Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automated tracking system that displays other vessels in the
Automatic Identification System (AIS): Integrating and
Identifying Marine Communication Channels
What does it do?
• A ship fitted with AIS automatically transmits data about her own Identity and her Position, Course, Speed,
Draft, cargo etc without human intervention.
• This data is received by ships which are also fitted with AIS.
• Similarly data transmitted by other AIS fitted ships is received and displayed on board.
• The data is displayed on a screen in the wheel house which is monitored by the OOW..
• Such data can also be integrated with other navigational aids like the electronic chart or a radar display.
• VTS (Vessel Traffic System) use AIS data to control traffic in a harbour or a TSS.
vicinity. It is a broadcast transponder system which operates in the VHF mobile maritime band. Your own ship
also shows on the screens of other vessels in the vicinity, provided your vessel is fitted with AIS. If AIS is not
fitted or not switched on, there is no exchange of information on ships via AIS. The AIS onboard must be
switched on at all times unless the Master deems that it must be turned off for security reasons or anything
else. The working mode of AIS is continuous and autonomous.
What is AIS?
AIS stands for Automatic Identification System (AIS)
It is a navigational aid fitted on ships bridge which provides the OOW with Identity and
navigational information of ships in the vicinity. The abbreviation AIS stands for
Automatic Identification System
Automatic No human Intervention once the system is set and gets going.
Identification Of the other ships which are also operating the AIS.
System Your AIS is a part of system which includes your ship, ships around you who
are also operating AIS, VTS and various Navigational subsystems like GPS, Log,
Gyro etc.
SOLAS Requirements
The IMO Convention for the Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS) Regulation V/19.2.4 requires all vessels of 300
GT and above engaged on international voyages and all passenger ships irrespective of size to carry AIS
onboard.
AIS Types
1. Class A: Mandated for all vessels 300 GT and above engaged on international voyages as well as all
passenger ships
2. Class B: Provides limited functionality and intended for non SOLAS vessels. Primarily used for vessels such as
pleasure crafts
AIS operates principally on two dedicated frequencies or VHF channels:
• AIS 1: Works on 161.975 MHz- Channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to ship)
• AIS 2: 162.025 MHz- Channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore)
It uses Self Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (STDMA) technology to meet the high broadcast rate.
This frequency has a limitation of line of sight which is about 40 miles or so.
The AIS system consists of one VHF transmitter, two VHF TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) receivers, one
VHF DSC receiver, and a standard marine electronic communications link to shipboard display and sensor
systems.
Position and timing information is normally derived from an integral or external GPS receiver. Other
information broadcast by the AIS is electronically obtained from shipboard equipment through standard
marine data connections.
Data Transmitted:
Types of Information Displayed by AIS Voyage Related Data (To be entered by ship staff) (An AIS transceiver sends the following data every 2 to 10 seconds
depending on a vessel's speed while underway, and every 3 minutes while a vessel is at anchor:
Static Data (Has to be entered by ship staff: Ships Draft (0.1 meter to 25.5 meters)
 IMO Number (The vessel's Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) - a unique 9-nine digit identification  Hazardous Cargo
number.  ETA (UTC) & Destination (Max. 20 characters)
 Length and Beam  Route
 Type of Ship & Cargo  Safety Related Messages (Entered By Ship Staff)
 Antenna Location on a ship
• Free format text message addressed to one or many destinations or to all stations in the area. This content could be
 Call Sign (upto 7 digits) & Name (upto 20 characters)
such as buoy missing, ice berg sighting etc
Data form Onboard Systems (Auto Updated from GPS/Gyro etc) Dynamic Information (Data Transmission
Depends on speed and course alteration) Updating of Data
 Ships Position (in Lat & Long) with positional accuracy of 1/10,000th of a minute.  Dynamic
 Time In UTC accurate to nearest second when this data was generated o At Anchor -- every 6 minutes
 Course Over Ground (upto one decimal place accuracy) o Underway –
 Speed Over Ground 0 to 102 knots ▪ 0-14 kts -every 12 secs /4 secs when a/c
 Heading ▪ 14-23 kts - every 6 secs /2 secs when a/c
 Rate of Turn (Where Fitted) right or left, 0 to 720 degrees per minute ▪ >23 kts - every 3 secs /2secs when a/c
 CPA/TCPA
 Static/Voyage Data –

o Safety Messages – As and when required.

Advantages
 The system is fully automated with absolutely no human intervention.
 Unlike Radar, It is not affected by rains or Sea.
 Its propagation is better than that of radar, due to the longer wavelength.
 It’s possible to “see” around bends and behind islands if the land masses are not too high.
Limitations
 Range limited to about 24nm to 48nm which is the range of other VHF digital applications
 With the help of repeater stations, the range can be increased.
 Excessive AIS dependence may cause collisions with fishing vessels and leisure craft which
are below 300 GRT & may not be fitted with AIS.
 Position received on the AIS display might not be referenced to the WGS 84 datum
 Accuracy of the info received is only as accurate as what is entered in the static/voyage or
safety messages data.
 The OOW should always be aware that under certain circumstances, AIS fitted on other ships,
can be switched off on the master's professional judgment.
AIS MCA/IMO Guidelines:
1.) USE OF AIS IN SHIP REPORTING
AIS has the potential to reduce the work of the watchkeeper by automatically providing coastal
stations with the information which they require under mandatory or voluntary reporting
schemes as well as for VTS purposes. To this end it is essential that the Static and Voyage-
related information is at all times correctly programmed and that the Dynamic inputs are
functioning correctly. (See IMO Guidelines, para 12). Additionally the mariner must consider
the following:
a.) The coastal station may not be equipped to monitor AIS.
b.) The ship may be within a reporting system but out of VHF range of the coastal station.
c.) Reporting requirements may require more information than the AIS transmits.
2.) USE OF AIS IN NAVIGATION
AIS provides identification of targets together with the static and dynamic information listed in the IMO Guidelines
para.12. Mariners should, however, use this information with caution noting the following important points:
a.) Collision avoidance must be carried out in strict compliance with the COLREGs. There is no provision in the
COLREGs for use of AIS information therefore decisions should be taken based primarily on visual and/or radar
information.

b.) The use of VHF to discuss action to take between approaching ships is fraught with danger and still
discouraged. (See MGN 324 (M+F) . The MCA’s view is that identification of a target by AIS does not remove the
danger. Decisions on collision avoidance should be made strictly according to the COLREGs
c.) Not all ships will be fitted with AIS, particularly small craft and fishing boats. Other floating objects which may
give a radar echo will not be detected by AIS.
d.) AIS positions are derived from the target’s GNSS position. (GNSS = Global Navigation Satellite System, usually
GPS). This may not coincide with the radar target.
e.) Faulty data input to AIS could lead to incorrect or misleading information being displayed on other vessels.
Mariners should remember that information derived from radar plots relies solely upon the data measured by the
own-ship’s radar and provides an accurate measurement of the target’s relative course and speed, which is the
most important factor in deciding upon action to avoid collision. Existing ships of less than 500 gt. Which are not
required to fit a gyro compass are unlikely to transmit heading information.
f.) A future development of AIS is the ability to provide “pseudo” navigation marks by enabling coastal
authorities to provide an AIS symbol on the display in any position. Mariners should bear in mind that this
ability could lead to the appearance of “spurious” AIS targets and therefore take particular care when an AIS
target is not complemented by a radar target. It should be noted though that AIS will sometimes be able to
detect targets which are in a radar shadow area.
The AIS Display
The information received by the AIS receivers is processed and displayed as shown
below with easy to understand symbols.
AIS as a surveillance tool
In coastal waters, shore side authorities may establish automated AIS stations to monitor the movement of
vessels through the area. Coast stations can also use the AIS channels for shore to ship transmissions, to send
information on tides, NTMs and located weather conditions. Coastal stations may use the AIS to monitor the
movement of hazardous cargoes and control commercial fishing operations in their waters. AIS may also be
used for SAR operations enabling SAR authorities to use AIS information to assess the availability of other
vessels in the vicinity of the incident.
AIS as an aid to collision avoidance
AIS contributes significantly to the safety of navigation. All the information that is transmitted and received
enhances the effectiveness of navigation and can greatly improve the situational awareness and the decision
making process. As an assistant to the OOW, the tracking and monitoring of targets by the AIS as well as
determining information on the CPA and TCPA adds great value to the safety of navigation overall.
However, the user should not solely rely on the information from the AIS for collision avoidance. AIS is
only an additional source of information for the OOW and only supports in the process of navigating the
vessel. AIS can never replace the human expertise on bridge!
The AIS information can be superimposed on Radar PPI and on ECDIS.
ON Ecdis:
How does it work?  Ships in the vicinity with AIS transmit similar own information during their own time slots, which
 AIS consists of VHF transmitter, VHF TDMA receivers and internal links to ships are so arranged that there is never any interference between two transmission.
Gyrocompass, GPS & ship’s log.  This is achieved by using a patented STDMA which is heart of AIS,
COMPONENTS OF AIS  STDMA is an invention of a young Swedish scientist who later invented - - - - - - -.

SHIPS A I S UNIT
SENSORS

VHF TX
RATE OF
TURN
C
VHF RX
MAIN GPS

P
VHF RX AIS
SPEED
DISPLAY
LOG
U UNIT

HEADING VHF TX
DEVICE

KEYBOARD
INTERNAL GPS Above
Deck

26 Oct 2008 13

 AIS transmitter automatically broadcasts information about ships position, COG, SOG and
CPA/TCPA at regular intervals on two VHF Maritime Frequencies of 161.975 Mhz & 162.025 Mhz.
 The AIS transmitter also transmits static information like ships identity, IMO Number, her cargo, her
destination etc which is manually inputted during installation and at the beginning of the voyage.

Vessel Traffic Service

 Greater the traffic density in a harbour or TSS, higher the risks of collision and
groundings.
 As seen in the diagram above, STDMA technique creates 2250 time slots of 26.6  The normal ship to ship interaction may prove inadequate like for example, an
milliseconds each every 60 seconds. alteration of course to avoid collision with one ship may create close quarter
As seen in the diagram, ship A is transmitting her information in the indicated time slot, during situation with another.
which time other ships are in reception mode.  In such case, there is a need for a separate agency which can monitor all the traffic
 On completion of her transmission, ship A has reserved the next time slot in the entire harbour or TSS.
 Then comes the chance for ship B and then for ship C which on completion of their  Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) provides such service.
transmissions reserve the next time slot. • For effective monitoring, a VTS must have a plot of ships in the harbour along with
 Whenever a new ship arrives in the vicinity, it will fit in without causing any interference in
their identities.
the ongoing sequence.
• Before AIS, a ship had to make a detailed verbal report about her identity, position,
 A high degree of synchronization is needed to manage this sequence which is accomplished
by the STDMA technology. ships dimensions, cargo etc on arriving at a TSS or near a harbour,.
 To achieve this synchronization, STDAM needs very accurate time which is provided by the • The VTS operator would then manually input this data on the VTS plot.
GPS system. • Inherent difficulties of RT communications like mutual interference, language and
accents cause delays and errors in the VTS which occasionally resulted in
Other applications of A I S accidents.
Though primarily meant for collision avoidance, AIS is also used for the following :-
• AIS helped overcome these problems because there is not RT in AIS and and all
• Vessel traffic services
• Virtual AIS & Pseudo AIS Messaging ships data was received and plotted automatically without any human intervention.
• Search and rescue • AIS has provided great value addition to VTS operations.
• The disposition of ships in the British channel is shown below
Virtual AIS & Pseudo AIS Messaging
 A fairly recent development in this technology has been the advent of virtual AIS.
 Virtual AIS is based on the concept of Pseudo AIS messaging.
 Pseudo AIS is essentially an AIS message sent by VTS centers to provide ships with information
about towing vessels and other such ships that do not have AIS equipment.
 The VTS centre broadcasts a pseudo AIS message on behalf of the towing vessel to ships in the
vicinity so that they can give the towing vessel a wide berth.
 This concept of pseudo AIS has been taken one step further by introducing the use of Virtual Buoys
and Virtual Pilotage.
 A Virtual Buoy is essentially an AIS message sent by the VTS or Port Authorities to ships in the port
area, giving the details of navigational buoys that are not physically present.
 Ships that are fitted with an AIS transponder can use this information to safely navigate through
narrow channels and avoid obstructions.
 This sort of a system is extremely cost-effective because the expenses involved with installing and
maintaining a physical buoy are negated.
 It is also beneficial to navigation because the buoy will show up on AIS-linked radar screens
irrespective of the visibility or weather conditions.
 A very good example of a successful system of Virtual Buoyage is in the Hooghly River in India.
 The banks of the Hooghly keep changing due to silting. This makes the makes the maintenance of
buoys a difficult proposition as the buoys have to be moved ever so often to mark the new position
of the banks.
 This obstacle has been circumvented by using a system of Virtual Buoys to mark the channel.
 Another application of virtual AIS that has significant cost and time saving implications is that of
Virtual Pilotage.
 Under this system of pilotage, the pilot station will transmit a series of navigational waypoints to the
ships concerned and the ships merely have to head for this waypoint.
 This will enable ships to successfully navigate in pilotage waters without the physical presence of a
pilot on board.
 AIS systems coupled with an Integrated Bridge System will enable the Pilot Station to receive up-
to-date information on all the navigational parameters of the ship thereby enabling them to safely
guide the ship to its berth.
 Though the legal ramifications of Virtual Pilotage are still a topic of debate, the cost benefits to ship
owners in terms of pilotage costs and turn-around times, will probably ensure that Virtual Pilotage
will probably become a very real proposition in the near future.

