRP ꞊ Pulse Repetition Period.
• PRF ꞊ Pulse Repetition Frequency(Hz or pulses per second)
• The term pulse repetition rate is sometimes used interchangeably with pulse repetition
frequency
2. Calculate Runamb of a radar if fp is 2 MHz

SOLUTION:
Given data: fp =2 MHz
𝑐
Maximum unambiguous range = 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑏 =
2𝑓𝑝
8 6
Runamb = (3×10 ) / (2×2×10 )=75 m
3. Define multiple-time-around echoes?
ANS:
Fig:Second time around echo(or Multiple time around echo)

DEFINITION: Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are called second-time-
around (or multiple-time-around) echoes.
4. What is a Second-time-around echo? Derive the expression for maximum unambiguous

range
ANS:
Fig:Pulse modulated sine wave and Second time around echo(or Multiple time around echo)
MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE: The range beyond which the target appears
as second-time-around-echoes is the maximum unambiguous range.It is represented by
Run or Runamb .
From the above figure
1
Pulse repetition time  T  TR  TON  TOFF 
PRF
cT c  Max. value of TR 
Rmax  
2 2
Hence,Maximum unambiguous range is given by
c TON  TOFF  cTR c
Runamb   
2 2 2 PRF
c
Runamb 
2 PRF
Where PRF=Pulse Repetition Frequency in Hz
TON = On time
TOFF = Off time
If PRF is too high, echo signals from targets and ambiguities in the measuring range
might result.
Topic Name: Simple Radar range Equation
1. Derive the basic radar range equation or Derive and explain

simple radar equation.
ANS
Isotropic Antenna as Transmitting Antenna
• The radar equation relates the range of the radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target and the environment.
• Let us assume that the transmitting antenna in RADAR system is an isotropic antenna,
then
• Pt = Power transmitted(radiated) by an isotropic antenna
• R=Range(or distance) of the target from the RADAR
Transmitted Power
The power density at a range R from an isotropic antenna 
Surfaceareaof sphere
Pt W
The power density at a range R from an isotropic antenna   )
4 R 2 m2
Practical Antenna as Transmitting Antenna
However, radars employ directive antennas (practical antennas) to concentrate the radiated
power Pt in a particular direction.
• Let „G‟ be the gain of the practical antenna.
Pt
Power density at range R from a directional antenna with transmitting gain G   G(W 2 )
4 R 2 m
 The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and reradiates it in various
directions. The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and
reradiated back in the direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross section σ, and is
defined by the relation
PG
The total power intercepted by the target having an area or cross  section „ ‟  t 2   W 
4 R
2
 Where σ꞊Radar cross-section of the target(m )
 σ is also defined as defined as the area of the target as seen by the radar.
 σ is a characteristic of a particular target and is a measure of its size and shape.
 The re-radiated power density back at the radar or the power density of echo signal at the
radar station =
PG  W 
 t 2  
2  
4 R 4 R  m  2
• If the effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted as Ae
then the power received by RADAR is

Pt G 
Pr    Ae  Watts 
4R 4R 2
2
Pt GAe 
Pr   Watts 
 4 
2
R4
 The maximum RADAR range (Rmax) is the distance beyond which the target can not be
detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr just equals the minimum
detectable signal Smin ,that is, when Pr = Smin then R= Rmax.
 Then the above equation can be written as
Pt GAe 
Smin   Watts 
 4 
2
R 4 max
Pt GAe 
R 4 max 
 4 
2
Smin
1
 P GA  4
R max   t 2 e   1
  4  S 
 min 
 Equation (1) is the fundamental form of RADAR range equation. It is also called as
RADAR equation or Range equation.
2. Calculate the range of a target, if the time taken by the signal
to travel and return is 100 micro seconds?
SOLUTION:
Given data: Time taken by the signal to travel and return 100 micro seconds
𝑐𝑇
Range of the targer=𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
or
t
Range  R   c 
2
c  3 10 m / s
8
t  100  s
Substitute these values in the above equation
 100 106 
Range  R   3 108     15km
 2 
3. What are the various factors affecting the radar range?

ANS:
From the radar range equation:

1 1
 P GA    P A 2  4
4
R max   t 2 e    t 2e  1
  4  S   4 Smin 
 min 
From the above equation, the following factors are responsible for the maximum range of
the radar
1. Transmitter Power(Pt):
From equation (1), the maximum range is proportional to fourth root of peak transmitted
pulse power i.e.
1
R max Pt 4
Let us consider the transmitter power is increased to 16 times i.e.Pt1=16Pt then

R1max   P1t 
1
4
R1max  16Pt 
1
4
1
4 1
R 1
max 2 4
Pt 4
1
R1max  2 Pt 4
1
But R max  Pt 4
 R1max  2R max
If Pt increases then R max increases i.e.
if Pt  then R max 
The maximum range of the radar would be doubled if the transmitter power is increased
to 16 times
2. Gain of the transmitting antenna(G)
From eq.(1), we have
R max   G 
1
4
If the gain of the transmitting antenna is increased by 16 times to its value then
G1  16G
The new range is R 1max
 
1
R 1max  G1 4
R 1max  16G 
1
4
1
4 1
R 1
max 2 4
G 4
1
R 1max  2 Pt 4
1
But R max  G 4
 R 1max  2R max
If G increases then R max increases i.e.
if G  then R max 
The maximum range of the radar would be doubled if the gain (G) of transmitting
antenna is increased by 16 times.
3. Effective area of transmitting antenna/Receiving antenna(Ae):
 
1
R max  A e 2 4
R max   A e 
2 1
4
R max   A e 
1
2
R max  A e
Maximum range is directly proportional to square root of capture area
1
If we increase effective area of an antenna by 4 times that is Ae = 4Ae then the new
range R1max
R 1max  A e1
R 1max  4A e
R 1max  2 A e
But R max  A e
 R 1max  2R max
The maximum range of the radar will be doubled if we increase the effective area of the
antenna by 4 times.
4. Cross-sectional area of the target or Size of the target or area
of the target(σ):
R max    
1
4
1
If the cross sectional area of the target (σ) is increased by 16 times i.e.σ = 16σ then
the new range of the radar will be R1max
R1max    
1
4
R1max  16 
1
4
1
4 1
R 1
max 2 4
 4
1
R1max  2  4
1
But R max   4
 R1max  2R max
If  increases then R max increases i.e.
if   then R max 
The maximum range of the radar would be doubled if the cross-sectional area of the
target (σ)is increased by 16 times.
5. Frequency of the signal(f):

1
 1  4
R max   2 
 
1
 f

 
1
R max  f 2 4
1
R max  f 2
 R max  f
Maximum range is directly proportional to square root of frequency
If the frequency is increased by 4 times i.e.f 1  4f
then new range R1max
R1max  f 1
R1max  4f
R1max  2 f
But R max  f then
R1max  2R max
If f increases then R max increases i.e.
if f  then R max 
The maximum range of the radar would be doubled if the frequency of the signal (f) is
increased by 4 times
6. Minimum detectable signal or Power of minimum detectable

signal(Smin):

The maximum range is inversely proportional to the fourth root of minimum receivable
power of the receiver , all else being constant.
1
 1  4
R max   
 Smin 
If Smin is increased by 16 times i.e. Smin1  16 Smin
then new range R 1max
1
 1  4
R 1max   1 
 min 
S
1
 1  4
R 1
max  
 16Smin 
1 1
4
1 4  1  4
R 1max     
2  min 
S
1
1 1  4
R 1
max   
2  Smin 
1
 1  4
But R max   
 Smin 
1
 R 1max  R max
2
If Smin increases then R max decreases i.e.
if Smin  then R max 
The maximum range of the radar is halved if we increase the minimum detectable signal
power by 16 times.
7. Diameter (D) of the antenna:
Maximum range is directly proportional to the diameter of the receiving antenna
The practical radar range equation is given by 1
 Pt D 4   4
R max  48  
 B  F  1 
2
B= Bandwidth of the receiver

F= Noise figure
D= Diameter of receiving antenna
1
 Pt D 4   4
R max  48  
 B  F  1 
2
 
4
R max  D 4
1
4
R max  D 4
R max  D
 R max  Diameter  D  of antenna
If D increases then R max increases i.e.
if D  then R max 
Therefore the maximum range of the radar depends upon the transmitter power(P t), Gain (G) of
the transmitting antenna, Effective area of transmitting antenna(Ae), Cross-sectional area of the
target(σ), frequency of the signal(f), minimum detectable signal power(Smin) and diameter of the
antenna(D).
4. Radar operates at 10GHz and peak power of 500KW. Its minimum receivable power is
0.1pW. Its antenna has a capture area of 5sqm and the radar cross section of the target is
20sqm. Find maximum range of radar.
SOLUTION: Given data
f=10 GHz
Pt = 500KW
Smin = 0.1 pW
Ae = 5 m2
σ=20 m2
Rmax =?
λ=c/f
λ=(3×108)/(10×109)=0.03 m
The maximum range of the radar is given by
1
 PA   2 4
R max   t 2e   1
 4  Smin 
1
 500 103  52  20  4
R max  
 4  0.032  0.11012 
 
R max  685, 680.67m  685.680km
5. Compute the maximum detectable range of a radar system specified below: Operating
wavelength = 3.2 cm, Peak pulse transmitted power = 500 kW, Minimum detectable
2
power = 0.1pW, Capture area of the antenna = 5m and a Radar cross sectional area of the
2
target 5m .G=1000;

λ=3.2 cm=3.2×10-2 m=0.032m
Pt =500 KW
Smin =0.1 pW
2
Ae = 5m
2
σ=5m
G=1000
Rmax =?
1
 P GA   4
R max  t 2 e 
  4  S 
 min 
1
 500 103 1000  5  5  4
R max  
  4 2  0.11012 
 
R max  167, 734.5667m  167.734km
6. A radar operating at 3 GHz radiating a power of 200 kW. Calculate the power of the
2
reflected signal at the radar with a 20 m target at 300 nautical miles. Take antenna
2
aperture area is 9 m .

• f=3GHz
• Pt = 200kW
• Range,R= 300 nautical miles
• 1 nmi=1852 m
• 300 nautical miles=300×1852m=5.556×105 m
• Ae = 9 m2
• σ=20 m2
c 3 108
   0.1m
f 3 10 9
4 4
G  2 Ae   9  11.3  10 3
 (0.1)2
The received Power by the antenna is given by
Pt GA e  200 103 11.3 103  9  20
Pr    27.034 1015 W
(4) R
2 4
(4)  (5.556 10 )
2 5 4
7. A radar system transmits pulses of duration 2 μs and repetition rate of 1 KHz. Find the
minimum and maximum range for radar.
Pulse width = PW=2 μs

Pulse repetition rate(or PRF)=1KHZ
The maximum usable radar range Rmax is given by
c
Rmax 
2 PRF
3 108
Rmax   1.5 105 m  150 Km
2 110 3
Rmax  150 Km
The minimum usable range of radar Rmin is given by
c  PW
Rmin 
2
3 108  2 106
Rmax   300 m
2
Rmax  300 m
8. A pulse radar transmits a peak power of 1 MW .It has a PRT equal to 1000 micro
sec.and the transmitted pulse width is 1 micro sec. Calculate (i) Maximum unambiguous
range (ii) Average power (iii) Duty cycle (iv) Energy transmitted.

For a given pulse radar
Transmitted peak power=Pt =1 MW=1×106 W
Pulse Repetition Time(PRT)=Tp =1000 micro sec=1000×10-6 sec
Transmitted pulse width , τ =1 micro sec=1×10-6 sec
Maximum unambiguous range, Runamb =?
Average power,Pavg =?
Duty cycle, D=?
Energy transmitted,ET =?
(1) Maximum unambiguous range (Runamb)
c
Run 
2 PRF
1
But  PRT
PRF
c  PRT
Run 
2
3 108 1000 106
Run   15000 m  150 Km
2
Run  150 Km
(ii) Average power(Pavg)

Avreage power transmitted  Pavg  Pt 
Tp
1106
Pavg  110  6
 1000 W  1KW
1000 106
Pavg  1KW
(iii) Duty cycle (D)
Pavg 
D or
Pt Tp
1106 1
D 6
  0.001
1000 10 1000
D  0.001
(iv) Energy transmitted(ET)
The energy of the pulse transmitted by the radar is given by
ET  Pavg  Tp or   Pt
ET  1106 1106   1J
9. A pulse radar is operating at 10 GHz has an antenna with a gain of 28 dB and a

transmitter power of 2 KW .If it is defined to detect a target with a cross section of 12
sq.m and the minimum detectable signal is Pmin = -90 dBm. What is the maximum range
of the radar?
f=10 GHz
G=28 dB
Pt = 2 KW
σ= 12 sq.m or m2
Pmin = -90 dBm
c 3 108
   0.03 m
f 10 10 9
G  28 dB
G  dB   10 log10 G
28  10 log10 G
28
log10 G   2.8
10
G  102.8  630.95
Pmin  90 dBm
 P 
Pmin  dBm   10 log10  min 
 1mW 
 P 
90  10 log10  min 
 1mW 
 P  90
log10  min    9
 1mW  10
 Pmin  9
   10
 1mW 
Pmin  109  1mW  10 9 mW
Pmin  109  103W  1012 W
The max imum radar range is given by

1
 2 103   630.95    0.03 12 
1 2 2
 PG  
2 2 4 4
Rmax  t
 
 (4  ) 3
P 
min   4  10
3 12 
 
Rmax  1619 m  1.619 Km
10. A radar uses one antenna with a gain of 3x104 and operates with a peak transmitter power
of 50 kW, wavelength of 7.5 cm and a total loss of 1.6. For a target range of 97.2
nmi.what target radar cross section is needed to produce an available received power of
2x10-12 W. If antenna points directly to the target?
SOLUTION : Given data
Transmitter gain(Gt )  Re ceiver gain(Gr )  3 104
Peak transmitter power ( Pt )  50 KW
Wavelength( )  7.5cm  0.75m
Total loss ( L)  1.6
Range of t arg et ( R )  97.2 nmi
R  97.2 1852m  180014.4m
Re ceived power ( Pr )  2 1012 W
T arg et Radar cross  sec tion( )  ?
The r e ceived power of the radar is given by
t t Gr  
2
PG
Pr 
 4   R 4
3
P  4   R 4 2 1012   4   180014.4 
3 3 4
 r   0.16468  0.165
t t Gr  50 103  3 104   0.75 
2 2
PG
Radar cross  sec tion( )  0.165 m 2
Topic Name: Radar Block Diagram and Operation

1. Draw the block diagram of a basic Radar system and explain
its operation.
ANS:
 The term RADAR is the contraction of the words Radio Detection and Ranging. It is used
to detect the presence of a target and to measure its range
 Radar is used for detecting the objects and finding their location. The basic principle of
Radar is illustrated in above figure.
 As shown in the figure, Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a receiver. It uses the
same Antenna for both transmitting and receiving the signals.
 The transmitter generates EM signal(such as a short pulse of sine wave) that is radiated
into space by an antenna.
 A portion of the transmitted energy is intercepted by the target and re-radiated in many
directions.
 The re-radiation directed back towards the radar is collected by the radar antenna, which
delivers it to the receiver. There it is processed to detect the presence of the target and
determines its location.
 A single antenna is usually used on a time-shared basis for both transmitting and
receiving when the radar waveform is a repetitive series of pulses.
 The range, or distance, to a target is found by measuring the time it takes for the radar
signal to travel to the target and return back to the radar.
 The target‟s location in angle can be found from the direction the narrow-beamwidth
radar antenna points when the received echo signal is of maximum amplitude.
 If the target is in motion , there is a shift in the frequency of the echo signal due to the
Doppler effect. This frequency shiuft is proportional to the velocity of the target relative
to the radar(also called the radial velocity).
 The Doppler frequency shift is widely used in radar as the basis for separating desired
moving targets from fixed (unwanted) “clutter” echoes reflected from the natural
environment such as land, sea, or rain.
 Radar can also provide information about the nature of the target being observed.
2. Describe the operation of radar block diagram. or With the

help of a neat block diagram, explain the principle of operation
of Radar.
ANS:
Fig: Block diagram of a conventional pulse radar with a superheterodyne receiver
The operation of a typical radar may be described with the aid of the block diagram as shown
in above figure. There are two sections of radar system.
1. Transmitter section
2. Receiver section
Transmitter section: The main blocks of the transmitter section are

1. Transmitter
2. Waveform generator
3. Pulse modulator
4. Duplexer
Transmitter: The transmitter may be a power amplifier such as the klystron, travelling
wave tube, transistor amplifier. It might also be power oscillator such as magnetron.The
magnetron has been widely used for pulse radars, but amplifier is preferred when high average
power is necessary.
Waveform generator: The radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform

generator , which is then input to power amplifier.
Pulse modulator: a modulator turns the transmitter ON and OFF in synchronism with the
input pulses, when a power oscillator is used, it is also turned ON and OFF by a pulse modulator
to generate a pulse waveform.
Duplexer: The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by a waveguide or other
form of transmission line, where it is radiated into free space. Solid state ferrite circulators and
receiver proctor devices , usually solid state diodes, can also be part of the duplexer. The
duplexer allows a single antenna to be used on a time shared basis for both transmitting and
receiving.the duplexer is generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuit at the input to
the receiver when transmitter is operating so that high power flows to the antenna and not to the
receiver. On reception, the duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver and not to the
transmitter.
Receiver section: The main blocks of the receiver section are