SAR
 For coordinating marine SAR, it is important to know the
position and navigation status of ships in the vicinity of the
ship or person in distress.
 AIS can provide such information without RT
communications which can be chaotic in a distress situation.
 The AIS standard has envisioned its use on SAR Aircraft,
and once fitted it will further help in SAR management.\

END

A Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System, abbreviated BNWAS, is an automatic system which
sounds an alarm if the watch officer on the bridge of a ship falls asleep, becomes otherwise
incapacitated, or is absent for too long a time. The BNWAS is automatically engaged when the
ship's autopilot is activated.
It must also be understood that the human component attached to navigation is open to errors and
faults; with a sudden mishap with respect to the watchkeeper (sudden unavailability due to health
reasons while on watch), the ship might be exposed to dangers and the BNWAS assists to tackle
such a problem.
What is BNWAS?
Bridge Navigational Watch & Alarm System – BNWAS is a monitoring and Alarm system which notifies
other navigational officers or master of the ship if the officer on watch (OOW) does not respond or he/she is
incapable of performing the watch duties efficiently, which can lead to maritime accidents.
The purpose of a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) is to monitor bridge activity and detect
operator disability which could lead to marine accidents. The system monitors the awareness of the Officer of
the Watch (OOW) and automatically alerts the Master or another qualified OOW if for any reason the OOW
becomes incapable of performing the OOW duties. This is achieved through a mix of alarms and indications
which alert backup OOWs as well as the Master. BNWAS warnings are given in the case of incapacity of the
watch-keeping officer due to accident, sickness or in the event of a security breach, e.g. piracy and/or
hijacking. Unless decided by the Master only, the BNWAS shall remain operational at all times.
The minimum requirement for a BNWAS under International Maritime Organization standards is to
have a dormant stage and three alarm stages, except that on a non-passenger vessel, the
second stage may be omitted.
Stage 1: When the autopilot is engaged, the bridge officer is required to signal his presence to the
BNWAS system every 3 to 12 minutes in response to a flashing light, either by moving an arm in
front of a motion sensor, pressing a confirmation button, or directly applying pressure to the
BNWAS centre.
Stage 2: When a confirmation signal fails to occur within 15 seconds in Stage 1, an alarm will sound
on the bridge, and if there is still no confirmation signal after a further 15 seconds, in
the captain's and the first officer's cabins. One of them must then go to the bridge and cancel the
alarm.
Stage 3: If neither the captain nor the first officer cancels the alarm within a specified time period
(between 90 seconds and 3 minutes depending on the size of the vessel), an alarm will sound in
locations where other personnel are usually available.
In addition an emergency call function may be provided, by which bridge personnel can activate a
Stage 2 or Stage 3 alarm to call for help.
Why Ships Need BNWAS?
There have been many incidents in the past wherein ships have collided or grounded due to wrong
decision or inefficiency in taking a decision at the correct time. If during an emergency situation, a
navigational officer is not capable of handling that situation, it can lead to devastating scenarios. To
avoid this BNWAS is installed on the bridge which acts similar to a dead man alarm in the engine
room.
A series of alert and alarm is first sounded by BNWAS in the Navigation Bridge to alert officer on
watch. If there is no response to the series of alarms, then BNWAS will alert other Deck officers,
which may include Master of the ship, so that someone can come out on the bridge and handle the
situation and tackle the problem.
The BNWAS also provides the
OOW with a means of calling for
immediate assistance, if required
(an emergency call).
Description of requirement
This Bridge Navigation Watch Alarm System (BNWAS) in simple terms is a timer alarm system that
forces watch officers to reset this system in periodic time intervals to insure that they are fully
alerted (not sleeping, playing solitaire with bridge computer,etc).
The requirement has the following main technical characteristics:
- After the system has been activated no alarm for a period of 3 to 12 minutes.
-After this period the system initiates a visual alarm on the bridge
- If not reset with a period of 15 seconds an audible alarm on the bridge is activated.
- If not reset with a period of 15 seconds from last audible bridge alarm, a second stage audible
alarm is activated in a remote location (ships office, master office).
- If not reset a third stage alarm is activated in a remotely location were other officers can take
corrective action within 90 seconds from the initiation of second stage alarm.
In vessels other than passenger vessels the second and the third stage alarms may sound in all of
the above location at the same time.
 RESET Function

It should not be possible to initiate the reset function or cancel the audible alarm from a device
not physically located in the bridge area providing proper lock out.
Regulations for BNWAS
The reset function should be a single operation function.
SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 19 states:
The single operation reset action must be in such a way that will ensure mental alertness of the
Cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size constructed on or
OOWS.
after 1 July 2011
The dormant periods should not be able to be prolonged by continued activations or any reset Passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey after 1
devices. July 2012
Cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first
Additionally survey after 1 July 2012
Cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July
An “Emergency Call” feature must be present to immediately skip to the second and third stage alarms. This is
2011, not later than the first safety survey after 1 July 2013
present for the OOW to summon immediate assistance
Cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July
Accuracy of the BNWAS should be within the window of 5% or 5 seconds, whichever is lesser
2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July 2014
Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period setting shall be restricted to the Master only
A BNWAS installed prior to 1 July 2011 may subsequently be exempted from full compliance with the
To be powered from the main power supply. The malfunction indication, and all elements of the Emergency Call standards adopted by the organization, at the discretion of the Administration
facility should be powered from a battery maintained supply
Outputs should be available for integration with other bridge equipments if need be
 MENU
• SIGNAL STATUS FROM GPS SATELLITES CAN BE
MONITORED.
GPS • LAT. / LONG ARE CALCULATED BASED ON
WGS-84 WITH GPS SYSTEM .
• ANTENNA HEIGHT CAN BE SET
CHAPTER 6 • A LOW SATELLITE CAN GIVE WRONG READING
A LIMIT CAN BE SET (e.g.10 DEG) – CALLED
ALARMS
MASKING SATELLITE

11 2

ERRORS
GPS
• (1) IF THE CONFIGURATION OF THE
• Error Correction AVAILABLE SATELLITES IS NOT SUITABLE,
ACCURACY OF THE FIX IS AFFECTED.
– Types of error (slows signal)
• (2) IONOSPHERIC AND TROPOSPHERIC DELAYS
• Charged particles in ionosphere OF SIGNALS DUE TO REFRACTION. THESE
• Water vapor in troposphere DELAYS CAN BE REASONABLY PREDICTED &
ARE FED INTO THE SOFTWARE OF RECEIVER.
• Ground obstructions
3 4

ERRORS CONTINUED
• (3) SATELLITE CLOCK ERROR
• (4)USER CLOCK ERROR
• (5)DEVIATION OF SATELLITES FROM THEIR
PREDICTED ORBITS
• (6)RECEIVER ERROR: CAUSED DUE TO
INTERNAL NOISE,COMPUTATION ERROR ETC.
(GDOP) – Geometric Dilution Of Precision
• Geometry of the position of satellite
determines the angle of cut.
• In case the angle of cut is 90 degree , more
accurate the fix.
• The lower the GDOP higher the accuracy of fix.
• This value is displayed on the unit screen.
• GPS receiver is programmed to select best
satellite considering their elevation and
geometry.

5 6

GPS – Errors – Multipath error

• If satellite signal arriving at ship

antenna directly and having been
reflected by some other object.
• This will cause distortion in signal.

• Locating the antenna at a suitable

place will minimize this error.

7 8
 GPS – Errors – Deviation of satellite from the
predicted path ALARMS
The satellites are monitored and their GPS FIX ALARM
path predicted by ground based • WARNS OF POOR GPS POSITIONING DATA
segment.
ANCHOR WATCH ALARM
Between 2 consecutive monitoring • IN CASE SHIP DRIFTS OUT OF TURNING CIRCLE
there may be minor drift from their
predicted path result in small position
inaccuracy.

9 10

ALARMS CAUTION
PROXIMITY ALARM • Some GPS receivers may use additional clues
• WHEN NEARING WAY POINT or assumptions (such as reusing the last
known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial
(Cross-Track-Error) XTE ALARM navigation , or including information from the
vehicle computer) to give a less accurate
• WHEN VESSEL MOVES AWAY OF CROSS TRACK
LIMIT SET. (degraded) position when fewer than four
satellites are visible.
COURSE DEVATION ANGLE
• IN CASE VESSEL MOVES OUT OF COURSE • Alarm will sound in above cases.
DEVIATION LIMIT SET. 11 12
12
 CAUTION
• Despite all electronic navigation systems
installed on board a ship, the prudent
navigator will not solely rely on these GPS
systems but will continue keeping and
practicing traditional systems of navigation
for use as a check or during cases of total
power failure or other such emergencies. CHAPTER 5
CONTROLS

13
13 14
14

CONTROL PANEL CONTROL PANEL (2)

• MODE – SELECTS NAV1, NAV2, NAV3 OR
PLOTTER SCREEN
• MENU – RECALLS THE MENU
• CLEAR – CLEAR NUMBERS ALSO STOP ALARM
• ENT – ENTERS A NUMERICAL / OPTIONAL
PARAMETER
• EVT – STORES EVENTS POSITION
• CTRS – CHANGES DISPLAY CONTRAST 8 LEVELS
• SELECTION - SELECTS PARAMETERS
• MOB – ACTIVATES MOB FUNCTION
• PWR DIM – DIMMER
• OFF – POWER OFF
• NUMERIC – ENTERS NUMERIC VALUES
• CURSOR SHIFT – SHIFTS CURSOR

15 16
 NAV-1 NAV-2
LATITIUDE / LONGITUDE • POSITION (USE SEL TO CHANGE SCREEN)
• SPEED • SPEED
• COURSE • COURSE
• ALTITUDE • DTG / COURSE TO STEER
• SPEED MADE GOOD • X-TRACK ERROR
• COURSE MADE GOOD • WAY POINT – DTG / COURSE
• RESET / WPT / RTE / ANCW • TTG / ETA

17 18

NAV-3 PLOT - SCREEN (4)

• LATITUDE / LONGITUDE • TRACK OF VESSEL
• ROAD MAP – X-TRACK ERROR • SPEED
• SPEED • COURSE
• COURSE • LATITUDE / LONGITUDE
• TTG / ETA FOR NEXT WAY POINT • DTG/ TTG – NEXT W.P.

19 20
 SWITCHING NAV. DATA STORING PRESENT POSITION
DATA CAN BE SWITCHED BETWEEN : PRESENT POSITION CAN BE STORED IF
REQUIRED BY NAVIGATOR.
• WAY POINT
• ROUTE • MAN OVER BOARD
• ANCHOR WATCH • NEED POSN REF. AT LATER STAGE

21 22

ROUTE / WAY POINT SET UP ANCHOR POSITION

• PASSAGE PLAN ROUTE NUMBER CAN BE
GIVEN AND STORED. • ANCHOR POSITION CAN BE MARKED AS
SOON ANCHOR IS DROPPED.