1. Low-noise RF amplifier
2. Mixer and local oscillator
3. IF amplifier
4. Second detector
5. Video amplifier
6. Threshold Detection
7. Display
Low-noise RF amplifier: The receiver is almost always a superheterodyne. The input
or RF stage be a low noise transistor amplifier which produces the RF pulse proportional to the
transmitted signal.
Mixer and local oscillator: The mixer and local oscillator convert the RF signal to an
intermediate frequency(IF) where it is amplified by the IF amplifier. Sometimes the low noise
input stage is omitted and the mixer becomes the first stage of receiver. A receiver with a mixer
as the input stage will be less sensitive because of the mixer‟s higher noise figure.
IF amplifier: It amplifies the IF pulse. The IF amplifier is designed as a matched filter

which maximizes the output peak signal-to- mean- noise ratio. The matched filter maximizes the
detectability of weak echo signals and attenuates unwanted signals. The signal bandwidth of
superheterodyne receiver is determined by the the bandwidth of its IF stage. For example, when
the pulse width is of the order of 1μs, the IF bandwidth would be about 1 MHz.
Second detector: The IF amplifier followed by a crystal diode which is called the second
detector or demodulator. Its purpose is to assist in extracting the signal modulation from the
carrier.
Video amplifier: Video amplifier is designed to provide the sufficient amplification or

gain, to raise the level of the input signal to a magnitude where it can be seen on a display, such
as cathode ray tube or be the input to a digital computer for further processing.
Threshold Detection: At the output of the receiver , a decision is made whether or not a
target is present. The decision is based on the magnitude of the receiver output. If the output is
large enough to exceed a predetermined threshold, the decision is that target is present . If it does
not cross the threshold, only noise is assumed to be present. The threshold level is set so that the
rate at which false alarms occur due to noise crossing the threshold is below some specified,
tolerable value.
Display: The final output of the receiversection displayed on the cathode ray tube or any
display device. The typical radar display for radar is PPI(Plan position Indicator).The PPI is a
presentation that maps in polar co-ordinates the location of the target in azimuth and range as
shown in Fig.(a). The PPi in part has been implemented with intensity modulated CRT . The
amplitude of the receiver output modulates the electron beam intensity(called the Z-axis of the
CRT) as the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the center of tube. The sweep of the
electron beam rotates in angle synchronism with the pointing of the antenna beam.
 A B-scope display is similar to a PPI except that it utilizes a rectangular format, rather
than the polar format, to display range versus angle.Both PPI and B-scope CRT displays
have limited dynamic range since they are intensity modulated.
 An A-scope display is sometimes used for special purposes. It is an amplitude-modulated
rectangular display that presents the receiver output on the Y-axis as shown in Fig. (b).
This is a deflection modulated display.It is more suited for tracking radar applications.
3. Write the function of duplexer in the radar system or Write the various
functions of a duplexer.
• Duplexer: The duplexer is the device that allows a single antenna to serve both the
transmitter and the receiver. On transmission it must protect the receiver from burnout or
damage, and on reception it must channel the echo signal to the receiver. Or
• A duplexer isolates transmitter while receiving and isolates receiver while transmitting. It
is basically a microwave switch. It permits a single antenna to serve both the transmitter
and the receiver.
FUNCTIONS OF DULPLEXER:
1. It isolates the receiver while transmitting.
2. It isolates the transmitter while receiving.
3. It protects the receiver from high power transmitter by isolation
4. It also protects the receiver from high power radiation from nearby radars during inter-
pulse period or when the radar is shut down.
4. Explain the operation of monostatic radar with a neat diagram.

ANS:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MONOSTATIC RADAR
Fig:Block diagram of monostatic radar
 As you can see in this block diagram that monostatic radar uses only one antenna
for transmission and reception purpose, that's why it is known as monostatic radar
(Mono means single and bi means double).
 In this block diagram of monostatic radar you can see that it has an indicator, a
transmitter and receiver, a duplexer and a single antenna. Observe that here we
have not used two separate antennas as the transmitting antenna and receiving
antenna. Only one antenna can function as the transmitting and receiving antenna.
 Actually the basic working principle of both types of radars (Bistatic and
monostatic) is same with some differences.
The radar transmitter transmits electromagnetic waves (radio waves). At the time
of transmission the antenna of the monostatic radar works as the transmitting
antenna and when these signals are reflected back (echo signal) from the target,
the same antenna works as the receiving antenna. This received signal is analysed
by the receiver circuitry and the data is shown on the indicator of the radar.
Now we will understand the role of the duplexer in the monostatic radar-
Functions of the Radar Duplexer
 The Radar duplexer makes it possible to use single antenna for transmission and
reception purpose.
 The duplexer helps in protecting the sensitive receiver from the high power
transmitter.
 The radar duplexer keeps the transmitter and receiver separate (isolated) at the
time of transmission and reception.
5. What is RADAR? Explain the working principle of

conventional pulse radar with neat diagram.
• RADAR DEFINITION: RADAR stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging RADAR is
an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle or velocity
of objects.
Fig: Block diagram of a conventional pulse radar with a superheterodyne receiver
The operation of a typical radar may be described with the aid of the block diagram as shown
in above figure. There are two sections of radar system.
3. Transmitter section
4. Receiver section
Transmitter section: The main blocks of the transmitter section are

5. Transmitter
6. Waveform generator
7. Pulse modulator
8. Duplexer
Transmitter: The transmitter may be a power amplifier such as the klystron, travelling
wave tube, transistor amplifier. It might also be power oscillator such as magnetron.The
magnetron has been widely used for pulse radars, but amplifier is preferred when high average
power is necessary.
Waveform generator: The radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform

generator , which is then input to power amplifier.
Pulse modulator: a modulator turns the transmitter ON and OFF in synchronism with the
input pulses, when a power oscillator is used, it is also turned ON and OFF by a pulse modulator
to generate a pulse waveform.
Duplexer: The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by a waveguide or other
form of transmission line, where it is radiated into free space. Solid state ferrite circulators and
receiver proctor devices , usually solid state diodes, can also be part of the duplexer. The
duplexer allows a single antenna to be used on a time shared basis for both transmitting and
receiving.the duplexer is generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuit at the input to
the receiver when transmitter is operating so that high power flows to the antenna and not to the
receiver. On reception, the duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver and not to the
transmitter.
Receiver section: The main blocks of the receiver section are

8. Low-noise RF amplifier
9. Mixer and local oscillator
10. IF amplifier
11. Second detector
12. Video amplifier
13. Threshold Detection
14. Display
Low-noise RF amplifier: The receiver is almost always a superheterodyne. The input

or RF stage be a low noise transistor amplifier which produces the RF pulse proportional to the
transmitted signal.
Mixer and local oscillator: The mixer and local oscillator convert the RF signal to an
intermediate frequency(IF) where it is amplified by the IF amplifier. Sometimes the low noise
input stage is omitted and the mixer becomes the first stage of receiver. A receiver with a mixer
as the input stage will be less sensitive because of the mixer‟s higher noise figure.
IF amplifier: It amplifies the IF pulse. The IF amplifier is designed as a matched filter

which maximizes the output peak signal-to- mean- noise ratio. The matched filter maximizes the
detectability of weak echo signals and attenuates unwanted signals. The signal bandwidth of
superheterodyne receiver is determined by the the bandwidth of its IF stage. For example, when
the pulse width is of the order of 1μs, the IF bandwidth would be about 1 MHz.
Second detector: The IF amplifier followed by a crystal diode which is called the second
detector or demodulator. Its purpose is to assist in extracting the signal modulation from the
carrier.
Video amplifier: Video amplifier is designed to provide the sufficient amplification or

gain, to raise the level of the input signal to a magnitude where it can be seen on a display, such
as cathode ray tube or be the input to a digital computer for further processing.
Threshold Detection: At the output of the receiver , a decision is made whether or not a
target is present. The decision is based on the magnitude of the receiver output. If the output is
large enough to exceed a predetermined threshold, the decision is that target is present . If it does
not cross the threshold, only noise is assumed to be present. The threshold level is set so that the
rate at which false alarms occur due to noise crossing the threshold is below some specified,
tolerable value.
Display: The final output of the receiver section displayed on the cathode ray tube or any
display device. The typical radar display for radar is PPI(Plan position Indicator).The PPI is a
presentation that maps in polar co-ordinates the location of the target in azimuth and range .
 A B-scope display is similar to a PPI except that it utilizes a rectangular format, rather
than the polar format, to display range versus angle. Both PPI and B-scope CRT displays
have limited dynamic range since they are intensity modulated.
 An A-scope display is sometimes used for special purposes. It is an amplitude-modulated
rectangular display that presents the receiver output on the Y-axis .This is a deflection
modulated display.It is more suited for tracking radar applications
Topic Name: Radar Frequencies and Applications

1. Describe various radar applications
APPLICATIONS OF RADAR:
 RADAR has been employed to detect targets on the ground, on the sea, in the air, in
space, and even below ground
• Major areas of RADAR Applications
1. Air Traffic Control
2. Aircraft Navigation
3. Ship Safety
4. Space
5. Remote Sensing
6. Law Enforcement
7. Military
Air Traffic Control:

• Air Surveillance Radars(ASR) - to safely control air traffic in the vicinity of airports.
• ASR also maps regions of rain so that aircraft can be directed around them.
• Air Route Surveillance Radars(ARSR)- to en-route from one airport to another as well as
vehicular traffic and taxiing aircraft on the ground.
• Terminal Doppler weather radar (TDWR) : for observing weather in the vicinity of
airports
Aircraft safety and Navigation

• The airborne weather-avoidance radar outlines regions of precipitation and dangerous
wind shear to allow the pilot to avoid hazardous conditions.
• Military aircraft employ ground-mapping radars to image a scene.
• The radio altimeter is also a radar used to indicate the height of an aircraft above the
terrain
Ship Safety
 Radars are found on ships and boats for collision avoidance and to observe navigation
buoys , especially when the visibility is poor.
 Shore-based Radars are used for surveillance of harbors and river traffic.
Space
 Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking , and for landing on
the moon.
 Large ground - based radars are used for the detection and tracking of satellites
and other space objects.
 Satellite-borne radars have also been used for remote sensing.
Remote Sensing
All radars are remote sensors
Examples of radar remote sensing are
(1) Weather observation-TV weather reporting
(2) Planetary observation
(3) Short-range below - ground probing
(4) Mapping of sea ice to route shipping in an efficient manner
(5) The ionospheric sounder, an important adjunct for HF (short wave) communications, is a
radar. Remote sensing with radar is also concerned with Earth resources, which includes
the measurement and mapping of sea conditions, water resources, ice cover, agriculture,
forestry conditions, geological formations, and environmental pollution.
Law enforcement and highway safety

 Radar speed meter is used by police for enforcing speed limits.
 Radar has been considered for making vehicles safer by warning of pending collision,
actuating the air bag, or warning of obstructions or people behind a vehicle or in the side
of blind zone. It is also employed for the detection of intruders.
MILITARY
• Detection and ranging of enemy targets even at night
• Directing guided missiles
• Early warning regarding approaching aircraft and ships
• Weapon control radars track targets, direct the weapon to an intercept, and assess the
effectiveness of the engagement.
2. Write about radar frequencies

3. Describe the various radar frequencies and list out the
applications of radar.
Topic Name: Prediction of Range Performance
1. Explain about the prediction of range performance of a radar.

ANS
The maximum radar range Rmax in terms of radar and target parameters:
1
 P GA  
4
R max  t 2 e   1
  4  S 
 min 
Where
Pt = transmitted power, watts
G antenna gain
2
Ae = antenna emective aperture, m
σ = radar cross section, m2
Smin = minimum detectable signal, watts
 All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the radar designer, except for
the target cross section σ. The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired, the
transmitted power must be large, the transmitting gain must be large, and the receiver
must be sensitive to weak signals.
 However, the simple radar equation does not predict the range performance of actual
radar equipments to a satisfactory degree of accuracy.
 In practice, the radar performance degrades because of the following reasons.
1. The minimum detectable signal is determined by receiver noise
2. Fluctuations and uncertainty in radar cross-section
3. Losses in various parts of the radar system
4. Propagation effects due to earth‟s surface and atmosphere
Because of the statistical nature of the receiver noise and target cross-section ,the
maximum radar range is described probabilistically rather than single number. Therefore,
the radar range specification includes
1. Probability that radar will detect a target at a particular range.
2. Probability of making a false detection when no target is present.
 From the above facts it can be concluded that the range of radar is a function of
probability of detection (Pd)and the probability of false alarm(Pfa).The prediction of radar
range is not accurate as there are uncertainty in various parameters . Still radar range
equation an important tool for
1. Assessing the performance of radar
2. Determining system tradeoffs for designing a new radar system
3. Generating technical requirements for new radar procurement
Topic Name: Minimum Detectable Signal
1. What is minimum detectable signal? Calculate minimum

receivable signal in a radar receiver that has an IF bandwidth of 1.5
MHz and a 9-dB noise figure.
Fig:Typical envelope of the radar receiver output as a function of time.
A and B and C represent signal plus noise. A and B would be valid Detections. But C is a
missed detection
DEFINITION: The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the MINIMUM
DETECTABLE SIGNAL. In the radar equation, it is denoted by Smin .
• A sample detected envelope is show above
• A large signal is detected at A
• A typical waveform of the Radar receiver is shown in the above figure. The x-axis and
y-axis represent time and voltage respectively. The rms value of noise and threshold
value are indicated with dotted lines in the above figure.
• We have considered three points, A, B & C in above figure for identifying the valid
detections and missing detections
•
• The value of the signal at point A is greater than threshold value. Hence, it is a valid
detection.
• The value of the signal at point B is equal to threshold value. Hence, it is a valid
detection.
• Even though the value of the signal at point C is closer to threshold value, it is a missing
detection. Because, the value of the signal at point C is less than threshold value.
So, the points, A & B are valid detections. Whereas, the point C is a missing detection
• The threshold must be adjusted so that weak signals are detected, but not so low that
noise peaks cross the threshold and give a false target.
• The voltage envelope in the figure is usually from a matched filter receiver.
The radar range can be predicted fairly accurately using above equation. Still there are
other factors which affect the radar range and for very accurate calculations these factors
have also to be considered
• These factors include
I. System losses
II. Receiver non-linearities
III. Antenna imperfections
IV. Anomalous propagation
V. Interference by nearby noise sources
Operator error
2. What is called a missed detection for a radar.
Ans:
If the threshold is set high then the real target will be missed, then it is called missed
detectiion
Topic Name: Receiver Noise

1. Explain in detail about receiver noise in radar system
ANS
 Since noise is the chief factor limiting receiver sensitivity, it is necessary to obtain some
means of describing it quantitatively. Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which
interferes with the ability of the receiver to detect the wanted signal. It may originate
within the receiver itself, or it may enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired
signal.
 If the receiver generates a noise component into the signal, which is received at the
receiver, then that kind of noise is known as receiver noise. The receiver noise is an
unwanted component; we should try to eliminate it with some precautions.
 However, there exists one kind of noise that is known as the thermal noise. It occurs
due to thermal motion of conduction electrons. Mathematically, we can write thermal
noise power, produced at receiver as –

where H( f ) frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter) andfo = frequency of
maximum response (usually occurs at midband).
When H(f) is normalized . to unity at midband (maximum-response frequency), H( fo) = 1.
The bandwidth Bn is called the noise bandwidth and is the bandwidth of an equivalent
rectangular filter whose noise-power output is the same as the filter with characteristic
rre.T he noise figure Fn of a receiver is defined by the equation
where No = noise output from receiver, and Go =available gain. The standard temperature To is
taken to be 290 K.
Topic Name: Modified Radar Range Equation

1. Derive modified radar range equation
ANS
MODIFIED RADAR RANGE EQUATION
From the antenna theory the relationship between the transmitting gain and receiving effective
area of an antenna is
2
Ae  G
4
4
G  2 Ae
 Since radars  generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception. Now,
first substitute value of Ae in Eq.(1) and then G value in Eq.(1) then we can obtain the
two forms of radar equations i.e. modified radar range equations as

1
 P GA  4
R max  t 2 e   1
  4  S 
 min 
1
 P G 2 2 4
R max  t 3    2
  4  S 
 min 
1
 P A 2  4
R max   t 2e    3
 4 Smin 
Equations (2)&(3) are the two alternate forms of maximum radar range equation. The
three forms of the radar range equations (1),(2)&(3) are basically the same, but there are
differences in interpretation
2. Discuss in brief the radar range equation and modified radar

range equation
Isotropic Antenna as Transmitting Antenna
• The radar equation relates the range of the radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target and the environment.
• Let us assume that the transmitting antenna in RADAR system is an isotropic antenna,
then
• Pt = Power transmitted(radiated) by an isotropic antenna
• R=Range(or distance) of the target from the RADAR
Transmitted Power
The power density at a range R from an isotropic antenna 
Surfaceareaof sphere
Pt W
The power density at a range R from an isotropic antenna   )
4 R 2 m2
Practical Antenna as Transmitting Antenna
However, radars employ directive antennas (practical antennas) to concentrate the radiated
power Pt in a particular direction.
• Let „G‟ be the gain of the practical antenna.
Pt
Power density at range R from a directional antenna with transmitting gain G   G(W 2 )
4 R 2
m
 The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and reradiates it in various
directions. The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and
reradiated back in the direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross section σ, and is
defined by the relation
PG
The total power intercepted by the target having an area or cross  section „ ‟  t 2   W 
4 R
 Where σ꞊Radar cross-section of the target(m2)
 σ is also defined as defined as the area of the target as seen by the radar.
 The re-radiated power density back at the radar or the power density of echo signal at the
radar station =
PG  W 
 t 2  
2  
4 R 4 R  m2 
• If the effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted as Ae

then the power received by RADAR is
Pt G 
Pr    Ae  Watts 
4R 4R 2
2
Pt GAe 
Pr   Watts 
 4 
2
R4
 The maximum RADAR range (Rmax) is the distance beyond which the target can not be
detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr just equals the minimum
detectable signal Smin ,that is, when Pr = Smin then R= Rmax.
 Then the above equation can be written as
Pt GAe 
Smin   Watts 
 4 
2 4
R max
Pt GAe 
R 4 max 
 4 
2
Smin
1
 P GA  4
R max  t 2 e   1
  4  S 
 min 
 Equation (1) is the fundamental form of RADAR range equation. It is also called as
RADAR equation or Range equation.
MODIFIED RADAR RANGE EQUATION
2
Ae  G
4
4
G  2 Ae

 Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception. Now,

1
 P GA  4
R max  t 2 e   1
  4  S 
 min 
1
 P G 2 2 4
R max  t 3    2
  4  S 
 min 
1
 PA   2 4
R max   t 2e    3
 4 Smin 
3. Obtain the Radar equation in terms of minimum detectable

power and gains of transmitting and receiving antenna?
2
Ae  G
4
4
G Ae
2
 Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception. Now,

1
 P GA  4
R max  t 2 e   1
  4  S 
 min 
1
 P G 2 2 4
R max  t 3    2
  4  S 
 min 
1
 P G G  2  4
R max   t t 3 r 
  4  S 
 min 
Where G t  Gain of transmitting antenna

G r  Gain of receiving antenna
4. Derive the radar range equation in terms of integration

efficiency.
ANS
• Integration efficiency for post-detection integration may be defined as
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
• Where (S/N)1= Value of SNR of a single pulse required to produce a given probability of
detection.
• (S ⁄ N)n is the value of SNR per pulse required to produce the same probability of detection
when n pulses are integrated.
• INTEGRATION IMPROVEMENT FACTOR : The improvement in signal-to-noise ratio
when „n‟ pulses are integrated is called integration improvement factor
Ii(n)= n Ei(n).
• we can also develop the integration loss as
 1 
Li  n   10 log 
 E  n  
 i 
• The radar equation when n pulses are integrated is

 
 Pt GA e  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N n 
 (S/N)n is the signal to noise ratio of each of the n equal pulses that are integrated.
• But we know that
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
 
 Pt GA e nE i  n  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N 1 
5. Derive the maximum radar range equation if N number of
pulses received at the receiver
• Integration efficiency for post-detection integration may be defined as
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
• Where (S/N)1= Value of SNR of a single pulse required to produce a given probability of
detection.
• (S ⁄ N)n is the value of SNR per pulse required to produce the same probability of detection
when n pulses are integrated.
• INTEGRATION IMPROVEMENT FACTOR : The improvement in signal-to-noise ratio
Ii(n)= n Ei(n).
• we can also develop the integration loss as
 1 
Li  n   10 log 
 E  n  
 i 
• The radar equation when n pulses are integrated is

 
 Pt GA e  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N n 
 (S/N)n is the signal to noise ratio of each of the n equal pulses that are integrated.
• But we know that
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
 
 Pt GA e nE i  n  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N 1 
6. Derive the maximum radar range equation in terms of S/N and
define each parameter.
ANS
7. Derive the expression for radar range equation in terms of noise figure.
8. Compute the maximum detectable range of a radar system specified below: Operating
wavelength = 3.2 cm, Peak pulse transmitted power = 500 kW, Minimum detectable
2
power = 0.1pW, Capture area of the antenna = 5m and a Radar cross sectional area of
2
the target 5m .G=1000;
ANS
λ=3.2 cm=3.2×10-2 m=0.032m
Pt =500 KW
Smin =0.1 pW
2
Ae = 5m
2
σ=5m
G=1000
Rmax =?
1
 P GA   4
R max  t 2 e 
  4  S 
 min 
1
 500 103 1000  5  5  4
R max  
  4 2  0.11012 
 
R max  167, 734.5667m  167.734km
9. If a pulse radar operating with a peak power of 1MW has the following parameters: pulse
width=1.2μs and PRI= 1ms. Find Pavg , duty cycle and Rmax?
Given data :
Pt  1MW  1 106W
PW    1.2 s  1.2  106 s
PRI or PRT  1 ms  1 103 s
Pavg  ?
Duty cycle( D)  ?
Rmax  ?

1 Pavg  Pt 
PRI
1.2 106
Pavg  1106   1.2 KW
1103
 1.2 106
(ii ) Duty cycle( D)   3
 1.2 103
PRI 110
c  PRI 3 10 1103
8
(iii ) Rmax    1.5 105
2 2
Rmax  150 Km
Topic Name: SNR, probability of detection, probability of False Alarm,
1. Define the Probability of detection
Ans: The probability that a target will be detected when one is present.
The probability of detection Pd is the ratio of detected signals to the number of possible blips on
the radar screen i.e.,all possible targets in a given direction.
Detected targets
probability of detection (Pd )  100
Sum of all possible blips
2. Define signal to noise ratio

Ans
Signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power at the same
point. The signal quality at the out put of analog communication system is usually
measured in terms of average signal power to noise power.
Signal power PS
SNR  
Noise power PN
3. What is called a false alarm for radar?

Ans
Weak signals can be detected by in the presence of noise by lowering the threshold level .
But too low threshold value increases the noise threshold due to which false target is
detected .This is called false alarm.
4. What is probability of false alarm? Derive the expression for it.

ANS
probability of false alarm(Pfa): The probability that a target will be detected when
one is not present.
Consider an envelop detector which includes an IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF ,
second detector and a video amplifier as shown in above figure
Figure 1 Envelope detector

The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that is, one
which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope. To extract the
modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide enough to pass the low-frequency
components generated by the second detector, but not so wide as to pass the high-frequency
components at or near the intermediate frequency. The video bandwidth Bv must be greater
than BIF/2 in order to pass all the video modulation.
The receiver noise at the input to the IF amplifier is described by the Gaussian probability
density function with mean value of zero
1  v2 
p v  exp   
2 o  2 o 
 Where p(v) dv is the probability of finding the noise voltage v between the values of v
and v+dv .
o  Mean square valueof the noise voltage  Mean noise power 
the probability density function of the envelope R is given by a form of the Rayleigh pdf:
R  R2 
p  R  exp   
o  2 o 
Where R = amplitude of the envelope of the filter output
The probability that the envelope of the noise voltage will lie between the values of V1 and
V2 is
The probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed the voltage threshold VT is

R  R2   V 2 T 
probability  VT  R       o  2 o 
exp    dR  exp  
VT  2 o 
• This is the probability of false alarm since it represents the probability that noise will
cross the threshold and be called a target when only noise is present. Thus, the probability
of a false alarm, denoted Pfa is
 V 2 T 
Pfa  exp   (1)
 2 o 
The above figure 2 illustrates the occurrence of false alarms
• FALSE ALARM TIME(Tfa):The average time between crossings of the decision

threshold when noise alone is present is called the false alarm time, Tfa
and is given by
1 N
Tfa  Lim  Tk
N  N
k 1
Tk =The time between crossings of the threshold

VT = the noise envelope.
 The false alarm probability can be expressed in terms of false alarm time by
t k
tk 1
Pfa  k 1
N
 av
 (2)
T
Tk av
Tfa B
k
k 1
• Where tk and Tk are shown in above Fig.

• B= Bandwidth of the IF amplifier of the radar receiver.
The average duration of a threshold crossing by noise <tk>av is
approximately the reciprocal of the IF bandwidth B
• The average of Tk is the false alarm time, Tfa
• Equating eqs. (1) & (2) yields
1  V 2T 
Tfa  exp  
B  2 o 
The output of [he envelope detector has a probability-density function given by
5. Explain, how to minimize the false alarm.

ANS
The detection threshold is the minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that the radar
requires to declare a detection. A higher threshold means a higher SNR, which reduces
the false alarm rate (FAR), but also reduces the Pd.
The precautions to minimize false alarm are as follows:
1. The probability of false alarm of practical radars must be quite small, since the
decision is made every 1/B sec.
2. The alarm time is sensitive to small variations in the threshold.
3. The threshold is set high, as there is a little chance of false alarm due to thermal
noise.
4. Declaration of a target requires more than one detection mode on multiple
observations by the radar.
6. Derive the equation of false-alarm time? And prove that Tfa=1/B.
probability of false alarm(Pfa): The probability that a target will be detected when
one is not present.
1  v2 
p v  exp   
2 o  2 o 
and v+dv .
R  R2 
p  R  exp   
o  2 o 
V2 is

R  R2   V 2 T 
probability  VT  R      o  2o 
exp  dR  exp  
VT  2 o 
 V 2 T 
Pfa  exp   (1)
 2 o 

and is given by
1 N
Tfa  Lim  Tk
N  N
k 1

t k
tk 1
Pfa  k 1
N
 av
 (2)
T
Tk av
Tfa B
k
k 1

 The average duration of a threshold crossing by noise <tk>av is approximately the
reciprocal of the IF bandwidth B
1  V 2T 
Tfa  exp  
B  2 o 
7. Define false alarm time and probability of false alarm.
ANS
• FALSE ALARM TIME(Tfa):The average time between crossings of the
decision threshold when noise alone is present is called the false alarm time, Tfa and is
given by
1 N
Tfa  Lim  Tk
N  N
k 1
Tk =The time between crossings of the threshold VT by the noise envelope.
PROBABILITY OF FALSE ALARM(Pfa): Probability of false alarm or false

alarm rate is the ratio of the number of false alarms to the number of non-hazardous objects.
• The probability of false alarm represents the probability that noise will cross the
threshold and be called a target when only noise is present. Thus, the probability of a
false alarm, denoted Pfa is
 V 2 T 
Pfa  exp  
 2 o 
8. With typical envelop of radar output, discuss the selection of threshold level and their
effect.
ANS
Figure 1 Envelope detector

The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that is, one
which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope. To extract the
modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide enough to pass the low-frequency
components generated by the second detector, but not so wide as to pass the high-frequency
components at or near the intermediate frequency. The video bandwidth Bv must be greater
than BIF/2 in order to pass all the video modulation.
1  v2 
p v  exp   
2 o  2 o 
and v+dv .
R  R2 
p  R  exp   
o  2 o 
V2 is

R  R2   V 2 T 
probability  VT  R       o  2 o 
exp    dR  exp  
VT  2 o 
 V 2 T 
Pfa  exp   (1)
 2 o 

and is given by
1 N
Tfa  Lim  Tk
N  N
k 1

t k
tk 1
Pfa  k 1
N
 av
 (2)
T
Tk av
Tfa B
k
k 1

The average duration of a threshold crossing by noise <tk>av is approximately the reciprocal of
the IF bandwidth B
1  V2 
Tfa  exp  T 
B  2 o 
The output of [he envelope detector has a probability-density function given by
Figure : Probability-density function for noise alone and for signal-plus-noise, illustrating the
process of threshold detection.
 The false-alarm probabilities of practical radars are quite small. The reason for this is that
the false-alarm probability is the probability that a noise pulse will cross the threshold
during an interval of time approximately equal to the reciprocal of the bandwidth.
 The exponential relationship between the false-alarm time Tfa and the threshold level VT
results in the false alarm time being sensitive to variations or instabilities in the threshold
level.
 In practice, therefore, the threshold level would probably be adjusted slightly above that
computed by Eq. Tfa, so that instabilities which lower the threshold slightly will not
cause a flood of false alarms.
Topic Name: Integration of Radar Pulses
1. Explain about integration of Radar pulses in detail or Explain

the pulse integration technique
ANS
 The number of pulses returned after hitting target is given by
B f p B f p
n  
s 6r
B  ntennabeamwidth  deg.
f p  Pulserepetitionfrequency  Hz 
 s  Antennascanningrate  deg.perscan 
r  Re volutionsper min ute  rpm fora360o rotatingantenna.
 The number of pulses received „n‟ is usually called hits per scan or pulses per scan. It is
the number of pulses within the one-way beamwidth θB.
 INTEGRATION OF PULSES : The process of summing all the radar echo pulses received
from a target is called integration of pulses.
 All integration techniques employ a storage device.
 The simplest integration method is the CRT display combined with the integrating
properties of the eye and brain of the operator.
 PRE-DETECTION INTEGRATION :The integration of pulses that is performed in the
radar receiver before the second detector is called pre-integration or coherent integration
 POST-DETECTION INTEGRATION: The integration after the second detector is
known as post-detection integration or non-coherent integration.
 Pre-detection integration requires the phase of the echo signal to be preserved.
 Post-detection integration can not preserve RF phase
 For pre-detection
 (S / N)1
(S / N) n 
n
 where (S/N)1 = SNR for a single pulse
 and „n‟ is the number of pulses integrated.
 For post-detection, the integrated SNR is less than the above since some of the energy is
converted to noise in the nonlinear second detector.
 Post-detection integration, however, is easier to implement.
 INTEGRATION EFFICIENCY
 Integration efficiency for post-detection integration may be defined as
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
 Where (S/N)1= Value of SNR of a single pulse required to produce a given probability of
detection.
 (S ⁄ N)n is the value of SNR per pulse required to produce the same probability of
detection when n pulses are integrated.
 INTEGRATION IMPROVEMENT FACTOR : The improvement in signal-to-noise ratio
Ii(n)= n Ei(n).
 It can also be thought of as the equivalent number of pulses integrated
neq =nEi(n).
 For post-detection integration
neq < n
 For ideal pre-detection integration
 neq = n
 Thus for the same integrated signal- to- noise ratio, post-detection integration requires
more pulses than the pre-detection, assuming the signal- to- noise ratio per pulse in the
two cases is the same
 Note that Ii is not sensitive to either Pd or Pfa.
 we can also develop the integration loss as
 1 
Li  n   10 log 
 E  n  
 i 
 The integration loss and the integration improvement factor are plotted in below Fig

 The radar equation when n pulses are integrated is
 
 Pt GA e  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N n 
 (S/N)n is the signal to noise ratio of each of the n equal pulses that are integrated.
 But we know that
  S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
 
 Pt GA e nE i  n  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N 1 
2. Define pre-detection integration and post-detection integration

ANS


 (S / N) n 
(S / N)1
 n
 where (S/N)1 = SNR for a single pulse
3. Explain the terms integration loss and Radar cross section of a target.
ANS
INTEGRATION LOSS: The integration loss Li(n) is defined as
 1 
Li  n   10 log 
 E  n  
 i 
Where Ei (n) – Integration efficiency
• Radar cross-section of a target: It is a measure of the amount of EM energy

that is intercepted by the target and scattered back towards the radar.it is denoted by σ or
• A measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and reradiated back
in the direction of radar is denoted as radar cross-section of target(σ)
Powerreflectedtowardsource
unitsolidangle

incidentpowerdensity 4
2
Er
  lim 4R 2
R  Ei
• R=Distance between radar and target
• Er =Reflected field strength at radar
• Ei =Strength of incident field at target
• It is also defined as the area of the target as seen by the radar.

• It has units of area in m2
• σ is a characteristic of a particular target and is a measure of its size and shape.
4. What is the integration of Radar pulses? How does it help to improve the
performance?
ANS
 The number of pulses returned after hitting target is given by
B f p B f p
n  
s 6r
B  ntennabeamwidth  deg.
f p  Pulserepetitionfrequency  Hz 
 s  Antennascanningrate  deg.perscan 
r  Re volutionsper min ute  rpm fora360o rotatingantenna.
 The number of pulses received „n‟ is usually called hits per scan or pulses per scan. It is
the number of pulses within the one-way beamwidth θB.
 INTEGRATION OF PULSES : The process of summing all the radar echo pulses received
from a target is called integration of pulses.
 All integration techniques employ a storage device.
 The simplest integration method is the CRT display combined with the integrating
properties of the eye and brain of the operator.
 (S / N)1
(S / N)
 where n  1 = SNR for a single pulse
(S/N)
n
 INTEGRATION EFFICIENCY
 Integration efficiency for post-detection integration may be defined as
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
detection.
 INTEGRATION IMPROVEMENT FACTOR : The improvement in signal-to-noise ratio
Ii(n)= n Ei(n).
neq =nEi(n).
neq < n
 neq = n
 Note that Ii is not sensitive to either Pd or Pfa.
 we can also develop the integration loss as
 1 
Li  n   10 log 
 E  n  
 i 
 The radar equation when n pulses are integrated is
 
 Pt GA e  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N n 
 (S/N)n is the signal to noise ratio of each of the n equal pulses that are integrated.
 But we know that
  S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
 
 Pt GA e nE i  n  
R 4 max  
  4 2 kT B F  S  
 o n n   
  N 1 
 Typically, in a pulsed radar the required detection performance cannot be achieved with
a single pulse. Instead, pulse integration is used to improve the SNR by adding signal
samples together while averaging out the noise and interference.
5. What are the advantages of integration radar pulses? Derive the expression for integration
efficiency.
ANS:
ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATION RADAR PULSES:
1. To improve detection
2. To improve SNR
6. Compare the coherent and non-coherent integration of radar pulses.
7. Explain the need for integration of Radar pulses and define the following terms:
(i) Integration Efficiency(IE) (ii)Integration Improvement Factor(IIF) (iii) Integration
loss(IL)
ANS
 Need for integration of Radar pulses :Typically, in a pulsed radar the required
detection performance cannot be achieved with a single pulse. Instead, pulse integration is
used to improve the SNR by adding signal samples together while averaging out the noise
and interference.
 Integration Efficiency(IE) : Integration efficiency for post-detection integration

may be defined as
 S N 1
Ei  n  
n  S N n
detection.
 (ii)Integration Improvement Factor (IIF): The improvement in signal-
to-noise ratio when „n‟ pulses are integrated is called integration improvement factor
Ii(n)= n Ei(n).
neq =nEi(n).
neq < n
 neq = n
Note that Ii is not sensitive to either Pd or Pfa
(iii) Integration loss(IL): The integration loss Li(n) is defined as