• AS GPS HAS AN INPUT TO RADAR , W.P

APPEARS AS A CIRCLE ON RADAR. • TURNING CIRCLE CAN BE MADE AND
ALARM SET.

• SIMILARLY WAY POINTS CAN BE GIVEN

AND STORED IN A PARTICULAR ROUTE.

23 24
 GPS Introduction
What is GPS?

GPS The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a

worldwide radio-navigation system formed
from a constellation of 24 satellites and their
ground stations .
CHAPTER 2
BASIC PRINCIPLE

25
25 26
26

How GPS works? GPS

• The Global Positioning System (GPS)
Triangulating from Satellites
• is a space-based (GNSS)
• The whole idea behind GPS is to Global Navigation Satellite System
use satellites in space as reference that provides location and time
points for locations here on earth. information in all weather, anywhere on
or near the Earth, where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites
27
27 28
28
 GPS GPS
• The Global Positioning System (GPS • Basic concept of GPS

• It is maintained by the United States • A GPS receiver calculates its position

government and is freely accessible by precisely timing the signals sent
by anyone with a GPS receiver. by GPS satellites high above the
Earth.

29
29 30
30

Basic concept of GPS Basic concept of GPS

• The receiver uses the messages it
receives to determine the transit time
of each message and computes the
distance to each satellite.
• These distances along with the
satellites‘ locations are used with
the possible aid of TRILATERATION,
to compute the position of the
receiver.

31
31 32
32
 How GPS works? How GPS works?
Triangulating from Satellites Here's how GPS works :

• By very accurately measuring our • To measure travel time, GPS needs

distance from three satellites we can very accurate timing
"triangulate" our position anywhere on which it achieves.
earth.

33
33 34
34

How GPS works? How GPS works?

Here's how GPS works : Here's how GPS works :

• Along with distance, you need to • Finally you must correct for any
know exactly where the satellites delays the signal experiences as it
are in space. travels through the atmosphere.

35
35 36
36
 Basic concept of GPS Basic concept of GPS
• This position is then displayed,
perhaps with a moving map display
(such as ECDIS) • Many GPS units (especially those
on ships and other vehicles) show
or
derived information such as direction
latitude and longitude; and speed, calculated from position
changes.
Elevation information may be
included which is useful for aircraft
navigation and mountaineering.
37
37 38
38

Basic concept of GPS Basic concept of GPS

• Three satellites might seem enough to
solve for position since space has • Therefore receivers use four o r more
three dimensions. satellites to solve for the receiver's
location and time.
• However, even a very small clock
error multiplied by the very large
speed of light — the speed at which
satellite signals propagate — results in
a large positional error.
39
39 40
40
 Basic concept of GPS
How GPS Works
• A few specialized GPS applications
do use the time in addition to the
location obtained by the GPS. 625 miles 690 miles

Boise Minneapolis

• These include time transfer , traffic Denver

615 miles

signal timing, and synchronization Tucson

of cell phone base stations.

42
41
41 42

43
43 44
44
 GPS
Step One:

• First, say we measure our distance to a

satellite and find out that it's 11,000 miles
away.

• That tells us that we're on the first sphere. Or

in other words, we're somewhere on the circle
11000 miles away from the first satellite.
45
45 46
46

GPS
• Step Two:

• Next, say we measure our distance to a

second satellite and find out that it's
12,000 miles away.

• That tells us that we're not only on the

first sphere but we're also on a sphere
that's 12,000 miles from the second
47
47 48
48
satellite. Or in other words, we're
 49
49 50
50

GPS
• Step Three:
• If we then make a measurement from a third
satellite and find that we're 13,000 miles from
that one, that narrows our position down
even further, to the two points where the
13,000 mile sphere cuts through the circle
that's the intersection of the first two spheres.
51
51
GPS
• Step Three:
• So by ranging from three satellites we can
narrow our position to just two points in
space.
• To decide which one is our true location we
could make a fourth measurement. But
usually one of the two points is a ridiculous
answer (either too far from Earth or moving at
an impossible velocity) and can be rejected
without a measurement. 52
52
 GPS

GPS

CHAPTER 3
INFORMATION

53
53 54
54

GPS GPS
Putting GPS to work
Putting GPS to work
These days scientists, sportsmen, farmers,
GPS technology has matured into a soldiers, pilots, surveyors, hikers, delivery
resource that goes far beyond its original drivers, sailors, dispatchers, lumberjacks,
design goals. fire-fighters, and people from many other
walks of life are using GPS in ways that
make their work more productive, safer,
and sometimes even easier.

55
55 56
56
 GPS GPS
Putting GPS to work

In this section you will see a few examples

of real-world applications of GPS.

These applications fall into five broad

categories.

57
57 58
58

GPS GPS
1) Location
1) Location "Where am I?“
"Where am I?“
• GPS is the first positioning system to offer
• The first and most obvious highly precise location data for any point on the
application of GPS is the simple planet, in any weather.
determination of a "position" or
location. • That alone would be enough to qualify it as a
major utility, but the accuracy of GPS and the
creativity of its users is pushing it into some
59
surprising realms. 60
59 60
 GPS GPS
1) Location
2) Navigation
"Where am I?“
"Where am I going?“
• Knowing the precise location of something, or
• GPS helps you determine exactly where you
someone, is especially critical when the
are, but sometimes important to know how to
consequences of inaccurate data are measured
get somewhere else.
in human terms. For example, when a stranded
motorist was lost in a South Dakota blizzard for 2
• GPS was originally designed to provide
days, GPS helped rescuers find her.
navigation information for ships and planes.

61
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62

GPS GPS
3) Navigation 3) Navigation
On the Water On the Water

• It's interesting that the sea, one of our
oldest channels of transportation, has been
revolutionized by GPS, the newest navigation
technology.
• the world's first GPS receiver for marine
navigation was introduced in 1985.
• Now, navigating the world's oceans and
waterways is more precise than ever.

63
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64
 GPS GPS

65
65 66
66

GPS GPS
Why we need Differential GPS? Why we need Differential GPS?

Basic GPS is the most accurate radio-based So some crafty engineers came up with
navigation system ever developed. And for "Differential GPS," a way to correct the
many applications it's plenty accurate. But it's various inaccuracies in the GPS system,
human nature to want MORE! pushing its accuracy even farther.

67
67 68
68
 GPS GPS
Why we need Differential GPS? Why we need Differential GPS?

Differential GPS or "DGPS" can yield That improved accuracy has a profound effect
measurements good to a couple of meters in on the importance of GPS as a resource. With
moving applications and even better in it, GPS becomes more than just a system for
stationary situations. navigating boats and planes around the world

69
69 70
70

GPS
Why we need Differential GPS?

With the added precision available, GPS

has become a universal measurement
GPS
system capable of positioning things on
a very precise scale.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

71
71 72
72
 GPS
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
space-based global navigation satellite
system (GNSS) that provides location and
time information in all weather, anywhere on
or near the Earth, where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites. It is maintained by the United
States government and is freely accessible by
anyone with a GPS receiver.
73
73
GPS
• In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or
under development. The Russian GLObal
NAvigation Satellite System ( glonass) was in
use by only the Russian military, until it was
made fully available to civilians in 2007. There
are also the planned Chinese Compass
Navigation system and the European Union's
Galileo positioning system.
75
75
GPS
• The GPS project was developed in 1973 to
overcome the limitations of previous
navigation systems, integrating ideas from
several predecessors, including a number of
classified engineering design studies from the
1960s. GPS was created and realized by the
U.S. Department of Defence (USDOD) and
was originally run with 24 satellites. It became
fully operational in 1994.
74
74
GPS
Basic concept of GPS
Each satellite continually transmits messages
that include
• the time the message was transmitted
• precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
• the general system health and rough orbits of
all GPS satellites (the almanac).
76
76
 GPS Introduction GPS Introduction
Why GPS?
Why GPS?

• Trying to figure out where you are and

where you're going is probably one of • Finally, the U.S. Department of Defence
man's oldest pastimes. decided that the military had to have a
super precise form of worldwide
• Navigation and positioning are crucial to
positioning.
so many activities and yet the process has
always been quite cumbersome.
• Over the years all kinds of technologies • And fortunately they had the kind of
have tried to simplify the task but ever
77
77 money ($12 billion!) it took to build 78
78

one has had some disadvantage something really good.

GPS Introduction GPS Introduction

Why GPS? What is GPS?

• The result is the Global Positioning System, a The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
system that's changed navigation forever. worldwide radio-navigation system formed
from a constellation of 24 satellites and their
ground stations .

79
79 80
80
 GPS Introduction
GPS Introduction
What is GPS?
What is GPS?
• GPS uses these "man-made stars" as reference
points to calculate positions accurate to a • GPS receivers have been miniaturized to just a
matter of meters. few integrated circuits and so are becoming
very economical.
• In fact, with advanced forms of GPS you can
make measurements to better than a • And that makes the technology accessible to
centimeter! virtually everyone.
81
81 82
82

• In a sense it's like giving every square meter

GPS Introduction
What is GPS?

• These days GPS is finding its way into cars,

boats, planes, construction equipment, movie
GPS
making gear, farm machinery, even laptop
computers.
CHAPTER 4
• Soon GPS will become almost as basic as the STRUCTURE
telephone. Indeed, we think it just may
become a universal utility. 83
83 84
84
 Structure of GPS
GPS STRUCTURE
• The current GPS consists of three
major segments. These are the
GPS

• space segment (SS),

SEGMENTS OF GPS • a control segment (CS), and a
• user segment (U.S.).
CONTROL SPACE USER

85 86
86

Structure of GPS Structure of GPS

• The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and • The space segment is composed of 24 to 32
operates the space and control segments. satellites in medium Earth orbit and also
includes the payload adapters to the boosters
• GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, (rockets) required to launch them into orbit.
and each GPS receiver uses these signals to
calculate its three-dimensional location
(latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the
current time.

87
87 88
88
 Structure of GPS
• The control segment is composed of a master
control station, an alternate master control
station, and a host of dedicated and shared
ground antennas and monitor stations.
Structure of GPS
• The user segment is composed of hundreds
of thousands of U.S. and allied military users
of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service,
and tens of millions of civil, commercial, and
scientific users of the Standard Positioning
Service .

89
89 90
90

The space segment The Control segment

• About nine satellites are visible • The control segment is composed of

from any point on the ground • a master control station (MCS),
at any one time • an alternate master control station,
• four dedicated ground antennas and
• six dedicated monitor stations

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91 92
92
 GPS Receivers
• In general, GPS receivers are composed
of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies
transmitted by the satellites, receiver-
processors, and a highly stable clock
(often a crystal oscillator ).
93
93
GPS Receivers
• They may also include a display
for providing location and speed
information to the user.
(such as for marine navigation use)
94
94
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
Care in the placing of portable items

MAGNETIC COMPASS • of magnetic material, including spare

corrector magnets, or electrical
equipment in the vicinity of compasses
CARE

1
1 2
2

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Care in the placing of portable items Care in the placing of portable items

• Since the magnetic compass is affected by
magnetic fields, all Ferro magnetic material if
brought close to a magnetic compass will
slowly be magnetized (over a period of time).
This material may later exert a magnetic field
on the compass magnet.
3
3
• Similarly any electrical wiring will
produce a electrical field which will exert
its influence on the magnet of the
compass.
• All ferro metal materials must be at a
safe distance to avoid interfering with 4
4

the working of the compass.

 MAGNETIC COMPASS
Care in the placing of portable items
• This is the reason all electrical/electronic
bridge equipment like Radars etc come
with a ‘compass safe distance’ marked on
them.
5
5 6
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Compass error should be checked after a
major alteration of course
• After alteration of course the gyro as well
as the magnetic compass error should be
taken. Errors on different headings
should be taken for the magnetic
compass due to different deviation
values.
7
7 8
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Need for regular checking of the
compass error
• Due to change in latitude, course and
speed, the compass error should be
taken at regular intervals.
6
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Regular comparisons of standard
compass, steering compass and
gyrocompass should be made
• Comparisons between magnetic compass
and gyrocompass should be made once a
watch and after every large alteration of
course.
8
 MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS
Regular comparisons of standard compass, Gyro Compass may be used to
steering compass and gyrocompass should be approximate the error of the magnetic
made compass

• All the repeaters should be compared with the • A magnetic compass may be compared
Master gyrocompass and the Magnetic with a gyro compass to arrive at a
compass should be compared with the Master approximate of the error.
Gyrocompass, so that while taking bearings
the error if any may be applied.
9
9 10
10

BINNACLE

MAGNETIC COMPASS
BINNACLE

CONSTRUCTION

11
11
GIMBALS 12
12
 MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS
Construction of a liquid card Keeping the card practically horizontal in all
latitudes
magnetic compass
• The weight of the card and magnets is
supported partly by the buoyancy and partly
by an iridium point fitting into a sapphire
bearing.

13
13 14
14

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Composition of the liquid
Keeping the card practically horizontal in
all latitudes
• The bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled
water and pure ethyl alcohol thereby
• The point of support is above the centre
making the mixture to have the following
of gravity of the card, so that the card
properties:
remains substantially horizontal in all
latitudes.

15
15 16
16
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
Composition of the liquid
• Low freezing point about -30°C
• Small coefficient of expansion
• Does not discolor the card
• Low relative density about 0.93
17
17
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Marking of the lubber line and its purpose
• LUBBER’S ( LUBBER (clumsy fellow) LINE:
The lubber’s line marks the direction of the
fore and aft line of the ship.
(So called because a ‘real’ seaman can do without it.)
19
19
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Checking that the card is turning freely on its
pivot.
• The compass card may be tested for pivot
friction by deflecting the compass cards a few
degrees. If the pivot is in good condition the
card should return to and settle in its original
position with no sign of sticking or jerkiness.
18
18
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Binnacle and the arrangement of
correcting devices provided
• The binnacle is a cylindrical container
made of teakwood. No magnetic
material is used in the construction.
20
20
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
Binnacle and the arrangement of
correcting devices provided
• The compass bowl is slung inside the
top portion of the binnacle. The middle
portion is accessible by a door and
contains an electric bulb.
21
21
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Binnacle and the arrangement of correcting
devices provided
• The number of magnets in the bucket, the
bucket’s position with reference to the compass
card and the number of hard iron magnets
depend on the disturbing forces. A qualified
“compass adjuster” can calculate this force after
conducting certain tests. The deviation card
must be checked annually.
23
23
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Binnacle and the arrangement of
correcting devices provided
• Light from this bulb passes upwards
through a small slot at the bottom of
the compass bowl to illuminate the
compass card from below.
22
22
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Binnacle and the arrangement of
correcting devices provided
• Once the compass has been adjusted, the
magnets should not be disturbed and the
doors giving access to the corrector
magnets should be kept locked.
24
24
 BINNACLE
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Using the magnetic compass

• Since the magnetic compass is located

on the deck above the bridge, there is
a reflecting system (Periscope) by
which the helmsman can see the
magnetic compass and steer by its
heading.

25
25 26
26

Reflecting tube
(Periscope)

to sight MAGNETIC COMPASS

the Magnetic
compass card
for steering
When the INTRODUCTION
Gyro compass
Malfunctions.
27
27 28
28
 BINNACLE MAGNETIC COMPASS
OF
MARINE • The case, lid and compass bowl are made of
MAGNETIC turned ivory. Repro ID: D9602 ©National
Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London
COMPASS
• When people think of instruments that
SITUATED
help with direction finding, the first one
ON THE that springs to mind is probably the
FLYING magnetic compass.
BRIDGE 29 30
29 30

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

• It is the oldest instrument for navigation
and has been a vital tool for navigators at
sea for centuries.
• The compass allows ships to steer a
selected course.
• Where was the compass first used?
The origin of the compass is shrouded in
mystery. Certainly the Greeks knew about
the attractive properties of magnetism in
ancient times.

• By taking bearings of visible objects with a

compass, the navigator is also able to fix a
ship's position on a chart. 31
31 32
32
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
• Similarly, the Chinese were probably
aware that an iron bar stroked with a
lodestone acquired a directional north-
south property as long as 2000 years ago.
• However, the precise date at which this
knowledge was used to create the first
magnetic compass is unknown.
33
33
MAGNETIC COMPASS
• However, early compasses were not very
reliable.
• Although the magnetic compass was in
general use in the Middle Ages, little was
known about precisely how it worked.
35
35
MAGNETIC COMPASS
• By the 10th century, the idea had been
brought to Europe, probably from China, by
Arab traders.
• Magnetic compasses of a very simple kind
were certainly in use in the Mediterranean as
early as the 12th century.
34
34
MAGNETIC COMPASS
How does a magnetic compass work?
• A magnetic compass works because the Earth
is like a giant magnet, surrounded by a huge
magnetic field.
• The Earth has two magnetic poles which lie
near the North and South poles.
36
36
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
How does a magnetic compass work?
• The magnetic field of the Earth causes a
magnetized 'needle‘ of iron or steel to
swing into a north-south position if it is
hung from a thread, or if it is stuck
through a straw or piece of wood floating
in a bowl of water.
37
37
MAGNETIC COMPASS
How accurate is the magnetic compass?
• As long ago as the 15th century, mariners
noticed that the needle of a magnetic
compass does not point accurately to Earth's
true north.
39
39
MAGNETIC COMPASS
How were needles magnetized?
• Needles were magnetized by stroking them
with a lodestone, a lump of magnetic rock
called magnetite. The needle did not keep its
magnetism permanently, so a lodestone was
carried on the ship so that the needle could be
stroked whenever the magnetism wore off.
38
38
MAGNETIC COMPASS
How accurate is the magnetic compass?
• Columbus, for instance was aware of this on
his voyages across the Atlantic in the 1490s.
• Instead, the needle makes an angle with true
north, and that angle varies from place to
place on the Earth's surface.
40
40
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
How accurate is the magnetic compass?
• This means that there is a different magnetic
variation for different places on Earth.
• These variations were investigated on a
famous 17th century voyage by the great
scientist and astronomer Edmond Halley.
41
41
MAGNETIC COMPASS
How were these cards marked out?
• At first, compass cards were marked out not in
degrees, but in points. There were 32 points,
matching the directions of winds which sailors
would be familiar with at sea. The four main
points – North, South, East and West – are
called the cardinal points.
43
43
MAGNETIC COMPASS
How were the simplest compasses
improved?
• A great improvement came when the
needle was mounted under a card on a
sharp pin, and placed in a little turned
wooden or ivory box.
42
42
MAGNETIC COMPASS
There is a lot of movement on board a ship at
sea. What happens to the compass then?
• To stop the needle and card from swinging
wildly on board ship, even early compasses
were gimbal mounted in a square box by an
attachment with swivelling rings.
44
44
 MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS
There is a lot of movement on board a ship at There is a lot of movement on board a ship at
sea. What happens to the compass then? sea. What happens to the compass then?

• This means that the compass is hung in a way • By the 19th century, the ships compass had
that makes it unaffected by the movement of become the familiar large, gimbal mounted
the ship on the sea. instrument, enclosed in a binnacle with its
own light.

45
45 46
46

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Do iron ships pose particular problems Do iron ships pose particular problems
for magnetic compasses? for magnetic compasses?

• Yes. The magnetic field of the iron body • When iron and steel ships became
of the ship itself affects the reading on common, many scientists studied the
the compass. problem. One of the earliest was the
Astronomer Royal, Sir G.B. Airy, who in
1838 used the iron steamer Rainbow for
his experiments.
47
47 48
48
 MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Do iron ships pose particular problems Which other scientists successfully

for magnetic compasses? improved the compass?

• Airy thought of a method of neutralizing • Another problem was solved by a

a ship's magnetism by placing magnets Scottish scientist of the 19th century, Sir
and pieces of unmagnetized iron near William Thomson, who later became
the compass. Lord Kelvin.

49
49 50
50

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Which other scientists successfully Which other scientists successfully

improved the compass? improved the compass?

• He introduced a compass design with the
needle system slung on fine silk threads
through a very light skeleton card.
51
51
• The card was made of fine rice paper so
that there was very little friction on the
pivot. Jewels, such as agate and ruby,
were used to reduce friction on the pivot
itself. This was a dry card compass.
52
52
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
Which other scientists successfully
improved the compass?
• It was also realised that compass
movement could be dampened by filling
the bowl with liquid.
• This led to a wet card compass.
MAGNETIC COMPASS
• Alcohol is ideal for the wet card
compass, since it only freezes at a very
low temperature.
• Liquid compasses, because of their
greater steadiness, are used in most
ships and boats.

53
53 54
54

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

How was the problem of magnetic How was the problem of magnetic
variation solved? variation solved?

• Variations do not worry navigators now • The Gyro Compass uses a spinning
because of the introduction of the gyroscope which keeps the compass
gyroscopic compass. It was invented in pointing not to the magnetic north,
1908. but to Earth's true North.

55
55 56
56
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
How was the problem of magnetic
variation solved?
• A rapidly spinning gyroscope is at the
heart of the gyrocompass. Once the
gyroscope is set spinning, it remains
pointing in the same direction, regardless
of the ship's heaving motion.
MAGNETIC COMPASS
• Today, a ship anywhere in the world can
check its exact position by means of a
signal from a satellite in orbit.
• However, all navigators still have a
compass on board as well.

57
57 58
58

MAGNETIC COMPASS
• Tracy Edwards, who captained the yacht
Maiden in the 1989–90 Whitbread
Round-the-World Yacht Race, used MAGNETIC COMPASS
Navsat (satellite navigation) and found it
had so many technical problems that she
often used a magnetic compass instead.
CONSTRUCTION

59
59 60
60
 MAGNETIC COMPASS
Removing Air Bubbles

MAGNETIC COMPASS • Air bubbles often appear in a compass

bowl.

REMOVING AIR BUBBLES • If the bubble is quite small it is preferred

that it be left alone.

61
61 62
62

MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Removing Air Bubbles Removing Air Bubbles

• However if the bubble is too large then
the frictionless movement of the card
would be affected, thus the need to
remove the air bubble or at least to
reduce it to a small bubble.
• To remove the air bubble, first the
gimbals are locked with the swivel plates
provided.

63
63 64
64
 MAGNETIC COMPASS MAGNETIC COMPASS
Removing Air Bubbles Removing Air Bubbles

• Next the bowl is inverted and the
filling hole is unscrewed.
• A syringe is filled with distilled water
and slowly the water is injected into
the bowl.
65
65
• If the same is not possible then the
bowl has to be tilted in the inverted
condition such that the highest point
is the filling hole, this would drive the
bubble to the filling hole.
66
66

MAGNETIC COMPASS

Removing Air Bubbles

• Once the water is injected to

satisfaction the filling hole is screwed
back, and the bowl returned to normal
position, and the gimbals unlocked.