 1 
Li  n   10 log 
 E  n  
 i 
Where Ei (n) – Integration efficiency
Topic Name: Radar Cross Section of Targets (simple targets - sphere, cone-sphere), Creeping
Wave,
1. What is Radar Cross Section? What is its significance?
ANS
Radar Cross Section(RCS):It is a measure of the amount of EM energy that is
intercepted by the target and scattered back towards the radar.it is denoted by σ or

2
Er
  lim 4R 2
R  Ei

• σ is a characteristic of a particular target and is a measure of its size and shape.
Significance of RCS: However, RCS is a property of the target alone and may
be measured or calculated. Thus, RCS allows the performance of a radar system with a
given target to be analysed independent of the radar and engagement parameters. In
general, RCS is a function of the orientation of the radar and target.
2. Define the radar cross section of a target and write the general formula for it.
ANS
Radar Cross Section(RCS):It is a measure of the amount of EM energy that is
intercepted by the target and scattered back towards the radar.it is denoted by σ or

2
Er
  lim 4R 2
R  Ei

σ is a characteristic of a particular target and is a measure of its size and shape
3. Discuss the radar cross section of the targets : Sphere and cone-sphere. or Explain about radar
cross section of targets. Or
4. Define the radar cross section of targets and explain its significance for various types of
targets.
ANS
Radar Cross Section(RCS) of a Target:It is a measure of the amount of
EM energy that is intercepted by the target and scattered back towards the radar.it is
denoted by σ or

2
Er
  lim 4R 2
R  Ei

 Generally for large targets , the cross-section of target is large and for simple targets, the
cross-section is moderate.
 Scattering and diffraction are variations of the same physical process. When an object
scatters an electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is defined as the difference between the
total field in the presence of the object and the field that would exist if the object were absent
(but with the sources unchanged). similarly, the total field in the presence of the object is
known as diffracted field.
 Few examples of simple targets are:
1. Sphre
2. Cylinder
3. Flat plate
4. Rod
5. Cone
The analysis of radar cross section of simple sphere and cone-sphere are described below.
Radar cross section of a simple sphere:
Figure: 1 Radar cross section of the sphere. = radius; λ = wavelength.
 The radar cross-section of a sphere is characterized into three regions

1. Raleigh region
2. Optical region
3. Mie or Resonance region
RAYLEIGH REGION:[(2πa/λ) << 1 or a<< λ]
 When the wavelength is large compared to the object‟s dimensions, scattering is said to
be in the Rayleigh region.
 The radar cross-section in the Rayleigh region is proportional to the fourth power of the
frequency, and is determined more by the volume of the scatter than by its sphere.
 At radar frequencies, the echo from rain is usually described by Rayleigh scattering.
 In the Rayleigh region where (2πa/λ) << 1 , the radar cross-section is proportional to
fourth power of the frequency1 i.e
RCSf 4 orRCS 4
 
Where f=frequency=c/λ and c=Velocity of propagation
OPTICAL REGION: :[(2πa/λ) >> 1 or a>> λ]

 At the other extreme, where the wavelength is small compared to the object‟s dimensions
is called the optical region.
 The region where 2πa/λ >> 1 or a >> λ is the optical region.
 In this region, the radar cross-section approaches the physical area of the sphere as
frequency is increased

RCS  a 2
• Where a=Radius of the sphere
MIE OR RESONANCE REGION:[(2πa/λ) =1 or a≈ λ]
 In between the Rayleigh and optical regions is the resonance region where the radar
wavelength is comparable to the object‟s dimensions
 For many objects the RCS is larger in the resonance region than in the other two regions.
 These three distinct scattering regions are illustrated by scattering from the sphere
 A radar cross-section of the sphere in the resonance region oscillates as a function of
frequency, or 2πa/λ.Its maximum occurs at 2πa/λ =1 , and is 5.6 dB greater than its value
in the optical region. The first null is 5.5 dB below the optical region value.
 In this region σ oscillates about the optical cross-section(πa2) with maximum and
minimum values that close together with increasing a/λ. It means that RCS fluctuates
above and below πa2 depending on the exact wavelength
Radar cross section of a cone-sphere:
Figure 2 Radar cross section of a cone sphere with 15o half angle as a function of the diameter
in wavelengths.
 The above figure shows a theoretical normalized nose-on radar cross section of a cone –
sphere based on approximate impulse analysis; 15 deg. half-cone angle(30 deg. Included
cone-angle), a= radius of the sphere, and λ=wavelength. The dashed curve represents the
approximation, σ ≈ 0.1 λ2
 This is a cone whose base is capped with a sphere.
 The above figure is a plot of the calculated nose-on radar cross section of a cone-sphere
with 30 deg. Cone angle as a function of 2πa/λ, where „a‟ is the radius of the sphere.
 The cross section of cone sphere is a very low and is considered to be of ballistic missile.
 A large cross section occurs when a radar views the cone perpendicular to its surface.
5. Explain about radar-cross section fluctuations
ANS
RADAR-CROSS SECTION FLUCTUATIONS:
 In practice, however, the echo signal from a target in motion is almost never constant.
Variations in the echo signal may be caused by meteorological conditions, the lobe
structure of the antenna pattern, equipment instabilities, or variations in the target cross
section. The cross sections of complex targets (the usual type of radar target) are quite
sensitive to aspect .therefore, a s the target aspect changes relative to the radar, variations
in the echo signal will result.
 One method of accounting for a fluctuating cross section in the radar equation is to select
a lower bound, that is, a value of cross section that is exceeded some specified (large)
fraction of time. The fraction of time that the actual cross section exceeds the selected
value would be close to unity (0.95 or 0.99 being typical). For all practical purposes the
value selected is a minimum and the target will always present a cross section greater
than that selected. This procedure results in a conservative prediction of radar range and
has the advantage of simplicity. The minimum cross section of typical aircraft or missile
targets generally occurs at or near the head-on aspect.
 The probability density function and the correlation properties with time must be known
for the particular target and type of trajectory to to properly account for target cross-
section fluctuations
 A true description of the dynamical variations of cross section can be obtained by curves
of cross section as a function of aspect and a knowledge of the trajectory with respect to
the radar. The probability any particular value of target cross section between the values
of σ and σ+dσ can be found using probability-density function and the degree of
correlation of the cross section with time can be described by autocorrelation function
.The complete data about the cross section can not be obtained due to the complex nature
of the most radars. The effects of a fluctuating cross section can be assessed by
postulating a reasonable model for the fluctuations and to analyzing mathematically.
Swerling has calculated the detection probabilities for four different fluctuation models of
cross section. In two of the four cases, it is assumed that the fluctuations are completely
correlated during a particular scan but are completely uncorrelated from scan to scan. I n
the othcr two cases, the fluctuations are assumed to be more rapid and uncorrelated pulse
to pulse. The four fluctuation models are described below:
 Case I . The echo pulses received from a target on any one scan are of constant amplitude
throughout the entire scan but are independent (uncorrelated) from scan to scan. This
assumption ignores the effect of the antenna beam shape on the echo amplitude. An echo
fluctuation of this type will be referred to as scan-to-scan fluctuation. The probability-
density function for the CrOSS section σ is given by tile density function

(1)
where σav is average cross section over all target fluctuations.

 Case 2. The probability-density function for the target cross section is also given by Eq.
(1),but the fluctuations are more rapid than in case 1 and are taken to be independent
from pulse to pulse instead of from scan to scan.
 Case 3 In this case , the fluctuation is assumed to be independent from scan to scan as in
case 1, but the probability density function is given by
(2)
 Case 4 : The fluctuation is pulse to pulse, but with the same pdf as case 3. The
probability-density function assumed in cases 1 and 2 applies to a complex target
consisting of many independent scatterers of approximately equal echoing areas.
Although, in theory, the number of independent scatterers must be essentially infinite, in
practice the number may be as few as four or five. The probability-density function
assumed in cases 3 arid 4 is more indicative of targets that can be represented as one
large reflector together with other small reflectors. In all the above cases, the value of
cross section to be substituted in the radar equation is the average cross section σav. The
signal-to-noise ratio needed to achieve a specified probability of detection without
exceeding a specified false-alarm probability can be calculated for each model of target
behavior. For purposes of comparison, the non-fluctuating cross section will he called
case 5.
6. A radar operating at a wavelength of 3cm has a maximum range of 50Km. Its antenna gain is
2000 and transmitted power is 250KW. Its minimum detectable signal is 10pW. Find the
RCS of the target?
7. What are the different models for representing the fluctuations of radar targets? Explain
any one.
There are two models for representing the fluctuations of radar targets
1. Swerling target models
2. Chi-square target model
Swerling target models: The four fluctuation models are described

below
 Case I . The echo pulses received from a target on any one scan are of constant amplitude
throughout the entire scan but are independent (uncorrelated) from scan to scan. This
assumption ignores the effect of the antenna beam shape on the echo amplitude. An echo
fluctuation of this type will be referred to as scan-to-scan fluctuation. The probability-
density function for the CrOSS section σ is given by tile density function

(1)
where σav is average cross section over all target fluctuations.
 Case 2. The probability-density function for the target cross section is also given by Eq.
(1),but the fluctuations are more rapid than in case 1 and are taken to be independent
from pulse to pulse instead of from scan to scan.
 Case 3 In this case , the fluctuation is assumed to be independent from scan to scan as in
case 1, but the probability density function is given by
(2)
 Case 4 : The fluctuation is pulse to pulse, but with the same pdf as case 3. The
probability-density function assumed in cases 1 and 2 applies to a complex target
consisting of many independent scatterers of approximately equal echoing areas.
Although, in theory, the number of independent scatterers must be essentially infinite, in
practice the number may be as few as four or five. The probability-density function
assumed in cases 3 arid 4 is more indicative of targets that can be represented as one
large reflector together with other small reflectors. In all the above cases, the value of
cross section to be substituted in the radar equation is the average cross section σav. The
signal-to-noise ratio needed to achieve a specified probability of detection without
exceeding a specified false-alarm probability can be calculated for each model of target
behavior. For purposes of comparison, the non-fluctuating cross section will he called
case 5.
Topic Name: Transmitter Power
1. With the help of expressions explain radar transmitter power.

ANS: Let
Pt  Peak power of the pulse

Pav  Average power of radar
 The average power is a more important measure of radar performance than peak power.
 It is defined as the average transmitter power over the duration of the total transmission.
 If the transmitter waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width τ and constant pulse
repetition period Tp
Tp  1/ f p ,  f p  pulse repetition frequency 
• The average power is related to the peak power by

•
Pt 
Pav   Pt f p
Tp
Pav 
Radar duty cycle(duty factor)  or  f p
Pt Tp
• The duty cycle depends on

1.The type of waveform
2.The pulse width
3.Pulse compression
4.Radar range
5.Type of transmitter
• Pulse radars-duty cycles - 0.001 to 0.5, more or less
• CW radar-duty cycle-Unity
• We know that the radar range equation can be written as
Pt GA e nEi (n)
R max 4 
 4  kTo BFn  S / N 1  Lf 
2 1
ne
where Lf  Fluctuation loss

n e  The equivalent number of independent samples int egrated
• For simplicity Lf =1
• Multiply the Nr. & Dr. with τfp , then we will get
•
Pt  f p  GA e nE i (n)
R max 4 
 4  kTo  f p  BFn  S / N 1  Lf 
2 1
ne
But Pt  f p   Pav
Pav GA e nE i (n)
 R max 4 
 4  kTo Fn  B S / N 1 f p
2
• For a well designed radar , Bτ ≈1

• From the definition of duty cycle given above, the energy per pulse
•
E p  Pt 
but Pav  Pt f p
and Pav  E p f p
Pav
 Ep    2
fp
• Substituting eq.(2) in eq.(1) gives the radar equation in terms of energy
E p GA e nE i (n)
R max 4 
 4  kTo Fn  B  S / N 1
2
But nE p  E T  Total energy of n pulses

E T GA e E i (n)
 R max 4 
 4  kTo Fn  B  S / N 1
2
• Pav = Average transmitted power

• G = Antenna gain
• Ae = Antenna aperture
• σ = Radar cross- Section of the target (m²)
• Eᵢ (n) = Integration efficiency

• K = Boltzmann‟s constant = 1.38 ×10ˉ²³ J/deg.
• Fn = Receiver noise figure
• B= Receiver bandwidth (Hz)
• Τ = Pulse Width (sec)
• (S/N)1 =SNR required as if direction were based on only single pulse
• fp =Pulse repetition frequency (Hz)
• Ep =Energy per pulse
• ET = nEp = Total energy of n pulses
2. A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 MW. It has a PRT equal to 1000 micro sec. and the
transmitted pulse width is 1 micro sec. Calculate (i) Maximum unambiguous range (ii) Average
Power (iii)Duty Cycle (iv) Energy transmitted.
SOLUTION
3. If the peak power of a radar is 100 KW, PRF is 1000 Hz, and the pulse width is 1 μs,
calculate the average power in dB.
Solution : Given data
Pt  100 KW
PRF  1000 Hz
PW    1 s
Pavg (dB)  ?

Pavg  Pt 
PRT
1 1
PRT    103 s
PRF 1000
1106
Pavg  100 103   100W
103
Pavg  dB   10 log10  Pavg 
Pavg  dB   10 log10 100 
Pavg  dB   10 log10 10   20dB
2
Pavg  dB   20dB
4. Determine the peak power and duty cycle of a radar whose average transmitter power is 200
W, pulse width of 1 μs and pulse repetition frequency of 1000 Hz.

Pavg  200 W
PW    1 s
PRF  1000 Hz
Pt  Ppeak  ?
Duty cycle( DC )  ?
Pavg
Peak power  Pt or Ppeak 
PW  PRF
200
Ppeak   200 KW
1106 1000
Ppeak  200 KW
Pavg 200
Duty cycle( DC )    103  0.001
Ppeak 200 10 3
5. Determine the peak power and duty cycle of a radar whose average transmitter power is
100 W , pulse width of 0.5 μs and pulse repetition frequency of 2000 Hz.
Pavg  100 W
PW    0.5 s
PRF  2000 Hz
Pt  Ppeak  ?
Duty cycle( DC )  ?
Pavg
Peak power  Pt or Ppeak 
PW  PRF
100
Ppeak   1MW
0.5 106  2000
Ppeak  1MW
Pavg
100
Duty cycle( DC )   104  0.0001

Ppeak 106
6. Calculate the average power when the peak power is 200 KW, pulse width is 2 and rest
time is 2000 seconds

Ppeak  Pt  200 W
PW    2ms
Rest Time( RT )  2000 s  2 ms
Pavg  ?
PRT  PW  RT  2 103  2 10 3  4 ms
PRT  4 ms

Pavg  Pt 
PRT
2 103
Pavg  200 103   100 103W
4 103
Pavg  100 KW
Topic Name: PRF and Range Ambiguities
1. Explain about PRF and range Ambiguities.
ANS
• The above fig. shows multiple time around echoes that give rise to ambiguities in range.
(a) Three targets A, B and C where A is within Runamb, and B and C are multiple time
around targets (b) The appearance of the three targets on the A-scope (c) Appearance of
the three targets on A-scope with a changing prf
• PRF is often determined by the maximum unambiguous range beyond which targets are
not expected
PRF  f p   c / 2R un
• If the PRF is made too high , the likelihood of obtaining target echoes from the wrong
pulse transmission is increased.
• Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the PRP(Pulse Repetition Period) are
called multiple time around echoes.
• These can result in erroneous or confusing range measurements.
• Consider three targets A, B and C.
• Target A is located within the maximum unambiguous range Runamb
• Target B is at a distance greater than Runamb but less than 2 Runamb
• Target B is a second time around echo.
• Target C is greater than 2 Runamb but less than 3 Runamb
• Target C is a multiple time around echo.
• When these three pulse repetition intervals(PRI), or sweeps, are superimposed on a radar
display such as the A scope of Fig.(b) or a PPI, the ambiguous echoes(B and C) look no
different from the unambiguous- range echo of A.
• Only the range A is correct, but it can not be determined from this display that the other
two are not at their apparent range.
• The multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be distinguished from proper
target echoes actually within the maximum unambiguous range. Only the range measured
for target A is correct; those for B and C are not.
• One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from unambiguous echoes is
to operate with a varying pulse repetition frequency.
• Ambiguous range echoes can be recognized by changing the PRF of the radar.
• When the PRF is changed, the unambiguous echo(at a range less than Run) remains at its
true range.
• Ambiguous range echoes , however, appear at different apparent ranges for each prf.
• An example of how these three echoes might appear on an A-scope is shown in Fig.(c).
Thus the ambiguous target ranges can be readily identified.
• If the first PRF f1 has an unambiguous range Run1 and if the apparent range measured
with prf f1 is denoted R1 ,then the true range is one of the following
R true  R1 ,or  R1  R un1  ,or  R1  2R un1  ,or......

• Anyone of these might be the true range.
• To find which is correct, the prf is changed to f2 with an unambiguous range Run2, and if
the apparent measured range is R2, the true range is one of the following
R true  R 2 ,or  R 2  R un2  ,or  R 2  2R un2  ,or......

• The correct range is that value which is the same with the two prfs.
2. What is PRF ?How to measure it?

ANS
PRF:PRF stands for pulse repetitive frequency. The number of RADAR pulses transmitted
per second is known as Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRF) or Pulse Repetition Rate(PRR). It is
equal to the reciprocal of PRT. It is measured in Hz.
1
PRF 
PRT
 The pulse repetition frequency can be measured by using pulse repetition period(PRT)
 PRF cal also be measured by knowing maximum unambiguous range(Runamb)
3. Explain the factor which govern the pulse repetition frequency in RADAR.
ANS
In general, pulsed radar transmits and receives a train of pulses, as illustrated by Figure given
below. The Inter Pulse Period (IPP) is T , and the pulse width is Δt . The IPP is often referred to
as the Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI). The inverse of the PRI is the PRF, which is denoted by fr,
 PRF is often governed by the maximum unambiguous range, Run, beyond which targets
are not expected. The maximum range Run is given by
 So to keep Run larger fr must be kept smaller i.e. pulses must be transmitted at lower
rate, so that the echo from target gets sufficient time to reach to RADAR and the range of
the target detected remain unambiguous.
 Other factors affecting the fr are the echoes from beyond the maximum unambiguous
range, such as large target or clutter source ( like mountain). Such echoes arrive at a time
later than the pulse-repetition interval and are called second-time-around echoes. Such
echoes reflect the false position of the actual target. In order to avoid such ambiguity in
range by changing the fr.
4. Calculate the minimum pulse interval and pulse repetition frequency required for Radar to
detect unambiguous targets up to a range of 125miles?

Run  125 miles
Minimum pulse Interval ( PRT )  ?
PRF  ?
1 mile  1.6 Km
c
Run 
2 PRF
c
PRF 
2 Run
3 108
PRF   745.8 Hz
2 125 1.6 103
1 1
PRTor PRI    1.34 ms
PRF 745.8
5. Calculate the minimum pulse interval and pulse repetition frequency required for
Radar to detect unambiguous target, upto a range of 125 Km.

Run  125 Km
Minimum pulse Interval ( PRT )  ?
PRF  ?
1 mile  1.6 Km
c
Run 
2 PRF
c
PRF 
2 Run
3 108
PRF   1200 Hz  1.2 KHz
2  125 103
1 1
PRTor PRI    0.83 ms
PRF 1200
6. Explain the need of PRF?
ANS
Within radar technology PRF is important since it determines the maximum target range (Rmax)
and maximum Doppler velocity (Vmax) that can be accurately determined by the radar.
Conversely, a high PRR/PRF can enhance target discrimination of nearer objects, such as a
periscope or fast moving missile.
7. Find the pulse repetition frequency of a radar in order to achieve a maximum unambiguous
range of 50 nmi. and if the radar has a peak power of 600 kW, what is its average power with
a pulse width of 1.8 μs.
Run  50 nmi
Pt  600 KW
PW    1.8  s
PRF  ?
Pavg  ?
1 nmi  1852 m  1.852 Km
c
Run 
2 PRF
c
PRF 
2 Run
3 108
PRF   17818.57 Hz  17.8 KHz
2  50 1.852 103
1 1
PRTor PRI    5.6  105 s  0.56  s
PRF 17.8 10 3

Pavg  Pt 
PRT
1.8 106
Pavg  600  103   1.92 MW
0.56 106
Pavg  1.92 MW
Topic Name: System Losses

1. Write about radar system losses. Or List various losses in radar system or Discuss
types of system losses in Radar system.or What type of losses may exist in radar system?
Explain in detail?
2. Explain in detail antenna losses in system losses.
ANS
Antenna losses include radiation loss, beam shape loss, scanning loss, radome and phased array
losses.
3. List out and Explain any two types of system losses?or List out the system losses and
explain any two losses?
4. Explain how system losses effects the radar range
The losses reduce the SNR at the receiver output.Therefore, the max. range of radar will
be increased.
Another parameter that that has a profound effect on the radar range performance is the
propagation medium.
5. Define operator loss? What is the efficiency factor of operator?
Operator loss. An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator should perform as well as
described by theory. However, when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not properly trained,
operator performance will decrease. There is little guidance available on how to account
for the performance of an operator.
Based an both empirical and experimental results, one study6' gives the operatorefficiency
factor as
 where Pd is tlie single-scan probability of detection. This was said to apply to a good
operator viewing a PPI under good conditions. Its degree of applicability, however, is not
clear
6. Explain the antenna beam-shape loss in Radar

7. List out the types of plumbing losses?(NOV-2016 SET-1 7M)
ANS
The types of plumbing losses are
1. Transmission line loss
2. Connector Loss
3. Rotary-joint loss
4. Duplexer loss
Transmission line loss:
A finite amount of loss always present in the transmission line which connects the antenna to the transmitter
known as transmitter line loss.
Connector Loss: A poor connection of line at each connection of line and a bend in the line results into connecto
Rotary-joint loss: a waveguide rotary joint is used to connect two RF waveguides in radioi
communication . This joint/connection results in to rotary joint.
Duplexer loss: A gas duplexer is used to protect the receiver from the large transmitted power
which produces an amount of loss called “duplexer loss”.
Unit-II
CW and Frequency Modulated Radar : Doppler Effect, CW Radar – Block Diagram, Isolation
between Transmitter and Receiver, Non-zero IF Receiver, Receiver Bandwidth Requirements,
Applications of CW radar. Illustrative Problems
FM-CW Radar: Range and Doppler Measurement, Block Diagram and Characteristics, FM-
CW altimeter, Multiple Frequency CW Radar.
Topic Name: Doppler Effect, CW Radar – Block Diagram
1. Write about Doppler principle

ANS
• Doppler effect was discovered by Doppler, an Australian mathematician.

• PRINCIPLE OF DOPPLER EFFECT: The radars radiate EM waves towards the targets
for detection and also to obtain details of the target . When the target is stationary, the
frequency of the received echoes is constant. However, when the target is moving, the
frequency of the received echoes are found to be different from transmitted frequency
If the target approaches the radar, the frequency is increased and if the target
moves away from the radar, the frequency is decreased . In other words, in the moving
targets, there exists a frequency shift in the received echo signals.
2. Prove that fd ≈ υr /λ.

ANS
• Doppler effect that changes the frequency of the EM signal that propagates from the radar
to a moving target and back to the radar.
• If R= The distance from the radar to the target
• The two-way path between the radar and the target(In wavelengths)=2R/λ
• Each wavelength corresponds to a phase change of 2π radians.
• The total phase change in the two-way propagation path is
2R 4R
  2   1
 
• If the target is in motion relative to the radar, R is changing and so will the phase.
• Differentiating the above equation with respect to time gives the rate of change of phase,
which is the angular frequency(or Doppler angular frequency , ωd) given by
d d  4R  4 dR
 d   
dt dt     dt
dR
But v r   Relative velocity or radial velocity  m / s 
dt
4v r  2v 
d   2  r 
   
2v
But r  f d  Doppler frequency shift

d  2f d
2v r 2v r 2v f 2v f
fd    r t or r o
 c ft  c c
f t or f o  Transmitted frequency c  Velocity of light  3 108 m / s
• If fd is in Hz, vr in knots and λ in meters, we can write
1.03vr  kt  v r  kt 
f d  Hz   
  m   m
• If , as in above fig., the angle between the target‟s velocity vector and the radar line of
sight to the target is θ, then vr =v cos θ, where v=speed or magnitude of the vector
velocity
• The relative velocity vr may be written as
• vr =v cos θ, but fd =2 vr /λ
• fd =2 v cos θ /λ
• v=speed of the target
• θ =Angle made by target trajectory and line joining radar and target.
• When θ=0, the Doppler frequency is maximum i.e. (fd )max =2v/λ
• When θ=900 Doppler frequency is zero i.e. (fd )min =0
3. What is Doppler effect? Derive the expression for Doppler

frequency shift in terms of relative velocity of target with
respect to radar.
DOPPLER EFFECT: The presence of frequency shift in the received echo signals in the
radar due to moving targets is known as Doppler Effect.
DERIVATION:
2R 4R
  2   1
 
d d  4R  4 dR
 d   
dt dt     dt
dR
dt
4v r  2v 
d   2  r 
   
2v

d  2f d
2v r 2v r 2v f 2v f
 c ft  c c
1.03vr  kt  v r  kt 
f d  Hz   
  m   m
velocity
4. Derive the Doppler frequency in CW radar? List out the
limitations in CW radar?
ANS
Fig: Calculation of Doppler frequency shift
2R 4R
  2   1
 
d d  4R  4 dR
 d   
dt dt     dt
dR
dt
4v r  2v 
d   2  r 
   
2v

d  2f d
2v r 2v r 2v f 2v f
 c ft  c c
1.03vr  kt  v r  kt 
f d  Hz   
  m   m
velocity
DISADVANTAGES OF CW RADAR
1. The maximum of CW doppler is limited by the power that radar can radiate.
2. The target range can not be calculated by CW doppler radar.
3. There is possibility of ambiguous results when number of targets are more.
5. If the target and the Frequency source are moving close to each other,
with constant velocity, explain the change in the frequency?
ANS
 Doppler effect implies that the frequency of a wave when transmitted by a source is not
necessarily the same as the frequency of the transmitted wave when picked up by a
receiver. The received frequency depends upon the relative motion between the
transmitter and receiver. If the transmitter and receiver both are moving towards each
other, the received frequency is higher.
6. Draw the block diagram of a simple CW-Radar and explain

the function?
ANS
Fig: Simple CW Radar and response characteristic of beat frequency amplifier

 CW radar is a Continuous wave radar.
 It utilizes the Doppler frequency shift to detect moving targets.
 CW radar makes use of the Doppler effect for target speed measurements
 The CW radar based on the concept of Doppler effect. Hence it is called Doppler radar.
 CW radar detects objects and measures velocity from Doppler shift. It can not measure
RANGE . It can be monostatic or bistatic.
 It transmits continuous, EM waves and receives reflected echo signals from the objects in
the path of the beam.
 The CW radar gives bearing, elevation angle and velocity of object . It does not give
information about range. It is used for navigation.
Measurement of velocity of target using CW radar

 The velocity of the moving object is determined by
vt = (fd / ft )(vo / 2 )
Here vt = Velocity of the target
f d = Doppler shift frequency
f t = Transmitter frequency
Vo = Free-space velocity of EM wave
OPERATION:
 Unlike a pulse radar, a CW radar transmits while it receives.
 The transmitter generates a continuous (unmodulated) sinusoidal oscillation at frequency
f t , which is then radiated by the antenna.
 On reflection by a moving target , the transmitted signal is shifted by the Doppler effect
by an amount + or – fd .
 The + sign applies when the distance between radar and target is decreasing (a closing
target); thus, the echo signal from a closing target has a larger frequency than that which
was transmitted.
 The minus sign applies when the distance is increasing(a receding target).
 To utilize Doppler frequency shift a radar must be able to recognize that the received
echo signal has a frequency different from that which was transmitted.
 this is the function of that portion of the transmitter signal that finds its way(or leaks) into
the receiver, as indicated in above fig.
 The transmitter leakage signal acts as a reference to determine that a frequency change
has taken place.
 The detector or mixer multiplies the echo signal at a frequency (ft + or – fd )with the
transmitter leakage signal ft .
 The Doppler filter allows the difference frequency from the detector to pass and rejects
the higher frequencies.
 The filter characteristic is shown in above fig. just below the doppler filter block.
 It has a lower frequency cut-off to remove from the receiver output the transmitter
leakage signal and clutter echoes. The upper frequency cut-off is determined by the
maximum radial velocity expected of moving targets
 The doppler filter passes signals with a doppler frequency fd located within its passband,
but the sign of the doppler is lost along with the direction of the target motion.
ADVANTAGES OF CW RADAR
1) CW radar has no blind speed.
2) CW doppler radar is capable of giving accurate measurements of relative velocities.
3) CW doppler radars are always on, they need low power and are compact in size.
4). They can be used for small to large range with high degree of efficiency and accuracy
5)The performance of radar is not affected by stationary object
7. Calculate the Doppler frequency of an aircraft moving with a speed of 550 Knots and when
the CW radar is working with λ=8cms
Re lative velocity (Vr )  550 Knots
  8cm  0.08m
Doppler frequency ( f d )  ?
1.03Vr  Kt 
f d  Hz  
  m
1.03  550
f d  Hz    7081.25 Hz
0.08
8. If stationary CW radar transmits at a frequency of 6GHz, find Doppler frequency due to a

target moving with a radial velocity of 200km/hr?
Radial velocity (Vr )  200 km / h   200 1000  / 3600  55.5m / sec
f  6 GHz
c 3 108
   0.05m
f 6 109
Doppler shift is given by
2V 2  55.5
f d or f  r   2220 Hz  2.2 KHz
 0.05
9. A target with initial velocity of 100 Km/hr closes to the CW radar , which is operated at 20
GHz . Calculate the Doppler frequency of the target.
Radial velocity (Vr )  100 km / h  100 1000  / 3600  27.7 m / sec
f  20 GHz
c 3 108
   0.015m
f 20 109
2V 2  27.7
f d or f  r   3693.3 Hz  3.69 KHz
 0.015
10. Calculate the Doppler frequency of a stationary CW radar transmitting at 4 GHz when a
moving target approaches the radar with aradial velocity of 90 km/hour.
Radial velocity (Vr )  90 km / h   90 1000  / 3600  25m / sec
f  4 GHz
c 3 108
   0.075m
f 4 109
2V 2  25
f d or f  r   666.67 Hz
 0.075
11. What is Doppler effect? Write the applications and limits of

CW radar.
ANS
DOPPLER EFFECT: The presence of frequency shift in the received echo signals in the
radar due to moving targets is known as Doppler Effect.
APPLICATIONS OF CW DOPPLER RADAR
1. CW doppler radars are used where only velocity information information is of interest
and actual range is not needed, e.g. in police radar for catching cars travelling above
the speed limit
2. Measuring motion of waves on water level
3. Traffic counters
4. Intrusion alarm
5. Runway monitors
6. Cricket ball speed measurement
LIMITATIONS OF CW RADAR
12. Write the merits and demerits of continuous wave radar

MERITS OF CW RADAR
1. CW radar has no blind speed.
2. CW doppler radar is capable of giving accurate measurements of relative velocities.
3. CW doppler radars are always on, they need low power and are compact in size.
4. They can be used for small to large range with high degree of efficiency and accuracy
DEMERITS OF CW RADR:
13. What is the major limitation of CW Radar and how it can

be overcome?
ANS
 One of the greatest shortcomings of the simple CW radar is its inability to obtain a
measurement of range. This limitation can be overcome by modulating the CW carrier, as
in the frequency-modulated radar.
Topic Name: Isolation between Transmitter and Receiver, Non-zero IF

Receiver
1. Discuss the following a) Non-Zero IF receiver b) Isolation between the transmitter
and receiver.
ANS
Non-Zero IF receiver
1. CW type receivers are called homodyne receivers, or super heterodyne receivers with zero
IF.The function of the local oscillator is replaced by the leakage signal from the transmitter.
2. The simpler receiver is not as sensitive because of increased noise at the lower intermediate
frequencies caused by flicker effect.
3. Flicker-effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as diode detectors and
cathodes of vacuum tubes.
4. The noise power produced by the flicker effect varies as 1/fα where alpha is approximately
unity.This is in contrast to shot noise or thermal noise, which is independent of frequency.
5. Generally flicker noise would be high at lower freq. Due to flicker noise receiver sensitivity
decreases. The effects of flicker noise overcome in the normal super heterodyne receiver by
using an intermediate frequency high enough, increase Transmitter power, or increase
antenna aperture.
6. Instead of the usual local oscillator found in the conventional super heterodyne receiver, the
local oscillator (or reference signal) is derived in the receiver from a portion of
thetransmitted signal mixed with a locally generated signal of frequency equal to that of the
receiver IF.
7. Since the output of the mixer consists of two sidebands on either side of the carrier plus
higher harmonics, a narrowband filter selects one of the sidebands as the reference signal.
8. The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an intermediate-frequency super heterodyne
might be as much as 30 dB over the simple receiver.
ADVANTAGES
1. The effeccts of flicker noise can be drastically reduced
2. Because of the high receiver sensitivity, it is preferred in maximum efficiency CW radars.
3. The sensitivity of non-zero IF receiver is much higher than simpler CW receiver i.e. around
30 dB.
b) Isolation between the transmitter and receiver.