67
67
 MARINE RADAR : CONTENTS
1) Introduction
2) Purpose of the instrument
3) Principle
4) Description with block diagram MARINE RADAR
5) Operation : Controls
6) Effects of weather
7) False echoes Operation : Controls
8) Limitations of Radar
9) Radar plotting
1 2

MARINE RADAR - Controls

Radar Controls
• Marine radar has performance adjustment
controls for brightness and contrast, gain,
tuning, sea clutter and rain clutter
suppression, and other interference
reduction.
• Other common controls consist of range
scale, bearing cursor, fix/variable range
marker or bearing/distance cursor.
3 4
 Controls of a Radar Controls of a Radar

1. TIME SYNCHRONIZED CONTROLS • TIME SYNCHRONIZED CONTROLS:-

2. NON-SYNCHRONIZED CONTROLS
3. AZIMUTH CONTROLS • ANTI-CLUTTER
4. OTHER CONTROLS • RANGE RINGS
• VARIABLE RANGE MARKER (VRM)
• ELECTRONIC BEARING LINE (EBL)

5 6

Controls of a Radar

• NON-SYNCHRONIZED CONTROLS

• MANUAL TUNING
• GAIN
• BRILLIANCE
• ANTI-RAIN CLUTTER
THE ABOVE CONTROLS CAN BE
AUTOMATICALLY ADJUSTED.
7 8
 Controls of a Radar Controls of a Radar
• AZIMUTH CONTROLS:- • OTHER CONTROLS:-

1. HEADING MARKER ON / OFF 1. ON / OFF SWITCH

2. PICTURE ROTATE (HEADING 2. STANDBY
MARKER ALIGNMENT) 3. PL SELECTOR
3. MECHANICAL CURSOR 4. CENTRE SHIFT
4. GYRO-STABILIZATION OR 5. PERFORMANCE MONITOR
PRESENTATION MODE SWITCH. 6. SCALE ILLUMINATION
7. SCANNER ON / OFF
9 10

•
RADAR DISPLAY Typical Radar Screen with
Pop-Up Sub-Window Controls of a Radar
UNIT • A Range of radar display.
• B Heading line shows direction OTHER CONTROLS:-
of boat's path.
• C EBL -- Electronic Bearing
PARALLEL INDEXING
Line.
• D Pop-up sub-window in zoom
mode. • This is a technique rather than a separate
• E Radius of VRM marker. control, using the bearing matrix and variable
• F Heading of boat.
• G VRM -- Variable Range
range marker to preset a clearing safe range.
Marker.
• H Cursor shows range and
bearing of specific targets. • It can also be used to check the clearing
• I Selectable fixed range rings. range of a target.
• J Land Mass.
• K Direction of EBL.
11 12
 PARALLEL INDEXING

13 14

MARINE RADAR MARINE RADAR

Control Description Control Description

Suppressing Sea Clutter (2)

Suppressing Sea Clutter (1)
• In rough weather, returns from the sea
surface are received over several miles • If the setting is too low, targets will be
around own ship and mask nearby hidden in the clutter,
targets.
• This situation can be improved by • while if it is set too high, both sea clutter
properly using the Anti Sea Clutter key. and targets will disappear from the
15
display. 16
 MARINE RADAR MARINE RADAR
Control Description Control Description

Suppressing Sea Clutter (3)

Suppressing Sea Clutter (4)

• In most cases adjust the key until clutter

has disappeared to leeward, but a little is • A common mistake is to over-adjust the
still visible windward. key so that the surface clutter is
completely removed.

17 18

MARINE RADAR MARINE RADAR

Control Description Control Description
Suppressing Sea Clutter (6)
Suppressing Sea Clutter (5)
• This dark zone is even more dangerous
• By setting up for maximum suppression, if the sensitivity has not been properly
you will see how dangerous this can be; adjusted.
a dark zone will be created near the
center of the screen, causing a loss of • Always leave a little surface clutter
close-in targets. visible on the screen.
19 20
 MARINE RADAR
Control Description
Suppressing Rain Clutter

• In adverse weather, clouds, rain or snow MARINE RADAR

produce spray-like spurious echoes which
impair target detection over a long
distance.
Description with block diagram

• These echoes can be suppressed by

turning on the anti-rain clutter key.
21 22

1. POWER SUPPLY
2. DELAY LINE
3. TRIGGER UNIT
4. MODULATOR
5. MAGNETRON
6. SCANNER
7. TR CELL
8. LOCAL OSCILLATOR
9. MIXER
10.I.F AMPLIFIER
11.VIDEO AMPLIFIER
12.C.R.T
13.TIME BASE UNIT
14.DEFLECTION COILS
23
15.TRACE BLANKING UNIT
24
RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
 Description with Block Diagram
Description with Block Diagram

POWER SOURCE
DELAY LINE
• AC INPUT FROM SHIPS MAINS OR
THROUGH A TRANSFORMER OR THROUGH • STORES THE ENERGY RECEIVED FROM
AN INVERTER IF THE SHIPS MAINS ARE DC.
THE POWER SOURCE.

25 26

Description with Block Diagram

SPIKE WAVES
TRIGGER UNIT

• SENDS SPIKE WAVES SIGNALS TO MODULATOR

(UNIT NO. 4), TIME BASE (UNIT NO. 13) , AND
TRACE BLANKING (UNIT NO.15).

• NUMBER OF SPIKES PER SECOND EQUAL TO PRF

(PLUSE REPITTION FREQUENCY)

27 28
 Description with Block Diagram
SPIKE WAVES
• WAVEFORM OF AN INTERRUPTED DIRECT
CURRENT WHOSE PULSE LENGTH IS EXTREMELY
SMALL.
• THE CURRENT GOES FROM ZERO TO MAXIMUM
AND FALLS BACK VERY QUICKLY.
• THIS SPIKE IS REPEATED AT REGULAR INTERVAL
AS REQUIRED.
29
Description with Block Diagram
MAGNETRON
• IT IS A HIGH POWER OSCILLATOR CAPABLE
OF BEING SWITCHED OFF AND ON FOR
SHORT DURATIONS AT DESIRED PRF, BY THE
PULSES FROM THE MODULATOR.
• THE OUTPUT OF THE MAGNETRON CONSISTS
OF PULSES OF EM ENERGY THAT ARE SENT
THROUGH WAVE GUIDE (SCANNER).
31
Description with Block Diagram
MODULATOR
• IT IS A DEVICE WHICH SWITCHES THE
MAGNETRON ON AND OFF AS REQUIRED.
• EACH SPIKE WAVE CAUSES THE MODULATOR
TO RELEASE ONE POWERFUL DC PULSE FROM
DELAY LINE TO MAGNETRON.
30
Description with Block Diagram
SCANNER
• SENDS THE PULSES OUT AND RECEIVES THE
ECHOES, ONE DIRECTION AT A TIME.
• AS IT ROTATES AT A CONSTANT SPEED THE
ENTIRE AREA AROUND IT GETS SCANNED
REGULARLY.
• MARINE RADAR SCANNERS ARE MOSTLY
SLOTTED WAVE GUIDE TYPE.
32
 Description with Block Diagram
Description with Block Diagram

TR CELL (TRANSMIT / RECEIVE SWITCH)

• BLOCKS THE RECEIVER BRANCH DURING TR

TRANSMISSION.
From transmitter TR
CELL
CELL
• AFTER TRANSMISSION IS OVER, THE TR CELL
ALLOWS THE ECHOES THAT ARE RECEIVED TO
PASS INTO THE RECEIVER.

33 34

Description with Block Diagram Description with Block Diagram

LOCAL OSCILLATOR MIXER

• OSCILLATES AT A CONSTANT LOW POWER RADIO
FREQUENCY(RF) OF ABOUT 30 TO 60 HZ ABOVE
OR BELOW THE MAGNETRON FREQUENCY,
• THE DIFFERENCE BEING CALLED THE
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY(IF).
• MIXES THE ECHOES WITH THE LOCAL
OSCILLATIONS AND MAKES AVAILABLE TO THE IF
AMPLIFIER, THE ECHOES REDUCED FROM RF TO
IF.

35 36
 Description with Block Diagram
Description with Block Diagram
CRT
Aquadag
IF AND VIDEO AMPLIFIER coating
G A1 A3
A2 Y X
F
• IF AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIES THE SIGNAL SEVERAL K

MILLION TIMES AND PASSES TO VIDEO

AMPLIFIER.
Fluorescent
• VIDEO AMPLIFIER CONTROLS THE Electron Emission Focusing &
Acceleration Deflection
Screen

AMPLIFICATION OF THE SIGNAL VOLTAGES FED

TO CRT. Electron Gun

37 38

Description with Block Diagram Description with Block Diagram

CRT
TIME BASE UNIT
• PROVIDES A VISUAL DISPLAY OF ALL TARGETS
IN THE VICINITY. • GENERATES SAWTOOTH WAVES REQUIRED
BY THE DEFLECTION COILS.
• AS IT GIVES A BIRDS EYE VIEW (PLAN) ,
ITS SCREEN IS CALLED PLAN POSITION
INDICATOR (PPI).

39 40
 Description with Block Diagram Description with Block Diagram

SWATOOTH WAVES DEFLECTION COILS

AMPLITUDE

• THE DEFLECTION COILS ARE SITUATED AT

THE NECK OF THE CRT AND ROTATES WITH
THE SCANNER, THEREBY CREATING A
ROTATING TRACE ACROSS THE PPI.

MICRO-SECONDS
41 42

Description with Block Diagram Description with Block Diagram

PERSISTENCE OF VISION
TRACE
• THE PPI SCREEN IS COATED BY A ‘PAINT’
• IT IS THE APPEARANCE OF A LINE OF LIGHT WHICH ALLOWS THE BRIGHT SPOT
PRODUCED BY A POINT OF LIGHT MOVING INDICATING A TARGET TO REMAIN BRIGHT
FROM THE CENTER OF THE PPI TO THE EDGE FOR A FEW SECONDS. THIS PERSISTENCE OF
OF THE PPI AT GREAT SPEED. VISION ENABLES THE RADAR OBSERVER TO
INTERPRET THE RADAR PICTURE.

43 44
Description with Block Diagram
TRACE BLANKING UNIT

• ALLOWS THE ELECTRON STREAM FROM THE

MARINE RADAR
ELECTRON GUN OF THE CRT TO HIT THE
SCREEN AS SOON AS TRANSMISSION TAKES
PLACE.
Effects of weather
• CUTS IT OFF AS SOON AS THE ELECTRON
STREAM REACHES THE EDGE OF THE PPI.

45 46

Effects of weather Effects of weather

ATTENUATION (1) ATTENUATION (2)

WHEN RADAR (RADIO) WAVES PASS THROUGH
THE ATMOSPHERE, SOME OF THEIR ENERGY IS
LOST DUE TO ABSORPTION, SCATTERING,
DIFFRACTION, etc.
SUCH LOSS OF ENERGY IS TERMED ATTENUATION
IN THE ATMOSPHERE.
WEATHER PHENOMENA SUCH AS DRIZZLE,
RAIN, SNOW, FOG, etc, CAUSE VARYING
AMOUNT OF ATTENUATION.
THIS ATTENUATION DUE TO THESE WEATHER
EFFECTS CAUSES LOSS OF ECHO STRENGTH
AND CONSEQUENT DECREASE IN DETECTION
RANGE.

47 48
 Effects of weather Effects of weather
ATTENUATION (3) WEATHER PHENOMENA

• DRIZZLE
• Marine radars have wave length of • RAIN
3cms. (X-band) or 10 cms.(S-band). • HAIL
• SNOW
• FOG
• The 10cms. WL is less affected by
• SAND STORM
attenuation.

49 50

Effects of Diffraction Effects of Diffraction

DIFFRACTION (1) DIFFRACTION (2)

• Anomalous propagation of light and • Consequently, the radar horizon is

radio waves leads to the waves
bending as they pass through different
layers of the atmosphere which have
different densities and different
ionization.
altered due to changes in atmospheric
condition.
• There are three pre-dominant effects
due to diffraction:

51 52
 Effects of Diffraction Effects of Diffraction

DIFFRACTION (3) DIFFRACTION (4)

Sub-refraction
• During the presence of this type of
atmospheric condition, targets which
are normally detected at their normal
range will not be detected now.
Super-refraction
• During the presence of this type of
atmospheric condition, targets which
are normally NOT detected at their
normal range, will now be detected.

53 54

Effects of Diffraction

DIFFRACTION (5)

Ducting
• During the presence of this type of
atmospheric condition, the radar
energy gets trapped in a duct, leading
to targets which are at a very great
distance being detected .

55 56
 MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (1)

MARINE RADAR • Occasionally echo signals appear on the
screen at positions where there is no
target or disappear even if there are
targets.
Errors (False Echoes) • They are, however, recognized if you
understand the reason why they are
displayed.
57 58

MARINE RADAR - Errors MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (2)
False Echoes (3)
• False echoes can be reduced or
Indirect echoes
eliminated in most cases by proper
adjustment of gain or anti-clutter.
• Shipboard obstructions such as masts,
funnels, etc., may reflect radar energy
• In some cases, changing the range
as targets in some other direction
may cause the false echo to
disappear.
59 60
 INDIRECT ECHOES MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (4)

Multiple echoes

• Multiple echoes occur when a transmitted

pulse returns from a solid object like a
large ship, bridge, or breakwater.

61 62

MARINE RADAR - Errors MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (5)
Multiple echoes
• A second, a third or more echoes may be
observed on the display at double, triple
or other multiples of the actual range of
the target as shown below.
63
False Echoes (6)
Multiple echoes
• Multiple reflection echoes can be
reduced and often removed by
decreasing the gain (sensitivity) or
properly adjusting the [STC] control.
64
 MULTIPLE ECHOES MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (7)

Sidelobe echoes

• Every time the radar pulse is transmitted,

some radiation escapes on each side of
the beam, called sidelobes.

65 66

VERTICAL BEAM WIDTH THE RADAR TEAR DROP SHAPE PULSE

HORIZONTAL BEAM WIDTH

67 68
 MARINE RADAR - Errors MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (8) False Echoes (9)

Sidelobe echoes Sidelobe echoes

• If a target exists where it can be detected
by the side lobes as well as the main
lobe, the side echoes may be represented
on both sides of the true echo at the same
range
69
• Sidelobes show usually only on short
ranges and from strong targets.
• They can be reduced through careful
reduction of the gain or proper
adjustment of the [STC] control.
70

SIDE LOBE ECHOES MARINE RADAR - Errors

False Echoes (10)
Second trace echoes

• These spurious echoes occur due to a

combination of large target at a
sufficiently far distance and when
super refraction is present. The Pulse
Repetition Frequency is also an
important factor.
71 72
MARINE RADAR - Errors
False Echoes (11)
Second trace echoes
• For example, a target 42 miles off,
could paint a second trace echo on
the PPI while using the 3 mile range
scale.
• Changing the range scale will cause
the second trace echo to disappear.
73
MARINE RADAR - Errors
False Echoes (12)
Radar Interference
• Due to mechanical and another close
by ship’s radar energy, interference
patterns may be seen on the PPI.
• These may not be easily removable.
However they do not last long in
case of ships passing by.
74

MARINE RADAR - Errors MARINE RADAR - Errors

Radar Interference Radar Interference

Spoking Starring

• Seen as radial lines over a part or the • Similar to spoking but the radial lines
full PPI. Cause of this interference is appear curved.
generally dirty contacts of some of
the display circuits.

75 76
 RADAR INTERFERENCE

MARINE RADAR

Limitations of Radar

77 78

Caution (1) Shadow Areas SHADOW AREAS

• As radio waves travel and reflect back
essentially in a straight line, smaller
targets may be hidden behind high
islands.
• Similarly parts of a coastline may not
be picked up if they are hidden
behind jutting parts of the coast.
• Tall mountains, even though they may
be very far, may be picked up without
any depiction of other land echoes
79 80
 Caution (2) Shadow Areas

• The charted coastline will give early

warning of expected Shadow Areas.

81 82

Caution (2) Shadow & Blind Sectors Caution (2) Shadow & Blind Sectors

• As radio waves travel and reflect back • The result of such obstruction is
essentially in a straight line, smaller known as blind sectors and shadow
targets may be hidden behind high sectors, as per their degree of blocking
structures. the radar energy.

• These may be the ship’s structures • When the obstruction blocks the echo
themselves, such as masts and funnels. path completely in a certain direction,
the loss of radar picture in that
direction leads to a Blind Sector.

83 84
 SHADOW SECTORS, BLIND SECTORS
SHADOW SECTORS, BLIND SECTORS

85 86

MARINE RADAR - Introduction

What is Radar?

• The term RADAR is an acronym

meaning Radio Detection and Ranging.

• It is a device which measures the time it

takes for a pulsed signal to be reflected
back from an object.

88

MARINE RADAR - Introduction
Radio Detecting And Ranging
• Radar transmits radio energy
• The electromagnetic waves bounce off of
objects in range and return to the radar
• The radar receives the waves, and filters
and processes the received signal to produce
useful information
89
MARINE RADAR - Purpose
Collision avoidance
• As required by COLREGS, all ships
shall maintained a proper radar lookout
onboard to obtain early warning of risk of
collision.
• Radar plotting or ARPA should be used
to get the information of movement and
the risk of collision (bearing, distance,
CPA, TCPA) of other ships in vicinity.
91
MARINE RADAR - Purpose
Marine Radars
• are x-band (WL 3cm) or
• s-band radar (WL 10cm)
• to provide bearing and distance of
ships and land targets in vicinity from
own ship (radar scanner) for collision
avoidance and navigation at sea.
90
MARINE RADAR - Purpose
Navigation
• Marine radar systems can provide very
useful radar navigation information for
navigators onboard ships.
• Ship position could be fixed by the
bearing and distance information of land
target on radar screen.
92
 LIMITATIONS OF RADAR

1) RANGE DISCRIMINATION
2) BEARING DISCRIMINATION
MARINE RADAR 3) MINIMUM RANGE
• THE PULSE LENGTH
• THE DE-IONISATION DELAY
• THE VBW AND THE HEIGHT OF THE SCANNER
Limitations of Radar • THE WAVELENGTH

93 94

LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
4) MAXIMUM RANGE

• HEIGHT OF THE SCANNER

5) RANGE ACCURACY
• POWER OF THE SET
• WAVELENGTH
• RANGE RINGS
• PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY
• VARIABLE RANGE MARKER
• PULSE LENGTH
• VBW AND HBW
• RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
6) BEARING ACCURACY
• NATURE OF THE TARGET
• WEATHER EFFECTS
• ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION
• SEA AND SWELL 95 96
 RANGE DISCRIMINATION
• It is ability of radar to clearly distinguish 2 small
targets, on same bearing and slightly different
ranges.
• Note that the target on PPI expands by half pulse
length in meters.
• As per IMO standard a radar should be able to
distinguish 2 targets having same bearing ,
separated by 40 meters when using a range of 1.5
n.miles.
97
BEARING DISCRIMINATION
• Ability to clearly distinguish between
targets on same range and slightly different
bearings, as 2 separate targets on PPI.
• All targets on PPI expand in azimuth by
half horizontal band width.
• Bearing discrimination is expressed in
degrees , it should not exceed 2.5 degrees.
98

Minimum range – VBW and height of scanner

MINIMUM RANGE (1)
• The VBW and height of scanner affects the
The minimum detection range of radar set minimum range.
mainly depends on : • The VBW for a given scanner is fixed.
• Pulse length • Height of scanner depends on draft of ship.
• VBW and height of scanner • The higher the scanner the greater the
• Wave length minimum range of detection.

99 100
 Maximum Range (1)
Minimum range – wavelength
Depends on following characteristics :
• Minimum detection range of small targets is better
when using 3 cm wave length than when using 10 • Height of scanner
cm. Wave length. • Power of set
• As per IMO performance standard for nav. Radar , • Wave length
the minimum detection range with a scanner 15
• Pulse repetition frequency
meters high shall not exceed 50 meters.
• Pulse length
• Targets between 50m and 1 nm should be
displayed without resetting any control. • VBW/HBW

101 102

Maximum Range (2) Maximum Range (3)

• Height of scanner – greater the height above sea
Depends on following characteristics :
level greater detection range. Disadvantage of high
scanner – more clutter.
• Receiver sensitivity
• Nature of target • Power of set – greater power of transmission ,
• Weather effects greater maximum range. This is due to attenuation
• Anomalous propagation in atmosphere
• Sea and swell
• (attenuation – loss of energy due to absorption,
diffraction, scattering etc., during pulses travel
through the atmosphere)
103 104
 Maximum Range (4)
• Wave length – 10 cms. Wave have greater
maximum range than 3 cm. Waves due to less
attenuation
• Pulse repetition frequency – each PRF value has a
maximum range which it can measure. The PRF is
pre-set for each range scale.
105
Maximum Range (6)
• Receiver sensitivity - each receiver generates
some unwanted signal of its own called noise.
Sensitivity of a receiver is ability to amplify a
weak signal sufficiently without losing the signal
in receiver noise.
• Nature of target – height, horizontal size, nature of
surface, shape greatly affect maximum detection
range.
• Weather effects – rain, snow, hail, fog cause
attenuation.
107
Maximum Range (5)
• Pulse length – long pulses ensure better
maximum ranges than shorter pulses. Note long
pulses have more energy.
• VBW/HBW – the narrower beam widths, greater
concentration of energy and hence greater
maximum range.
106
Maximum Range (7)
• Anomalous propagation – super refraction
causes an increase in maximum detection
range and sub-refection causes decrease.
• Sea and swell – rough seas and heavy
swell cause rolling /pitching – scanner
goes way out of vertical.
• Heavy weather reduce maximum
detection range.
108
 Range Accuracy Bearing Accuracy
Factors :
• Correct synchronization is essential
between transmission of pulse and • Correct alignment between heading marker and
commencement of trace. scanner.
• Correct alignment between heading marker and
• As per IMO standards maximum error bearing scale.
obtained by using range rings or VRM , • Gyro error
should not exceed 1%of maximum range of • Type of bearing marker
the scale in use or 30 m , whichever is • Beam width distortion
greater. • Scale size of spot
109 110

RADAR PLOTTING
Require parallel rulers, dividers, pencil & erasure

MARINE RADAR

Basic Radar plotting

111 112

RADAR PLOTTING
Basic Radar Plotting obtains following
1) Relative track of the target
2) Closest point of approach (CPA)
3) Time of CPA
4) True course and speed of target
5) Aspect of target
RADAR PLOTTING
1) 1st Plot range and bearing, then wait for 6 to 12
minutes before taking next. Use any convenient
scale for distance eg. 1 cm. = 1 M.
Call this plot O.
2) Second Plot range and bearing call this plot A.
3) Join O and A. OA is the relative track (1).

113 114

RADAR PLOTTING RADAR PLOTTING

4) Draw the line WO. The direction is 5) Join W to A.

own heading reversed, the length is Direction of WA is target ships course.
equal to your distance steamed between Length is distance steamed in the 12 minute
1st and 3rd plot. interval between 1st and 3rd plot.
Work out Target ship’s speed (2)
6+6=12 60/12=5 Speed = 60 min / 12 min. X Dist (OA)
Ships speed 12 knots, so 12/5 = 2.4 miles = 60 / 12 X 3.2 = 16 knots
over 12 minutes = WO
115 116
 RADAR PLOTTING RADAR PLOTTING

6) Continue OA past your position.

– From center (C) draw perpendicular C

to OA produced. Call the
intersection N
N is the Closest Point of Approach.
(CPA) (3) . N
117 118

RADAR PLOTTING RADAR PLOTTING

7) ETA at CPA (4)
Divide length A to N (CPA) by length
OA and multiply by time interval from O
to A
This will give you the time to the C.P.A.
3.2 / 2.3 x 12 = 16.6 minutes
So say A is 1006 hrs + 16.6 mins.
= at 10 23 hrs eta to C.P A.
119
• 9) Aspect (5) is the angle of the
relative bearing of own ship from
target ship.
• Target's true course WA 160, the bearing
from you to plot A 250.
• The Aspect will be (250 - 160)
= 90 degrees Starboard (or Green).
120
 RADAR PLOT

RADAR PLOTTING
Worked example:
• While on a course of 340 (T)
at 15 knots, a target on radar observed
at 0800 to bear 020 (T) at a range of
C
12 M. At 0812 it bore 017 (T) at
9 M. Range.
• Find time and distance off at CPA,
course and speed of target and aspect
at 0812
121 122
1
RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O
0800
020 X 12M

C C

123 124
2 3
 RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O O
0800 0800

0812 A
017 X 9M

C C

125 126
4 5
RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O O
0800 0800
A A
0812 0812

Relative
Track of
Target

C C

127 128
6 7
 RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O O
0800 0800
A A
0812 0812

N
C C

129 130
8 9
RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O O
0800 0800
A A
0812 0812
340 (T)

Closest
point of N N
Approach C C
1.9 M

10
131
11 132
 RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O O
0800 0800
A 3M A
0812 0812

N N
C C

12 133
13 134

RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT

O O
0800 0800
A A
W
0812
W 0812

N N
C C

14 135
15 136
 RADAR PLOT RADAR PLOT
O O
0800 0800
A A
W W
0812
Aspect 76 P

C C
273 (T)

16 137
17 138

RADAR PLOTTING EXERCISES

RADAR PLOTTING
Worked example: Q. No.
1
Own Co. Own Spd. Time
042 T 15 kts 0640
Bearing
351 T
Range
11.0 Find flwng:
•
0652 355 T 7.1
CPA = CN = 1.9 M Target’s :
2 270 T 8 kts 1620 305 T 7.0
• Time of CPA = AN / OA * 12 min. 1630 306 T 5.4