ANS
 A singe antenna serves the purpose of transmission and reception in the simple CW radar. In
principle, a single antenna may be employed since the necessary isolation between the
transmitted and received signals is achieved via separation in frequency as a result of the
Doppler effect.
 The amount of isolation required depends on the transmitter power and the accompanying
transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and the sensitivity of the receiver.
 For example, if the safe value of the power which might be applied to a receiver were 10 mW
and if the transmitter power were 1 kW, the isolation between transmitter and receiver must
be at least 50 dB.
 The amount of isolation needed in a long range CW radar is more often determined by the
noise that accompanies the transmitter leakage signal rather than by any damage caused by
high power.
 For example, suppose the isolation between the transmitter and receiver were such that 10
mW of leakage signal appeared at the receiver.
 It will be recalled that the receiver of a pulsed radar is isolated and protected from the
damaging effects of the transmitted pulse by the DUPLEXER , which short circuits the
receiver input during the transmission period.
 Isolation between transmitter and receiver might be obtained with a single antenna by using a
HYBRID JUNCTION, CIRCULATOR, TURNSTILE JUNCTION, or with SEPARATE
POLARIZATIONS.
 If an isolation of 20 dB is to be obtained the VSWR must be less than 1.22. If 40 dB of
isolation is required , the VSWR must be less than 1.02.
 The largest isolations are obtained with two antennas one for transmission, the other for
reception-physically separated from one another.
 Isolations of the order of 80 dB or more are possible with high gain antennas.
 The more directive the antenna beam and the greater the spacing between antennas, the
greater will be the isolation.
 Typical isolations between transmitting and receiving antennas on missiles might be about 50
dB at X-band, 70 dB at K-band and as low as 20 dB at L-band.
 Metallic baffles, as well as absorbing material, placed between the antennas can provide
additional isolation.
2. Draw and explain CW radar with nonzero IF receiver or With

the help of a suitable block diagram, explain the operation of a
CW radar with nonzero IF in the receiver.
ANS
3. CW type receivers are called homodyne receivers, or super heterodyne receivers with zero
IF.The function of the local oscillator is replaced by the leakage signal from the transmitter.
4. The simpler receiver is not as sensitive because of increased noise at the lower intermediate
frequencies caused by flicker effect.
5. Flicker-effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as diode detectors and
cathodes of vacuum tubes.
6. The noise power produced by the flicker effect varies as 1/fα where alpha is approximately
unity.This is in contrast to shot noise or thermal noise, which is independent of frequency.
7. Generally flicker noise would be high at lower freq. Due to flicker noise receiver sensitivity
decreases. The effects of flicker noise overcome in the normal super heterodyne receiver by
using an intermediate frequency high enough, increase Transmitter power, or increase
antenna aperture.
8. Instead of the usual local oscillator found in the conventional super heterodyne receiver, the
local oscillator (or reference signal) is derived in the receiver from a portion of
thetransmitted signal mixed with a locally generated signal of frequency equal to that of the
receiver IF.
9. Since the output of the mixer consists of two sidebands on either side of the carrier plus
10. The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an intermediate-frequency super heterodyne
might be as much as 30 dB over the simple receiver.
ADVANTAGES
4. The effeccts of flicker noise can be drastically reduced
5. Because of the high receiver sensitivity, it is preferred in maximum efficiency CW radars.
6. The sensitivity of non-zero IF receiver is much higher than simpler CW receiver i.e. around
30 dB.
3.Discuss the concept of Isolation between transmitter and

receiver or Why isolation is needed between the transmitter
and receiver in CW radar.
ANS
 Isolation between transmitter and receiver might be obtained with a single antenna by
using a hybrid junction, circulator, turnstile junction, or with separate polarizations.
Separate antennas for transmitting and receiving might also be used.
 A singe antenna serves the purpose of transmission and reception in the simple CW radar. In
principle, a single antenna may be employed since the necessary isolation between the
transmitted and received signals is achieved via separation in frequency as a result of the
Doppler effect.
transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and the sensitivity of the receiver.
 For example, if the safe value of the power which might be applied to a receiver were 10 mW
and if the transmitter power were 1 kW, the isolation between transmitter and receiver must
be at least 50 dB.
 The amount of isolation needed in a long range CW radar is more often determined by the
noise that accompanies the transmitter leakage signal rather than by any damage caused by
high power.
 For example, suppose the isolation between the transmitter and receiver were such that 10
mW of leakage signal appeared at the receiver.
 It will be recalled that the receiver of a pulsed radar is isolated and protected from the
damaging effects of the transmitted pulse by the DUPLEXER , which short circuits the
receiver input during the transmission period.
 Isolation between transmitter and receiver might be obtained with a single antenna by using a
HYBRID JUNCTION, CIRCULATOR, TURNSTILE JUNCTION, or with SEPARATE
POLARIZATIONS.
 If an isolation of 20 dB is to be obtained the VSWR must be less than 1.22. If 40 dB of
isolation is required , the VSWR must be less than 1.02.
 The largest isolations are obtained with two antennas one for transmission, the other for
reception-physically separated from one another.
 Isolations of the order of 80 dB or more are possible with high gain antennas.
 The more directive the antenna beam and the greater the spacing between antennas, the
greater will be the isolation.
 Typical isolations between transmitting and receiving antennas on missiles might be about 50
dB at X-band, 70 dB at K-band and as low as 20 dB at L-band.
 Metallic baffles, as well as absorbing material, placed between the antennas can provide
additional isolation.
 Among its disadvantages is the fact that the amplitude of the signal that can be transmitted by
a CW radar is dependent on the isolation that can be achieved between the transmitter and the
receiver since the transmitter noise that finds its way into the receiver limits the receiver
sensitivity.
 A single antenna serves the purpose of transmission and reception in the simple CW radar
described above. In principle, a single antenna may be employed since the necessary isolation
between the transmitted and the received signals is achieved via separation in frequency as a
result of the doppler effect.
4. What are the factors that limit the amount of isolation between
transmitter and receiver of CW radar?Explain.
ANS
 A single antenna serves the purpose of both transmission and reception in the simple CW
radar. In principle, a single antenna is sufficient as the necessary isolation is obtained by
the separation in frequency (as a result of doppler effect), in practice there is considerable
transmitter leakage.
 However, there are two reasons why the amount of transmitter leakage power should be
kept at a low value. 1. The maximum power the receiver input circuitry can withstand,
without being physically damaged or having its sensitivity reduced, is quite low. 2. The
transmitter noise which enters the receiver from the transmitter reduces receiver
sensitivity.
 The amount of isolation required depends on the transmitter power and the
accompanying transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and sensitivity of the receiver.
 Turning off the receiver during transmission with a duplexer is not possible in a CW
radar since the transmitter is operated continuously. Isolation between transmitter and
receiver might be obtained with a single antenna by using a hybrid junction, circulator,
turnstile junction, or with separate polarizations.
5. Explain the need of Isolation between transmitter and receiver.

ANS
 Among its disadvantages is the fact that the amplitude of the signal that can be transmitted by
a CW radar is dependent on the isolation that can be achieved between the transmitter and the
receiver since the transmitter noise that finds its way into the receiver limits the receiver
sensitivity.
 A single antenna serves the purpose of both transmission and reception in the simple CW
radar. In principle, a single antenna is sufficient as the necessary isolation is obtained by
the separation in frequency (as a result of doppler effect), in practice there is considerable
transmitter leakage.
 However, there are two reasons why the amount of transmitter leakage power should be
kept at a low value. 1. The maximum power the receiver input circuitry can withstand,
without being physically damaged or having its sensitivity reduced, is quite low. 2. The
transmitter noise which enters the receiver from the transmitter reduces receiver
sensitivity.
transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and sensitivity of the receiver.
 Turning off the receiver during transmission with a duplexer is not possible in a CW
radar since the transmitter is operated continuously. Isolation between transmitter and
receiver might be obtained with a single antenna by using a hybrid junction, circulator,
turnstile junction, or with separate polarizations.
6. What is the need of Non-zero IF receiver? Explain

the function
ANS
 The continuous wave radar with non zero IF provides isolation between transmitter and
receiver. Separate antennas are used for transmission and reception to reduce the signal
leakage.
 The effects of flicker noise are overcome in the normal super heterodyne receiver by
using an intermediate frequency high enough to make the flicker noise small compared
with the normal receiver noise.
 This results from the inverse frequency dependence of flicker noise. Figure below shows
the block diagram of a CW radar whose receiver operates with a nonzero IF.
 Separate antennas are shown for transmission and reception. Instead of the usual local
oscillator found in the conventional super heterodyne receiver, the local oscillator (or
reference signal) is derived in the receiver from a portion of the transmitted signal mixed
with a locally generated signal of frequency equal to that of the receiver IF.
 Since the output of the mixer consists of two sidebands on either side of the carrier plus
The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an intermediate-frequency super heterodyne
might be as much as 30 dB over the simple zero IF receiver discussed earlier.
Topic Name: Receiver Bandwidth Requirements, Applications of CW

radar.
1. Explain the importance of receiver bandwidth?
ANS
 The receiver frequency response is governed by the width of the pulses which it is
desired to receive.
 The narrower the pulses, the greater is the video IF bandwidth with a given pulse width,
the receiver BW may vary, depending on the number of harmonics of the PRF required
so as to receive a suitable pulse shape.
 The IF bandwidth of a radar receiver is usually expressed as
 (BW)IF = n / T
 Where n = the number which ranges from 1 to 10
 T = Pulse duration
 Bandwidth B, BW or Δf is the difference between the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies of a radar receiver, and is typically measured in hertz.
 In case of a baseband channel or video signal, the bandwidth is equal to its upper cut-off
frequency. In a Radar receiver the bandwidth is mostly determined by the IF filter stages.
 IF amplifier should be wide enough to pass the expected range of Doppler frequencies.
 Usually expected range of Doppler frequencies will be much higher than the frequency
spectrum occupied by the signal energy . So a wide band amplifier is needed.
 which result in an increase in noise and a lowering of the receiver sensitivity and S/N.
 If the frequency of the Doppler-shifted echo signal are known beforehand, narrowband
filter-that is just wide enough to reduce the excess noise without eliminating a significant
amount of signal energy might be used.
 If the received waveform were a sine wave of infinite duration, its frequency spectrum
would be a delta function as shown in the figure (a) below and the receiver bandwidth
would be infinitesimal.
 But a sine wave of infinite duration and an infinitesimal bandwidth cannot occur in
nature. The more normal situation is an echo signal which is a sine wave of finite
duration.
2. Write the applications of CW radar.
ANS
1. CW Doppler radars are used where only velocity information is of interest and actual
range is not needed, e.g. in police radar for catching cars travelling above the speed limit
3. Traffic counters
4. Intrusion alarm
5. Runway monitors
3. With a suitable diagram explain the working principle of

simple CW radar And simple pulse radar to extract ‘fd’ from a
moving target?
ANS
CW radar
Fig: Simple CW Radar and response characteristic of beat frequency amplifier

 CW radar makes use of the Doppler effect for target speed measurements
 The CW radar based on the concept of Doppler effect. Hence it is called Doppler radar.
 CW radar detects objects and measures velocity from Doppler shift. It can not measure
RANGE . It can be monostatic or bistatic.
 It transmits continuous, EM waves and receives reflected echo signals from the objects in
the path of the beam.
 The CW radar gives bearing, elevation angle and velocity of object . It does not give
information about range. It is used for navigation.
Measurement of velocity of target using CW radar

 The velocity of the moving object is determined by
vt = (fd / ft )(vo / 2 )
Here vt = Velocity of the target
f d = Doppler shift frequency
f t = Transmitter frequency
Vo = Free-space velocity of EM wave
OPERATION:
 Unlike a pulse radar, a CW radar transmits while it receives.
 The transmitter generates a continuous (unmodulated) sinusoidal oscillation at frequency
f t , which is then radiated by the antenna.
 On reflection by a moving target , the transmitted signal is shifted by the Doppler effect
by an amount + or – fd .
 The + sign applies when the distance between radar and target is decreasing (a closing
target); thus, the echo signal from a closing target has a larger frequency than that which
was transmitted.
 The minus sign applies when the distance is increasing(a receding target).
 To utilize Doppler frequency shift a radar must be able to recognize that the received
echo signal has a frequency different from that which was transmitted.
 this is the function of that portion of the transmitter signal that finds its way(or leaks) into
the receiver, as indicated in above fig.
 The transmitter leakage signal acts as a reference to determine that a frequency change
has taken place.
 The detector or mixer multiplies the echo signal at a frequency (ft + or – fd )with the
transmitter leakage signal ft .
 The Doppler filter allows the difference frequency from the detector to pass and rejects
the higher frequencies.
 The filter characteristic is shown in above fig. just below the doppler filter block.
 It has a lower frequency cut-off to remove from the receiver output the transmitter
leakage signal and clutter echoes. The upper frequency cut-off is determined by the
maximum radial velocity expected of moving targets
 The doppler filter passes signals with a doppler frequency fd located within its passband,
but the sign of the doppler is lost along with the direction of the target motion.
ADVANTAGES OF CW RADAR
4) CW radar has no blind speed.
5) CW doppler radar is capable of giving accurate measurements of relative velocities.
6) CW doppler radars are always on, they need low power and are compact in size.
4). They can be used for small to large range with high degree of efficiency and accuracy
5)The performance of radar is not affected by stationary object
SIMPLE PULSE RADAR
Fig: Block diagram of a simple pulse radar that extracts Doppler frequency shift of the echo
signal from the moving target.
 The pulse radar uses amplitude modulation.
 It transmits and receives a train of modulated pulses.
 It detects the targets, measures range and velocity.
 But it has blind speeds and ranges.
 A pulse radar that utilizes the doppler to detect moving targets in clutter.
 The pulsed radar is used to determine the direction and distance of the target. It also
measures altitude of the target, if necessary.
 Pulsed radar is a radar , which transmits EM waves in the form of bursts or pulses . It
measures the time interval between transmitted and received pulses.
 The pulse radar also measures the range of the target . It measures the slant range by
determining the time taken by transmitted pulse to come back to the receiver.
 The CW radar may be converted into a pulse radar by providing a power amplifier and a
modulator to turn the amplifier ON and OFF to generate pulses.
 The output of a stable CW oscillator is amplified by a half-power amplifier.
 The amplifier is turned ON and OFF (modulated) to generate a series of high power-
pulses.
 The received echo signal is mixed with the output of the CW oscillator which acts as a
coherent reference to allow recognition of any change in the received echo signal
frequency.
 By coherent is meant that the phase of the transmitted pulse preserved in the reference
signal . The change in frequency is detected (recognized) by the doppler filter.
APPLICATIONS OF PULSED RADAR

The pulsed radar is used to find the target‟s
 Range
 Bearing and elevation angle
 Height
Topic Name: Range and Doppler Measurement, Block

Diagram and Characteristics, , FM-CW altimeter
1. Draw a block diagram of the FMCW radar and explain its

operation
ANS
 The inability of the simple CW radar to measure range is related to the relatively narrow
bandwidth of its transmitted waveforms.
 The problem can be overcome by frequency modulating the transmitted carrier . Use of
FM will require bandwidth of the system
 FM-CW radar is used to detect range as well as velocity of the target.
 The most common application of a FM-CW radar is the airborne altimeter.
OPERATION : A block diagram illustrating the principle of FM-CW radar is shown in above
fig.
 A portion of the transmitted signal acts as the reference signal required to produce the
beat frequency. It is introduced directly into the receiver via a cable or other direct
connection.
 Ideally the isolation between transmitting and receiving antennas is made sufficiently
large so as to reduce to a negligible level the transmitter leakage signal which arrives at
the receiver via the coupling between antennas.
 The beat frequency is amplified and limited to remove any amplitude fluctuations. The
frequency of the amplitude limited beat note is measured with a cycle-counting frequency
meter calibrated in distance.
2. Mention salient features of FMCW radar
ANS
The important characteristics of FM-CW radar is
1. FMCW radar employ frequency modulation technique.It is commonly used to detect and
measure the objects their range and radial velocities.
2. The transmitted power of FMCW radar is comparatively low which is usually supplied
through oscillator magnetron and reflex klystron.
3. FMCW radar is also known as altimeter.It employs super heterodyne receiver which
provides good stability and sensitivity
4. It has higher bandwidth than that of CW radar.
5. The changing frequency of FMCW radar determines its timing mark.
6. The difference between the frequency of echo signal and transmitted signal determines
the transmit time of FMCW radar.
7. The principle of FMCW radar is generally employed in aircraft radio altimeter to
determine slant angle, bearing angle and elevation angle.
8. The range(R) can be determined by measuring the frequency(fr)
2R
fr   2 fm 
Vo
i.e. Where
f m  Modulaing frequency
R  Range
The up and down beat frequencies are calculated using the expressions,
fb (up)=fr - fd
fb (down)=fr + fd
Where fr Range frequency
fd = Doppler shift
Alternating, range can also be calculated using
t
R  v0
2
3. Explain various Measurement Errors in FMCW radar.
ANS
Since the fixed error is due to the discrete nature of the frequency counter, its effects can be
reduced by wobbling the modulation frequency or the phase of the transmitter output. Wobblirlg
the transmitter phase results in a wobbling of the phase of the beat signal so that an average
reading of the cycle counter somewhere between N and N + 1 will be obtained on a normal
meter movement.
 Other errors might be introduced in the CW radar if there are uncontrolled variations in
the transmitter frequency, modulation frequency, or frequency excursion. Target motion
can cause an error in range equal to v, To, where v, is the relative velocity and To is the
observation time. At short ranges the residual path error can also result in a significant
error unless compensated for. The residual path error is the error caused by delays in the
circuitry and transmission lines. Multipath signals also produce error.
4. Explain range and Doppler measurement in FM-CW Radar. with

linear wave?
ANS
Doppler measurement
 When a target has motion relative to radar , its returned signal has a frequency that differs
from transmitted signal by doppler frequency shift.
 As the target‟s radial speed and doppler frequency are proportional to each other, this
provides a convenient method for measuring radial speeds also it facilitates both direction
and tracking of moving targets.
 The accuracy of doppler measurement increases as the signal processing time (number of
pulse intervals) increases.
RANGE FREQENCY IN FM-CW RADAR
 Consider that target is moving away from FM-CW radar with velocity vr . The echo
signal is either up or down due to the dopple frequency shift.
 Let fo = Transmitted signal frequency
 fr = Range frequency,
 fd = doppler frequency shift and
 fb = Beat frequency.
 When the target is moving away from radar (fd > fr), then the beat frequency fb (up) is
produced during increasing portion of FM cycle and is the difference between beat
frequency due to range and doppler‟s shift fd .
 fb (up) = fd – fr -----(1) (Receding target)
 Similarly for decreasing portion of FM cycle, the beat frequency fb (down) is given by
 fb (down) = fr + fd -----(2)
 Adding eq.(1) and eq.(2)
 fb (up) + fb (down) = 2fd
 fd =(1/2) [fb(up) + fb (down) ]------(3)
 Subtracting eq.(1) from eq.(2)

 fb(down) - fb (up) =2fr
 fr =(1/2) [fb(down) - fb (up)]--------(4)
 If there is a reflecting object at distance R, an echo signal will return after a time T=2R/c
 The dashed line in the fig. represents the echo signal.
 If the echo signal is heterodyned with a portion of the transmitter signal in a non-linear
element such as a diode , a beat note fb will be produced.
 If there is no doppler frequency shift, the beat note (difference frequency) is a measure of
the target‟s range and fb = fr where fr is the beat frequency due only to the target‟s range.
 If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is fo , the beat frequency is
 fr = fo T=(2R/c) fo
 If the frequency is modulated at a rate fm over a range ∆f, the beat frequency is
 fr =(2R/c) 2fm ∆f = (4R 2fm ∆f) /c
 Thus the measurement of the beat frequency determines the range R.
5. Explain the principle of operation of FM-CW Radar with using side band super heterodyne
Receiver.
ANS
1.The FM-CW radar principle is used in the aircraft radio altimeter to measure height above the
surface of the earth.
2. The large backscatter cross section and the relatively short ranges required of altimeters permit
low transmitter power and low antenna gain.
3. Since the relative motion between the aircraft and ground is small, the effect of the Doppler
frequency shift may usually be neglected.
4. The band from 4.2 to 4.4 G Hz is reserved for radio altimeters, although they have in the past
operated at UHF.
5. The transmitter power is relatively low and can be obtained from a CW magnetron, a backward-
wave oscillator, or a reflex klystron, but these have been replaced by the solid state transmitter.
6. The altimeter can employ a simple homodyne receiver, but for better sensitivity and stability the
super heterodyne is to be preferred whenever its more complex construction can be tolerated.
7. A block diagram of the FM-CW radar with a sideband super heterodyne receiver shown in Fig. A
portion of the frequency-modulated transmitted signal is applied to a mixer along with the oscillator
signal.
8. The selection of the local-oscillator freq uency is a bit different from that in the usual super
heterodyne receiver. The local-oscillator frequency fIF should be the same as the intermediate
frequency used in the receiver, whereas in the conventional super heterodyne the LO frequency is of
the same order of magnitude as the RF signal.
9. The output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter frequency f o(t) plus two sideband
frequencies, one on either side of fo(t) and separated from fo(t) by the local-oscillator frequency fIF.
10. The filter selects the lower sideband fo(t) - fIF and rejects the carrier and the upper sideband.
11. The sideband that is passed by the filter is modulated in the same fashion as the transmitted
signal.
6. Define CW and FMCW radar?