= 8.8 / 3 * 12 = 35 3 146 T 14 kts 1220 073 R 13.0 1)Course

1235 068 R 9.0
= 0812 + 35 = 0847 4 180 T 6 kts. 2104 030 T 6.5 2)Speed
• Course of Target = WA = 273 T 2116 036 T 4.6

5 334 T 16 kts. 0418 076 R 24.0 3)CPA &

• Speed = 60 /12 * WA (2.5) = 12.5 knots 0424 078 R 22.0 Tim
0430 081 R 19.8
e of
• Aspect = Relative bearing = 273 – 197 6 114 T 10 kts. 0912 142 T 11.0 CPA
(180 + 017 (Bearing) ) = 76 red 0919
0927
145 T
149 T
9.9
8.9
139 4) Aspect 140
 RADAR PLOTTING SHEET (1 to 6)
ANSWERS
Answers Course T Speed CPA Time CPA Aspect

1 117 17.5 1.4 0713 58 G

2 179 5.1 0.4 1704 53 R

3 093 20.4 2.5 1307 59 R

4 190 16.0 1.6 2142 26 G

5 252 19.0 9.0 0516 17 R

6 stationary 5.2 1011

141

MARINE RADAR - Principle MARINE RADAR - Principle

How Radar Determines Range (1)
• Radar determines the range to the target
by calculating the time difference
between the transmission of a radar
signal and the reception of the reflected
echo.
143
How Radar Determines Range (2)
• It is a known fact that radar waves travel
at a nearly constant speed of 162,000
nautical miles per second.
• Therefore the time required for a
transmitted signal to travel to the target
and return as an echo to the source is a
measure of the range to the target.
144
MARINE RADAR - Principle
How Radar Determines Range (3)
• Note that the echo makes a complete
round trip, but only half the time of
travel is needed to determine the one-
way range to the target.
• The radar automatically takes this into
account in making the range calculation.
145
MARINE RADAR - Principle
How Radar Determines Bearing (2)
• Each time the antenna rotates pulses are
transmitted in the full 360 degree circle,
each pulse at a slightly different bearing
from the previous one.
147
MARINE RADAR - Principle
How Radar Determines Bearing (1)
• The bearing to a target found by the radar
is determined by the direction in which
the radar antenna is pointing when it
emits a narrow electronic pulse and
then receives a returning echo.
146
MARINE RADAR - Principle
How Radar Determines Bearing (3)
• Therefore, if one knows the direction in
which the signal is sent out,
one knows the direction from which the
echo must return.
148
MARINE RADAR - Principle
Radar Wave Speed and
Antenna Rotation Speed
• The speed of the radar waves out to the
target and back again as echoes is
extremely fast compared to the speed of
rotation of the antenna.
149
MARINE RADAR - Principle
The Radar Display (2)
• Images of target echoes are received and
displayed at their relative bearings, and
at their distance from the PPI center.
151
MARINE RADAR - Principle
The Radar Display (1)
• Targets are displayed on what is called a
Plan Position Indicator (PPI).
• This display is essentially a polar
diagram, with the transmitting ship’s
position at the center.
150
MARINE RADAR - Principle
The Radar Display (3)
• With a continuous display of the images
of targets, the motion of targets is also
displayed.
152
 Principle of working Principle of working

A RADAR CONSISTS OF FOUR UNITS • TRANSMITTER UNIT GENERATES AND SENDS

OUT SHORT POWERFUL BURSTS OF ELECTRO-
MAGNETIC ENERGY, CALLED PULSES.
1. TRANSMITTER UNIT
• THESE PULSES ARE BEING SENT OUT
2. SCANNER UNIT THROUGH THE SCANNER UNIT AT A SPECIFIC
NUMBER OF TIMES PER SECOND, CALLED THE
3. RECEIVER UNIT PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF).

4. DISPLAY UNIT

153 154

Principle of working

• THESE PULSES TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF

LIGHT (6.17 MICO-SECONDS PER NAUTICAL MILE)
AND WHEN THEY STRIKE ANY OBJECT
(TARGET) IN THEIR PATH, THEY ARE REFLECTED
BACK TO THE SCANNER AS ECHOES.

• THE RECEIVER UNIT PROCESSES EACH ECHO

AND CAUSES IT TO SHOW UP VISUALLY AS A
BRIGHT SPOT, ON THE SCREEN OF THE
DISPLAY UNIT, CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT).
CATHODE RAY TUBE
(CRT)
155 156
 Principle of working

RANGE = C * T/2

C: 3 X 108 m/sec
T: is time to receive the pulse
2: Pulse traveled to object and back.

157
 Gimbals
• A gimbals is a pivoted support that allows
the rotation of an object about a single
axis. A set of two gimbals, one mounted on
GYRO COMPASS the other with pivot axes orthogonal, may
be used to allow an object mounted on the
innermost gimbals to remain immobile
(e.g. vertical in the animation) regardless of
CONSTRUCTION the motion of its support. For example,
gyroscope.

1
1 2
2

Gimbals

• On ships, gyro gimbals are used to keep

the Gyro upright with respect to the
horizon despite the ship's rolling and
pitching.
GYRO COMPASS

THE SPERRY GYRO COMPASS

3
3 4
4
 SPERRY GYROCOMPASS THE SPERRY GYRO COMPASS
• In the Sperry Gyro Compass, the
damping is done by four pots of
mercury, connected in pairs, two
North and two South.

• The above arrangement of damping is

called Mercury Ballistic. The precession
in azimuth is called Ballistic Deflection
while the tilt reducing part is called
Ballistic tilt.

5
5 6
6

EFFECT OF MERCURY BALLISTIC WHEN APPLIED UPON HORIZONTAL AXIS PENDULUM MASS DAMPING

7
7 8
8
 SPERRY GYROCOMPASS SENSITIVE ELEMENT

9
9 10
10

PHANTOM ELEMENT
SENSITIVE ELEMENT
• CONSISTS OF GYRO ROTOR WITHIN ITS CASE .
IT IS MADE TO ROTATE 6000 REVOLUTIONS
PER MINUTE.

• IT IS ALSO THE NORTH SEEKING PART OF GYRO

COMPASS

11
11 12
12
 PHANTOM ELEMENT SPIDER ELEMENT
• The phantom element, which consists
primarily of a ring attached to a tubular
piece called a stem, is supported by the
spider element.
• The phantom element is made to follow
every relative movement in azimuth of the
sensitive element.
• This is called the follow up system.

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13 14
14

MERCURY BALLISTIC MERCURY BALLISTIC

• The mercury ballistic gives damping

effect.
• It is made of square frame ,and at each
corners of which are located pots of
mercury.
• Pots are connected in pairs , i.e., 2
North and 2 South. Pots are connected
by air tubes.

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 SPEED AND LATITUDE CORRECTORS

GYRO COMPASS

ERRORS

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18

LATITUDE AND SPEED ERROR LATITUDE AND SPEED ERROR

• If a ship is proceeding on a North • If a ship is proceeding on a Southerly

course, the gyro spinner would appear course, the gyro would settle a little
to tilt upwards related to the surface of to the east of the meridian.
Earth which is curving.
• It is the north – south component of
the course which will determine the
• The gyro as a result of the northerly amount of this error.
course would settle a little to the
west of the meridian.
• This error is about one degree.

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19 20
20
 LATITUDE AND SPEED ERROR

• Value of course and speed error in degree
= ship speed in knots X cos. Course
5pi X cos latitude
• In most gyro compasses this error can be
corrected mechanically by adjusting the
latitude and speed corrector.
Gyrocompass Error
• Although the gyrocompass is a very accurate
instrument, it may have a small error
associated with its readings. (normally less
than 1o)
• This error is expressed as High or Low
depending on whether the Gyro heading is
Higher or Lower than True heading .

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21 22
22

Determining Gyro Error

• Methods of determining gyro error:
– Celestial Methods
– Observing bearing to an object while at a
known location.
GYRO COMPASS
– Heading while pierside
– Compare to gyrocompass of known error.
– Transit Bearing INTRODUCTION

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23 24
24
 What is gyroscope
• Heavy spinning disk mounted so that its
axis is free to adopt any orientation.
• The fact that a spinning top will stay
upright, as long as it is spinning fast
enough, demonstrates the property of
gyroscopic inertia: the direction of the
spin axis resists change.
What is gyroscope
• The gyro rotor is suspended in a frame in
such a way that when it is electrically driven
at a high speed, it will have three degrees
of freedom :
• A) freedom to spin about the spin axis
• B) freedom to tilt about the horizontal axis
• C) freedom to drift about the vertical axis

25
25 26
26

What is gyroscope Precession

Direction
• This means that the gyroscope mounted Of rotation
universally, in double gimbals, will
maintain the same orientation in space Force applied
however its support is turned.

• The second property of a gyroscope

is called Precession. A force applied
to a rotating disc will have its effect Gyro Effect of
felt at a right angle away in the Rotor Force
direction of rotation.
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27 28
28
 GYROSCOPE TO COMPASS

• With these two properties, and by the

utilization of the Earth's two natural
properties, rotation and gravity, the
gyroscope can be made 'north-seeking’.

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29 30
30

GYROSCOPE TO COMPASS Gyrocompass

• Once the Gyroscope has settled on the
true meridian it will remain there
indefinitely, so long as the ship's electrical
supply remains constant, and no external
forces are permitted to disturb it.
• A north-seeking gyroscope
• The gyro spins at a very high velocity,
and its spin axis remains aligned with
terrestrial meridians.

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 Gyrocompass
• The gyro has three axes:
– spin axis
– torque axis for force input
– precession axis for force output
Gyrocompass Advantages
• Seeks geographic (true) north instead of
magnetic north.
• Can be used near the earth’s magnetic poles,
where magnetic compass is useless.
• Unaffected by surrounding material.
• Signal can be fed to other systems (NS, fire
control, automatic steering)

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33 34
34

Gyrocompass Disadvantages
• Intricate electronic instrument.

• Requires a constant source of electrical power GYRO COMPASS

and is sensitive to power fluctuations.

• Requires periodic maintenance by highly PRINCIPLE

skilled technicians.

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35 36
36
 37
37 38
38

FUNDAMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS
• All the practical applications of the
gyroscope are based upon two
fundamental characteristics, namely
'Gyroscopic Inertia' and 'Precession'.
• The first, 'Gyroscopic Inertia', or 'rigidity
in space' as it is sometimes known, is
the tendency of any rotating body to
preserve its plane of rotation.
FUNDAMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS
• The second, 'Precession', is that property
which, when a couple is applied, causes
the gyroscope to move, not in the
direction of the couple, but in a direction
at right angles to the axis of the applied
couple, in the direction of the spinning
wheel.

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39 40
40
 GYROSCOPE ---- COMPASS ???
• With these two properties, and by the
utilization of the Earth's two natural
properties, rotation and gravity, the
gyroscope can be made 'north-seeking‘ GYRO COMPASS
• Once it has settled on the true meridian
it will remain there indefinitely, so long as
the ship's electrical supply remains DRIFT AND TILT
constant, and no external forces are
permitted to disturb it.
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41 42
42

TILT AND DRIFT FREE GYROSCOPE AT NORTH POLE

• A free spinning gyroscope will maintain its

axis in the same direction in space even if its
supporting base is turned.

• The effect of rotation of Earth around its

own axis will be apparently seen as the
gyroscope drifting in north pole and tilting
on the equator.

• On any other latitude there will be an

combination of tilt and drift noticed. 43
43 44
44
 FREE GYROSCOPE AT NORTH POLE FREE GYROSCOPE AT EQUATOR
Apparent Axis
Rotation Parallel
Of To surface
Gyro rotor Of Earth
Axis in
azimuth
Axis
At 90 deg.
Rotation
To surface
Of
Of Earth
Earth
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45 46
46

FREE GYROSCOPE AT ANY OTHER LATITUDE DIRECTIONAL GYROSCOPE (1)

• A free gyroscope when spinning with axis
horizontal to the Earth’s surface will
experience an apparent drift in azimuth
of 15 degrees per hour.