CW RADAR: Continuous-wave radar (CW radar) is a type of radar system where a known
stable frequency continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then received from any
reflecting objects.or The Radar, which operates with continuous signal (wave) for detecting non-
stationary targets, is called Continuous Wave Radar or simply CW Radar.
 CW radar makes use of the Doppler effect for target speed measurements.
FMCW RADAR: A Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar or FMCW Radar system is
a special type of radar system that measures both distance and velocity of moving objects. This is
achieved by continuously varying the frequency of the transmitted signal by a modulating signal
at a known rate over a fixed time period.
 FM-CW radar is used to detect range as well as velocity of the target.
 The most common application of a FM-CW radar is the airborne altimeter.
7. Give the advantages of FM - CW radar

ANS
advantages of FM - CW radar:
1. Range can be measured by simple broadening of frequency spectrum.
2. FM modulation is easy to generate than linear modulation
3. Synchronization is not required as in multiple frequency CW radar
4. For measuring range, single frequency is required.
8. List the characteristics of FM-CW Radar.

ANS
The important characteristics of FM-CW radar is
1. FMCW radar employ frequency modulation technique.It is commonly used to detect and
measure the objects their range and radial velocities.
2. The transmitted power of FMCW radar is comparatively low which is usually supplied
through oscillator magnetron and reflex klystron.
3. FMCW radar is also known as altimeter.It employs super heterodyne receiver which
provides good stability and sensitivity
4. It has higher bandwidth than that of CW radar.
5. The changing frequency of FMCW radar determines its timing mark.
6. The difference between the frequency of echo signal and transmitted signal determines
the transmit time of FMCW radar.
7. The principle of FMCW radar is generally employed in aircraft radio altimeter to
determine slant angle, bearing angle and elevation angle.
8. The range(R) can be determined by measuring the frequency(fr)
2R
fr   2 fm 
Vo
i.e. Where
f m  Modulaing frequency
R  Range
The up and down beat frequencies are calculated using the expressions,
fb (up)=fr - fd
fb (down)=fr + fd
Where fr Range frequency
fd = Doppler shift
Alternating, range can also be calculated using
t
R  v0
2
9. Draw a block diagram of the FMCW altimeter and explain its operation or Explain the working
of FM-CW altimeter. Or Explain the principle of FM-CW altimeter?
ANS
FM-CW Altimeter:
1.The FM-CW radar principle is used in the aircraft radio altimeter to measure height above the
surface of the earth.
2. The large backscatter cross section and the relatively short ranges required of altimeters permit
low transmitter power and low antenna gain.
3. Since the relative motion between the aircraft and ground is small, the effect of the Doppler
frequency shift may usually be neglected.
4. The band from 4.2 to 4.4 G Hz is reserved for radio altimeters, although they have in the past
operated at UHF.
5. The transmitter power is relatively low and can be obtained from a CW magnetron, a backward-
wave oscillator, or a reflex klystron, but these have been replaced by the solid state transmitter.
6. The altimeter can employ a simple homodyne receiver, but for better sensitivity and stability the
super heterodyne is to be preferred whenever its more complex construction can be tolerated.
7. A block diagram of the FM-CW radar with a sideband super heterodyne receiver shown in Fig. A
portion of the frequency-modulated transmitted signal is applied to a mixer along with the oscillator
signal.
8. The selection of the local-oscillator freq uency is a bit different from that in the usual super
heterodyne receiver. The local-oscillator frequency fIF should be the same as the intermediate
frequency used in the receiver, whereas in the conventional super heterodyne the LO frequency is of
the same order of magnitude as the RF signal.
9. The output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter frequency f o(t) plus two sideband
frequencies, one on either side of fo(t) and separated from fo(t) by the local-oscillator frequency fIF.
10. The filter selects the lower sideband fo(t) - fIF and rejects the carrier and the upper sideband.
11. The sideband that is passed by the filter is modulated in the same fashion as the transmitted
signal.
10. With suitable waveforms discuss frequency time relationships in FM-CW radar
ANS
 Consider that target is moving away from FM-CW radar with velocity vr . The echo
signal is either up or down due to the dopple frequency shift.
 Let fo = Transmitted signal frequency
 When the target is moving away from radar (fd > fr), then the beat frequency fb (up) is
produced during increasing portion of FM cycle and is the difference between beat
frequency due to range and doppler‟s shift fd .
 fb (up) = fd – fr -----(1) (Receding target)
 Similarly for decreasing portion of FM cycle, the beat frequency fb (down) is given by
 fb (down) = fr + fd -----(2)
 Adding eq.(1) and eq.(2)
 fb (up) + fb (down) = 2fd

 fd =(1/2) [fb(up) + fb (down) ]------(3)
 Subtracting eq.(1) from eq.(2)
 fb(down) - fb (up) =2fr
 fr =(1/2) [fb(down) - fb (up)]--------(4)
 If there is a reflecting object at distance R, an echo signal will return after a time T=2R/c
 The dashed line in the fig. represents the echo signal.
 If the echo signal is heterodyned with a portion of the transmitter signal in a non-linear
element such as a diode , a beat note fb will be produced.
 If there is no doppler frequency shift, the beat note (difference frequency) is a measure of
the target‟s range and fb = fr where fr is the beat frequency due only to the target‟s range.
 If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is fo , the beat frequency is
 fr = fo T=(2R/c) fo
 If the frequency is modulated at a rate fm over a range ∆f, the beat frequency is
 fr =(2R/c) 2fm ∆f = (4R 2fm ∆f) /c
 Thus the measurement of the beat frequency determines the range R.
11. Prove that the range frequency is an average of up & down beat frequencies.
ANS
Ifthe target was assumed to be stationary. If this assumption is not applicable, a doppler
frequency shift will be superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous range
measurement results. The doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot of the echo
signal to be shifted up or down (Fig. 3.12a). On one portion of the frequency-modulation cycle.
the beat frequency (Fig. 3.12b) is increased by the Doppler shift, while on the other portion, it is
decreased. If. for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat frequency f,(up) produced
during the increasing, or up, portion of the FM cycle will be the difference between the beat
frequency due to the range, and the Doppler frequency shift fd [Eq. (3.12a)l. Similarly, on the
decreasing portion, the beat frequency &(down) is the sum of the two [Eq. (3.12b)l.
The range frequency fr may be extracted by measuring the average beat frequency, that is
By adding the above two equations, we will get the range frequency
1
f f   fb  up   fb  down 
2
12. Prove that the Doppler frequency is half of difference of up & down frequencies.
ANS
Ifthe target was assumed to be stationary. If this assumption is not applicable, a doppler
frequency shift will be superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous range
measurement results. The doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot of the echo
signal to be shifted up or down (Fig. 3.12a). On one portion of the frequency-modulation cycle.
the beat frequency (Fig. 3.12b) is increased by the Doppler shift, while on the other portion, it is
decreased. If. for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat frequency f,(up) produced
during the increasing, or up, portion of the FM cycle will be the difference between the beat
frequency due to the range, and the Doppler frequency shift fd [Eq. (3.12a)l. Similarly, on the
decreasing portion, the beat frequency &(down) is the sum of the two [Eq. (3.12b)l.
The range frequency fr may be extracted by measuring the average beat frequency, that is
By adding the above two equations, we will get
By subtracting eq.3.12a from 3.12b then we will get the Doppler frequency shift
1
f d   fb  down   fb  up  
2
13. Estimate the range of a FMCW radar, if its frequency is modulated at a rate fm over a range Δf,
given Δf=1.5 kHz, fm=100 kHz and the beat frequency is 40 Hz.
14. Explain, how the various unwanted signals causes errors in FM altimeter or Discuss the various
unwanted signals which cause errors in FM-CW altimeter or List out the differences between
CW radar and FMCW radar?
ANS
15. List out the differences between CW radar and FMCW radar?
CW RADAR FMCW RADAR

1.CW radars are used for measuring relative 1.FMCW radars are used as altimeters in
velocity of moving targets, controlling traffic aircrafts to measure the height above the
lights etc. surface of the earth
2.Using CW radar , it is not possible to 2.The range can be measured directly using
measure the range directly FMCW radar
The velocity of multiple targets can be 3.FMCW radars can be used for single targets
measured without being in contact with the only
targets
16. Derive the range and Doppler shift equations in FMCW Radar?or How the Doppler shift and
Radar range can be measured with FM-CW Radar?Explain.
ANS
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of FM-CW radar over multiple frequency CW radar?
Explain.
advantages of FM - CW radar:
1. Range can be measured by simple broadening of frequency spectrum.
2. FM modulation is easy to generate than linear modulation
3. Synchronization is not required as in multiple frequency CW radar
4. For measuring range, single frequency is required.
Disadvantages of FM - CW radar:
1. FMCW radars can be used to detect single targets only
2. Accuracy of FMCW radar is less compared to multiple frequency CW radar
3. Measurement of range is more difficult when FM signal is non-uniformor mixer is not
operating in linear region.
18. List down and explain the applications of CW and FM-CW Radar.
ANS
1. CW doppler radars are used where only velocity information information is of interest
and actual range is not needed, e.g. in police radar for catching cars travelling above the
speed limit.
3. Traffic counters
4. Intrusion alarm
5. Runway monitors
APPLICATIONS OF FMCW RADAR
These radars are also used in imaging, and detection, security sensors against intrusion, human
vital-sign detection & measurement, and industrial applications for the verification of product
dimensions in automated systems.
Topic Name: Multiple Frequency CW Radar

1. Explain the working principle of multiple frequency CW radar. or Explain
the operation of the multiple frequency CW Radar. or With the help of
expressions explain multiple frequency CW radar.
MULTIPLE FREQUENCY CW RADAR
 Let us assume that the transmitted waveform consists of two continuous sine waves of
frequency f1 and f2 separated by an amount ∆f.
 For convenience, the amplitudes of all signals are set equal to unity.
 The voltage wave forms of the two components of the transmitted signal v 1T and v2T may
be written as
v1T = sin(2πf1t+ϕ1)
Where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are arbitary (constant) phase angles.
• The echo signal is shifted in frequency by doppler effect.

• The form of the doppler shifted signals at each of the two frequencies f1 and f2 may be
written as
v1R = sin[2π(f1 ±fd1)t-(4πf1Ro /c) + ϕ1]
• Where Ro = range to target at a particular time t=to (range that would be measured if
target were not moving).
• fd1= Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f1 .
• Since the two RF frequ6encies f1 and f2 are approximately the same, that is
f2= f1 + ∆f where ∆f << f1
Therefore, f2 ≈ f1
The doppler frequency shifts fd1 and fd2 are approximately equal to one another.
fd1= fd2= fd
• The receiver separates the two components of the echo signal and heterodynes each
received signal component with the corresponding transmitted waveform and extracts the
two doppler frequency components given below.
• v1D = sin(± 2πfdt-(4πf1Ro/c))
• The phase difference between these two components is
• ∆ϕ= 4π(f2 –f1)Ro/c = 4π∆fRo/c
• Hence Ro=c∆ϕ/4π∆f
• Therefore the maximum unambiguous range is Runamb= c/2∆f
• Note that when ∆f is replaced by the PRF gives the maximum unambiguous range of a
pulse radar.
• The two frequency CW radar is essentially a single-target radar since only one phase
difference can be measured at a time.
2. Explain the principle, advantages and applications of multiple frequency

CW radar.
ANS
 Let us assume that the transmitted waveform consists of two continuous sine waves of
frequency f1 and f2 separated by an amount ∆f.
 For convenience, the amplitudes of all signals are set equal to unity.
 The voltage wave forms of the two components of the transmitted signal v 1T and v2T may
be written as
Where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are arbitary (constant) phase angles.
• The echo signal is shifted in frequency by doppler effect.

• The form of the doppler shifted signals at each of the two frequencies f1 and f2 may be
written as
• Where Ro = range to target at a particular time t=to (range that would be measured if
target were not moving).
• Since the two RF frequ6encies f1 and f2 are approximately the same, that is
f2= f1 + ∆f where ∆f << f1
Therefore, f2 ≈ f1
The doppler frequency shifts fd1 and fd2 are approximately equal to one another.
fd1= fd2= fd
• The receiver separates the two components of the echo signal and heterodynes each
received signal component with the corresponding transmitted waveform and extracts the
two doppler frequency components given below.
• The phase difference between these two components is
• ∆ϕ= 4π(f2 –f1)Ro/c = 4π∆fRo/c
• Hence Ro=c∆ϕ/4π∆f
• Therefore the maximum unambiguous range is Runamb= c/2∆f
• Note that when ∆f is replaced by the PRF gives the maximum unambiguous range of a
pulse radar.
• The two frequency CW radar is essentially a single-target radar since only one phase
difference can be measured at a time.
ADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE FREQUENCY CW RADAR.
The multiple-frequency CW radar technique has been applied to the accurate measurement
of distance in surveying and in missile guidance.
APPLICATIONS
In addition to its use in surveying, the multiple CW frequency method of measuring range has
been applied in range-instrumentation radar for the measurement of the distance to a
transponder-equipped missile; the distance to satellites; in satellite navigation systems based on
range measurement; and for detecting the presence of an obstacle in the path of a moving
automobile by measuring the distance, the doppler velocity, and the sign of the doppler (whether
the target is approaching or receding)
Unit-III
MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar: Introduction, Principle, MTI Radar with - Power Amplifier
Transmitter and Power Oscillator Transmitter, Delay Line Cancellers – Filter Characteristics,
Blind Speeds, Double Cancellation, Nth Cancellation Staggered PRFs. Range Gated Doppler
Filters. MTI Radar Parameters, Limitations to MTI Performance, MTI versus Pulse Doppler
Radar.
PART-I:(MID-I)
Topic Name: Introduction, Principle, MTI Radar with - Power Amplifier Transmitter and Power
Oscillator Transmitter
1. Explain MTI radar with a block diagram or Explain the operation of MTI Radar or Explain
the working principle of a MTI Radar or Draw the block diagram and explain the
working of MTI radar
Fig:Block diagram of MTI Radar

• MTI radar means moving Target Indicator radar . This is one form of pulsed radar.
• MTI radar is characterized by its very low PRF and hence there is no range ambiguity in
MTI radar.
• At the same time, MTI radar has many ambiguities in doppler domain
• It determines target velocity and distinguishes moving targets from stationary targets.
• The block diagram of MTI radar is shown in above fig.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF MTI RADAR
• MTI radar employs the doppler effect in its operation.

• It eliminates clutter due to stationary objects and identifies moving targets.
• In the above fig. STALO means STAble Local Oscillator and COHO means COHerent
Oscillator.
• COHO provides reference signal, which has the phase of the transmitted signal.
• The block diagram consists of transmitter and receiver sections.
• The STALO, mixer 1, modulator, microwave signal amplifier, and duplexer are parts of
transmitter.
• The duplexer, mixer 2, STALO, IF amplifier, ,echo, phase detection, delay line canceller,
amplifier 1 ,amplifier 2, subtractor and display units are parts of receiver.
• MTI radar operates by comparing a set of received echoes with those of received in the
preceding sweep.
• The echoes of constant phase are cancelled out. This applicable to the stationary objects.
• The echoes of changing phase due to moving targets are not cancelled.
• The clutter due to stationary objects is removed to identify the moving objects in the
display easily.
• The input to mixer 1 is from two oscillators namely STALO and COHO.
• The output of mixer 1 is fl + fc .
• Mixer 1 and 2 use the same local oscillator, STALO and they are identical.
• The input to mixer 2 is fl + fc ± fd . This signal fc ± fd is given to the IF amplifier.
• The o/p of IF amplifier is given to the phase detector whose o/p is fd . This o/p goes to the
delay line canceller and also to the amplifier 1.
• The o/p of the delay line canceller is given to amplifier 2.
• The o/ps from amplifier 1 and amplifier 2 are given to the subtractor . Its o/p goes to the
display unit.
• The delay line canceller is a time domain filter. It rejects stationary clutter at zero
frequency. Its frequency response function is derived from the signals in time domain.
ADVANTAGES OF MTI RADAR:
• The important advantages of MTI radar system are as under
1. It eliminates the clutter signals
2. It can detect the echoes of much smaller moving targets compared to clutter echoes.
Therefore moving targets that are much smaller than the stationary ones can be observed.
3. It reduces the effect of noise
4. For a given power the useful range is increased.
LIMITATION OF MTI RADAR
 The blind speeds can be a serious limitation in MTI radar since they cause some desired
moving targets to be cancelled along with the undesired clutter at zero frequency.
2. Define MTI radar and explain its significance.
ANS
MTI radar.
• At the same time, MTI radar has many ambiguities in doppler domain.
• It eliminates clutter due to stationary objects and identifies moving targets
3. Explain the principle of pulse Doppler radar

ANS
PRINCIPLE: A pulse-Doppler radar is a radar system that determines the range to a target
using pulse-timing techniques, and uses the Doppler effect of the returned signal to determine the
target object's velocity.
• Radars with high PRFs are called pulsed doppler radar.
• The pulsed doppler radar is a radar which contains pulse and CW radar.
• It operates at high PRF to avoid the problems of blind speeds.
• It is a high PRF pulse CW radar with no blind speeds in doppler space.
4. Define STALO and COHO
ANS
• STALO means STAble Local Oscillator and COHO means COHerent Oscillator.
• COHO provides reference signal, which has the phase of the transmitted signal.
5. Describe the operation of MTI Radar with power oscillator transmitter

ANS
1. A block diagram of MTI radar using a power oscillator is shown in above Fig. . A portion of
the transmitted signal mixed with the STALO output to produce an IF beat signal whose phase is
directly related to the phase of the phase of the transmitter.
2. This IF pulse is applied to the coherent (COHO) and cause the phase of the COHOCW
oscillation to “lock” in step with the phase of the IF reference pulse.
3. The phase of the COHO is then related to the phase of the transmitted pulse and may be used
as the reference signal for echoes received from the particular transmitted pulse.
4. Upon the next transmission another IF locking pulse is generated relocks the phase of CW
COHO until the next locking pulse comes along.
6. Describe the operation of MTI Radar with power amplifier transmitter

(or) With the aid of the block diagram, explain fully operation of an
MTI system using a power amplifier in the transmitter? (Or) explain
the principle of MTI radar that uses a power amplifier as the
transmitter with a neat block diagram.
ANS
Figure: Block diagram of MTI radar with power amplifier transmitter
1. The radar which uses the concept of desired moving targets from stationary (Moving Target
Indicator). Doppler frequency shift for distinguishing objects i.e., clutter is called as MTI radar
2. The block diagram of MTI radar employing a power amplifier is shown in Fig. The significant
difference between this MTI configuration and that of Pulse Doppler radar is the manner in
which the reference signal is generated. In Fig., the coherent reference is supplied by an
oscillator called the coho, which stands for coherent oscillator. The coho is a stable oscillator
whose frequency is the same as the intermediate frequency used in the receiver.
3. In addition to providing the reference signal, the output of the coho fc is also mixed with the
local-oscillator frequency fl. The local oscillator must also be a stable oscillator and is called
stalo, for stable local oscillator.
4. The RF echo signal is heterodyned with the stalo signal to produce the IF signal, just as in the
conventional super heterodyne receiver.
5. The stalo, coho, and the mixer in which they are combined plus any low-level amplification
are called the receiver exciter because of the dual role they serve in both the receiver and the
transmitter.
6. The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that the transmitted signal must be coherent
(in phase) with the reference signal in the receiver. The function of the stalo is to provide the
necessary frequency translation from the IF to the transmitted (RF) frequency.
7. Although the phase of the stalo influences the phase of the transmitted signal, any stalo phase
shift is canceled on reception because the stalo that generates the transmitted signal also acts as
the local oscillator in the receiver.
8. The reference signal from the coho and the IF echo signal are both fed into a mixer called the
pulse detector The phase detector differs from the normal amplitude detector since its output is
proportional to the phase difference between the two input signals.
9. Any one of a number of transmitting-tube types might be used as the power amplifier. These
include the triode, tetrode, klystron, traveling-wave tube, and the crossed-field amplifier.
7. Give the principle operation of MTI Radar and pulse Doppler

Radar
ANS
MTI RADAR:
PRINCIPLE: The basic principle of MTI radar is to compare a set of received echoes witrh those
received during the previous sweep. Moving targets will give change of phase and are not
cancelled.or
MTI radar analyzes the doppler effect of radar signals to differentiate moving targets from a
stationary background and continuously track multiple slow and fast moving targets
simultaneously in a large area.
MTI radar.
• At the same time, MTI radar has many ambiguities in doppler domain.
• It eliminates clutter due to stationary objects and identifies moving targets
PULSE DOPPLER RADAR:
PRINCIPLE: A pulse-Doppler radar is a radar system that determines the range to a target
using pulse-timing techniques, and uses the Doppler effect of the returned signal to determine the
target object's velocity.
8. Discuss the principle of operation of Pulse Doppler Radar
ANS
Fig:Block diagram of pulsed Doppler Radar

• A radar that increases its PRF high enough to avoid the problems of blind speeds is called
a pulsed doppler radar. More precisely , a high PRF pulse doppler radar is one with no
blind speeds within the doppler space.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
 In this diagram, the phase of the transmitter is locked by the STALO in the mixer.
 The output of the locking mixer is given to COHO. It acts as a reference phase for the
phase detector at IF.
 The phase detector gives the phase difference between the two signals . The phase
difference varies for moving targets.
 The output of phase detector is given to signal processing unit and its output is given to
display.
• APPLICATIONS OF PULSED DOPPLER RADAR
1. Weather warning
2. Detection of the target and estimation of target motion.
ADVANTAGES OF PULSED DOPPLER RADAR

1. It is able to reject unwanted echoes with help of doppler filters
2. It is able to measure the range and the velocity even in the presence of multiple targets.
3. It has high SNR.
9. Explain the butterfly effect in MTI radar systems?

ANS
• Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video
output on an A-scope display. By stretching the echo pulse it can be seen easily. A fixed
target looks like a point target and moving target as extended target. For different pulse
repetition intervals A-scope display is shown in above fig. as a,b,c,d, and e.
• At the rate of doppler frequency , echoes from moving targets vary in amplitude from
sweeep to sweep.
• Echoes from fixed targets remains constant.
• The superposition of the successive A-scope sweeps is shown in fig (f), which looks like
“Butterfly” shape.
• Therefore, it is called as butterfly effect of MTI radar .
• The moving target produce, with time, a “butterfly” effect on A-scope.
10.With suitable diagram ,explain the working principle of non-coherent

MTI Radar or Explain the principle of operation of non-coherent MTI
radar with a block diagram.
ANS
• The MTI radar which uses amplitude fluctuations in stsead of phase fluctuations is called
non-coherent MTI radar. It has also been called Externally coherent.
• The non-coherent MTI radar does not require an internal coherent reference signal or a
phase detector as does the coherent form of MTI.
• The IF amplifier used in this type of radar must be linear or logarithmic.
• The improvement factor of a non-coherent MTI will not be as good as that of coherent
MTI radar.
• The non-coherent MTI radar is mostly used where space and weights are limited.
• Conventional amplitude detector is used instead of phase detector because the phase
information is of least interest to the non-coherent MTI radar.
• The local oscillator used is not a frequency stable one. But the transmitter must be stable
in order to prevent beats between overlapping ground clutter.
• The amplitude detectors output is provided to a MTI processor which will be a delay-line
canceller.
• The amplitude fluctuations due to Doppler produce a butterfly modulation.
11. Explain the different types of clutter. Enumerate the
properties of sea and land clutter
ANS
CLUTTER:Clutter is an unwanted echo from the objects other than the targets. Or Any
unwanted radar echo is called clutter
Types of clutter: Surface clutter is returns from the ground and sea. Volume clutter examples
are rain, snow, and hail. Finally, point clutter are when birds or tall buildings obstruct the radar
beam. Ground clutter can be caused by an inversion.
Topic Name: Delay Line Cancellers – Filter Characteristics

1. What is delay line canceller?
ANS
Delay line canceller is a filter, which eliminates the DC components of echo signals received
from stationary targets. This means, it allows the AC components of echo signals received from
non-stationary targets, i.e., moving targets.
2. What is need of delay line canceller?

ANS
Delay line canceller is a filter, which eliminates the DC components of echo signals received
from stationary targets. This means, it allows the AC components of echo signals received from
non-stationary targets, i.e., moving targets.
3. What are delay line cancellers?Explain

ANS
• The delay-line canceller is a time domain filter. It rejects stationary clutter at zero
frequency. Its frequency response function is derived from the signals in the time domain.
• The delay-line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate the d.c component of fixed targets
and to pass the a.c components of moving targets.
4. Explain the function of a single delay-line canceller?

ANS
• In case of MTI radars, sometimes phase shift effect is not appropriate for display on the
PPI. One method commonly employed to extract doppler information in a form suitable
for display on the PPI scope is with a delay-line canceller shown in above fig.
• The video portion of the receiver is divided into two channels. One is a normal video
channel . In the other, the video signal experiences a time delay equal to one pulse
repetition period.
• The o/ps from the two channels are subtracted from one another.
• The fixed targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to pulse are canceled on
subtraction.
• However, the amplitudes of the moving target echoes are not constant from pulse to
pulse, and subtraction results in an uncancelled residue.
• The output of the subtraction circuit is bipolar video , just as was the input.
• Before bipolar video can intensify modulate a PPI display , it must be converted to
unipotential voltages (unipolar video) by a full wave rectifier.
5. Explain the function of a single delay line canceller and derive an expression for the
frequency response function.
ANS
repetition period.
subtraction.
• The output of the subtraction circuit is bipolar video , just as was the input. Before
bipolar video can intensify modulate a PPI display , it must be converted to unipotential
voltages (unipolar video) by a full wave rectifier
• FILTER CHARACTERISTICS OF DELAY-LINE CANCELER
• The simple delay-line canceller is an example of time domain filter. The capability of this
device depends on the quality of medium used as delay line.
• The delay line canceller acts as a filter which rejects the dc component of clutter (unwanted
target).
• Because of its periodic nature , the filter also rejects energy in the vicinity of the PRF and its
harmonics.
• The video signal received from a particular target at range Ro is
• V1 = k sin(2πfdt-ϕo)
• Where ϕo = Phase shift
• K = amplitude of video signal
• The signal which is delayed by a time Tp (pulse repetition interval) is
V2 = k sin(2πfd(t- Tp)-ϕo)
The output from subtractor circuit is
V = V1 - V2
Sin C - sin D = 2 cos(C+D/2) sin (C-D/2)
4πfdt- 2ϕo -2πfdtTp
V  V1  V2
V  k sin(2f d t  o )  k sin(2f d (t  Tp )  o )
V  k  sin(2f d t  o )  sin(2f d (t  Tp )  o ) 
Sin C  sin D  2cos  C  D / 2  sin  C  D / 2 
   (2f d t  o )  (2f d (t  Tp )  o )     (2f d t  o )  (2f d (t  Tp )  o )   
V  k  2cos   sin  
  2   2 
    
   2f d t  o  2f d t  2f d Tp )  o )     2f d t  o  2f d t  2f d Tp )  o )   
V  2k  cos   sin  
  2   2 
    
 4f d t  2o  2f d Tp    2f d Tp  
V  2kcos   sin  

 2   2

V  2kcos  2f d t  o  f d Tp  sin  f d Tp 
  t  Tp  
V  2k sin  f d Tp  cos  2f d    o   1
  2  
• It is assumed that the gain through the delay line canceller is unity. The output from the
canceller consists of a cosine wave at the doppler frequency fd with an amplitude 2k sin
2πfdTp . Thus the amplitude of the canceled video output is a function of the doppler
frequency shift and the pulse repetition interval or pulse repetition frequency.
• The magnitude of the relative frequency response of the delay line canceller is shown in
above fig.
• The frequency response of the delay line canceller is the ratio of the amplitude of the
output from the delay line canceller to the amplitude of the normal radar video.
• When the two delay line cancellers are used in cascaded form then it is called double
delay line canceller.
• Double delay line canceller is used when single delay line does not detect the target
properly.
6. What is a delay line canceller? Explain its frequency response

characteristics with neat sketch.
ANS
target).
harmonics.
V = V1 - V2
V  V1  V2
V  k  2cos   sin  
  2   2 
    
V  2k  cos   sin  
  2   2 
    
 4f d t  2o  2f d Tp    2f d Tp  
V  2kcos   sin  

 2   2

  t  Tp  
  2  
above fig.
properly.
7. What are the limitations of single delay line canceller?
ANS
The limitations of single delay line canceller are
1. When the Doppler frequencies of the moving target are at PRF and are harmonics, the
single delay line canceller experiences zero frequency response.
2. Insufficient attenuation of clutter i.e., at zero frequency, clutter of finite width (instead of
zero width) exists in the passband.
3. Target speeds or blind speeds suffer from m-detection of moving targets due to the
interference of uncancelled clutter residue.
8. What is the need of full wave rectifier in delay line canceller?

ANS
The input given to a delay line canceller is a bipolar video which can not be directly
modulate a PPI display. So, a full wave rectifier is used to convert the bipolar video into a
unipolar video and given to a PPI display for intensity modulation.
9. Explain the filter characteristics of delay-line cancellers
ANS
target).
harmonics.
V = V1 - V2
V  V1  V2
V  k  2cos   sin  
  2   2 
    
V  2k  cos   sin  
  2   2 
    
 4f d t  2o  2f d Tp    2f d Tp  
V  2kcos   sin  

 2   2

  t  Tp  
  2  
above fig.
properly.
10. List out the types of cancellers and explain any one of
them.
ANS
There are two types of delay line cancellers
1. Single delay line canceller
2. Double delay line canceller
Single delay line canceller
repetition period.
subtraction.
• The output of the subtraction circuit is bipolar video , just as was the input. Before
bipolar video can intensify modulate a PPI display , it must be converted to unipotential
voltages (unipolar video) by a full wave rectifier

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RADAR ENGINEERING-QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Topic Name: Introduction to Radar

1. RADAR acts as a powerful electronic eye.

DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATIONS OF RADAR

2. It is difficult to identify short range objects.

3. RADARs cannot recognize the colour of the targets.

4. . RADARs can not identify internal aspects of the target.

6. It can not see targets hidden in water at long ranges.

2. Describe the functions performed by the radar

3. Classify the radars based on frequency.

4. Explain the differences between human eye and radar system.

6. Describe the brief history of Radar Communications

1. The story of RADAR starts with the discovery of radio waves.

before and during WWII .

Topic Name: Maximum Unambiguous Range

2. Calculate Runamb of a radar if fp is 2 MHz

Fig:Second time around echo(or Multiple time around echo)

4. What is a Second-time-around echo? Derive the expression for maximum unambiguous

Topic Name: Simple Radar range Equation

1. Derive the basic radar range equation or Derive and explain

• Let „G‟ be the gain of the practical antenna.

• If the effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted as Ae

then the power received by RADAR is

3. What are the various factors affecting the radar range?

From the radar range equation:

Let us consider the transmitter power is increased to 16 times i.e.Pt1=16Pt then

5. Frequency of the signal(f):

6. Minimum detectable signal or Power of minimum detectable

From eq.(1), we have

B= Bandwidth of the receiver

SOLUTION: Given data

The maximum range of the radar is given by

SOLUTION: Given data

SOLUTION: Given data

SOLUTION: Given data

Pulse width = PW=2 μs

SOLUTION: Given data

9. A pulse radar is operating at 10 GHz has an antenna with a gain of 28 dB and a

SOLUTION: Given data

The max imum radar range is given by

Topic Name: Radar Block Diagram and Operation

2. Describe the operation of radar block diagram. or With the

Fig: Block diagram of a conventional pulse radar with a superheterodyne receiver

Transmitter section: The main blocks of the transmitter section are

Waveform generator: The radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform

Receiver section: The main blocks of the receiver section are

IF amplifier: It amplifies the IF pulse. The IF amplifier is designed as a matched filter

Video amplifier: Video amplifier is designed to provide the sufficient amplification or

4. Explain the operation of monostatic radar with a neat diagram.

Fig:Block diagram of monostatic radar

Functions of the Radar Duplexer

5. What is RADAR? Explain the working principle of

Transmitter section: The main blocks of the transmitter section are

Waveform generator: The radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform

Receiver section: The main blocks of the receiver section are

Low-noise RF amplifier: The receiver is almost always a superheterodyne. The input

IF amplifier: It amplifies the IF pulse. The IF amplifier is designed as a matched filter

Video amplifier: Video amplifier is designed to provide the sufficient amplification or

Topic Name: Radar Frequencies and Applications

Air Traffic Control:

Aircraft safety and Navigation

Law enforcement and highway safety

2. Write about radar frequencies