• If a torque is applied to the gyro spin axis

so it can precess at a rate that is equal
and opposite to that to azimuth drift rate,
then there will be no apparent drift and
will maintain a fixed bearing relative to
meridian.
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47 48
48
DIRECTIONAL GYROSCOPE (2)
• Similarly , the tilt to the spin axis can be
prevented by application of a torque ,
which will cause it to precess at a rate
equal and opposite to the tilt rate.
DIRECTIONAL GYROSCOPE (3)
• A gyroscope that is compensated for tilt
and drift is referred to as directional
gyroscope.

• The spin axis thus will remain horizontal. • Since a compass always shows the North
direction the directional gyroscope must be
improved upon to make it North seeking ,
align with meridian and adjust from time to
time.
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49 50
50

NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
(Undamped)
• If the gyroscope has to function as a
compass, it must be made to precess
GYRO COMPASS in such a manner that compensation
provided must be equal and opposite
to the drift and tilt rate caused by
the movement of the spin axis due to
GYROSCOPE TO GYRO-COMPASS
the rotation of the earth.

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51 52
52
NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
(Undamped)
• To enable the gyroscope to be north
seeking, some external force is needed
to control its drift and tilt.
• The force of gravity is utilized by
hanging a weight from the ends of
the gyro axle.
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53
NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
(Undamped)
• Let us follow a gyroscope spinning in
a clock-wise direction, on the equator
with its axis east - west.
• Due to the earth’s rotation, the east
pointing end will start to tilt upwards.
• Let us name the east pointing end as
the North seeking end.
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55
NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
(Undamped)
• When the axle gets tilted due to the
earth’s rotation, the weight will exert
a torque to pull down the higher end.
• Due to precession, the downward pull
of the weight will result in the
pointed end turning towards North.
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54
NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
(Undamped)
• When the end tilts upwards, the
attached weight tends to pull down
this end.
• However the force is felt 90 degrees
away and the precession starts turning
the east pointing end towards the
North.
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56
 Precession towards North NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
Direction • The end will keep on tilting up due to
N Of rotation the earth’s rotation and keep on
turning towards North due to the
Force of precession caused by the attached
attached weight.
weight
E
• On reaching the meridian, further
upward tilting stops but the inclination
Gyro Effect of will continue the turning of the axle
Rotor Force across the meridian and towards west.
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57 58
58

NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE

• Now the tilt starts decreasing till the (Undamped)
axle points West when the axle will
become horizontal. Now this end
starts tilting downwards due to the
earth’s rotation west to east.

• The downward tilt causes the attached

weight to exert a force on the higher
end which precesses the North
seeking end to turn back towards
North.
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59
WEIGHT 60
60
NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
• On reaching the meridian the
downward tilt of the N – seeking end
reaches its maximum downward tilt.
The precession carries the axis past
the meridian and the axis now begins
its upward tilt.
• The upward tilt continues till the axis
is aligned east – west and becomes
horizontal.
NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE
• The above cycle continues to repeat
itself, tracing an ellipse whose center
is the North point of the compass.
• The free gyroscope has now been
controlled to become a North seeking
gyroscope.

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62

DAMPED GYROSCOPE

• The North seeking gyroscope cannot

be used as a compass since it only
GYRO COMPASS wanders around the compass North.

• The above gyroscope will need to

modify / reduce its fixed ellipse till
DAMPED GYROSCOPE there is no more effective tilt or drift
after it settles with its axis in line
with the meridian.

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63 64
64
 DAMPED GYROSCOPE
• The rotation of the Earth, the effect
of gravity on the attached weight and
the precession rate caused by the
weight are all constant factors.
• Thus the ratio of the major and minor
axis of the ellipse traced by the N-end
of the gyro axis is also constant.
65
65
DAMPED GYROSCOPE
• The method of introducing suitable
weights to reduce the size of the
ellipse is known as damping the
gyroscope.
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67
DAMPED GYROSCOPE
• Because the ratio of the major and
minor axis of the north seeking
gyroscope is always constant, any
reduction in the length of one axis
will lead to a reduction in the length
of the other axis.
• Thus a smaller ellipse will result.
66
66
DAMPED GYROSCOPE
• If the gravity control used for making
the free gyroscope into a North
seeking gyroscope can be used to
produce a damping or reducing torque
to reduce the tilt, the minor axis of
the ellipse can be reduced.
• The above is achieved by placing the
weight a little to the side of center.
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 Reduction of Tilt DAMPED GYROSCOPE
Direction
N Of rotation • The reduction of the tilt (minor axis)
Force of will lead to a reduction in the change
attached in azimuth (major axis) and the North
weight seeking end of the gyro axle will trace
E an inward spiral about the North
instead of a fixed ellipse.
Gyro Effect of
Rotor Force
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69 70
70

NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPE DAMPED GYROSCOPE

(Damped) • Eventually (in about 4 hours) the
spiral is so compressed that the result
is the North seeking end of the
Gyroscope will practically have no
tendency to alter its azimuth or
develop a tilt and thus no precession
to allow it to move away from the
meridian.

• This is the principle of the damped

gyroscope.
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GYROSCOPE to GYRO-COMPASS
• Rigidity in space
• Rotation of the earth
• Tilt
• Force of gravity GYRO COMPASS
• Precession results in an ellipse
• Damping or Reducing tilt
• Azimuth Drift reduced proportionately REPEATERS
• Ellipse converted into inward spiral

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74

MASTER AND REPEATER CONNECTION MASTER AND REPEATER CONNECTION

• Gyro compass needs repeaters at different

locations which are required for
navigational use.

• The transmitter is at Master compass and

through a transmission system the
repeaters follow the Master Compass
heading.

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 Location of repeaters GYRO COMPASS
• Bridge wings GYROCOMPASS REPEATERS (1)
• Emergency steering platform
• Main steering • Gyro repeaters mounted on the bridge wings
• Course recorder are located in stands somewhat similar to the
• GPS binnacle.
• Radars / ECDIS / AIS / • These instruments display directional
information on the basis of electrical signals
received from the ship's master gyrocompass.
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78

GYRO COMPASS GYRO COMPASS

GYROCOMPASS REPEATERS (2)
• Gyro repeaters on the bridge wings are used
in taking bearings on objects outside the ship.
• Movable sighting vanes on the face of the gyro
repeaters are aimed at the object in the same
manner in which rifle sights are lined up.
GYROCOMPASS REPEATERS (3)
• True bearings are read directly by observing
the degree on the compass card with which
the crossbar of the sighting vane lines up.
• Relative bearings may be read from an outer
dumb compass ring on the repeater stand.

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 GYRO COMPASS
AZIMUTH MIRROR

• An azimuth mirror is a device fitted onto a

compass binnacle to enable the operator to
take bearings. The device enables both the
compass and the object to be seen at the
same time and in the same direction.

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82
 Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)
In May 2012 the Maritime Safety Committee of IMO (International
Maritime Organization) adopted a revised recommendation on
performance standards for voyage data recorders (VDRs), to be enforced
by 1 July 2014.
Purpose of the Voyage Data Recorder
The purpose of a Voyage Data Recorder is to store information in a secure
and retrievable form, relating to the position, movement, physical status,
command and control of a ship over the period and following an incident.
Information contained in a VDR should be made available to both the
authorities and the shipowner. This information will be required during any
subsequent safety investigation to identify the cause(s) of the incident.
VDR / S-VDR Concept
The Simplified Voyage Data Recorder or S-VDR is a system that
the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has mandated for
carriage on the majority of large sea going vessels. It is a system
similar to the aviation “black box” recorder where if a vessel is
involved in an accident or sinks, data can be retrieved to
reconstruct the last 48 hours of the vessels voyage. This allows
the marine community to clearly understand the reason for the
accident, however catastrophic and put in preventative measures
to increase future marine safety.
The difference between a VDR and a Simplified-VDR mainly
relates to the number of recording channels and their
characteristics. Both systems require Radar video, Bridge
microphones as well as VHF audio, in conjunction with position
data, heading and course information, to be recorded for a
minimum of 48 consecutive hours.
Please find below a summary of the new requirements for VDR:
New requirements defined in MSC.333(90):
• Data shall be recorded in a fixed capsule, a float-free capsule and internally in the VDR
(opposed to just a fixed capsule).
• The VDR should be capable of operating from the ship's main and emergency source of
electrical power. 5.4.2 If the ship's source of electrical power supply fails, the VDR
should continue to record Bridge Audio (see 5.5.5) from the dedicated reserve power
source for a period of 2 hours. At the end of this 2 hour period all recording should cease
automatically.
• The time for which all stored data items are retained should be at least 30 days/720
hours on the long-term recording medium and at least 48 hours on the fixed and float-
free recording media for minimum 48 hours in capsules of the VDR.
• Bridge audio shall be recorded using at least two tracks for indoor microphones. Outdoor
microphones (where applicable) shall be recorded on an additional separate track. The current
standard is not very specific regarding this. The new standard also specifies that audible alarms
and noise on the vessel shall not prevent the VDR from recording audio properly
• Images, chart(s) used and settings from the ECDIS shall be recorded. Images from both
radars on the vessel shall be recorded (opposed to just one)
• Data from the AIS shall be recorded
• Data from an inclinometer shall be recoded if installed
 The VDR at least must record the following: S-VDR
• Date and time (SVDR) The SVDR is nothing but a simplified VDR, that records information that is only absolutely necessary
and does not record information as extensive as the VDR. Naturally, it is more cost effective and more
• Ship’s position (SVDR)
in usage on board merchant ships. The concept of SVDR can be best understood by comparing the
• Speed and heading (SVDR) data below with that of the VDR. Mandatory information to be recorded in an SVDR are marked next to
• Bridge audio (SVDR) the category above. The last two interfaces of Radar and ECDIS may be recorded only if there are
standard interfaces available. Data Recording Comparison :
• Communication audio (radio) (SVDR)
• Radar data (SVDR) Interface VDR (new build) S-VDR (retrofit)
Type of Vessel All passenger ships and newly built cargo ships Existing cargo ships 3000GT and upwards
• ECDIS data (SVDR) of 3000GT and upwards (International Voyage) (International Voyage)
• Echo sounder Capsule Fixed or Float-free type Fixed or Float-free type
• Main alarms Mandatory Record Data Date & Time, Position, Datum, Speed, Date & Time, Position, Datum, Speed, Heading,
Heading, Bridge Audio, VHF Audio, Depth, Bridge Audio, VHF Audio
• Rudder order and response Main Alarm, Rudder, Engine, Hull, Door, Radar
• Hull opening (doors) status If IEC 61162 is available Hull stress (if fitted), Wind (if fitted) Depth, Main Alarm, Rudder, Engine, Hull, Door,
Hull Stress, Wind
• Watertight and fire door status
Radar Image Mandatory Where there is commercial off-the-shelf interface
• Speed and acceleration available
• Hull stresses AIS (recommended) If radar image is not available
• Wind speed and direction

How does it work? This image shows the AMI Marine ltd Float Free Capsule used on ships to store a minimum of
A VDR works as a recorder, documenting at least 48 continuous hours of vital data 48 hours of recorded data. if the vessel sinks the capsule case (white) will open and release the
Yellow capsule from inside, this capsule will then float to the surface and emit a distress signal
of the vessel’s overall operation. It simply eliminates the earlier data and saves the
to alert shore side authorities.
recently documented information.
Diversified sensors are placed on the ship’s bridge and on important areas from
which the prescribed data is progressively collected. Such gathered information
primarily includes various parameters, voices, location, date, time of the ship,
bridge and communication audio etc.
The bridge unit is provided with a record button. This button will be pushed “on” the
moment of the happening of the incident, say, grounding or collision. Then, the
Voyage Data Recorder will begin to record a new set of statistics from that time
period.
The compiled data is digitized, shortened, and then kept in a protective storage
device that’s mounted in a safe location. This unit is tamper-proof that it can General Operational Requirements
tolerate extreme shock, heat, and pressure from fire, collisions, or heavy weather. The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of pre-selected data items relating to the
status and output of the ship’s equipment and command and control of the ship. To permit
Thus, the data is safe and can be retrieved by anytime necessary. subsequent analysis of factors surrounding an incident, the method of recording should ensure that
the various data items can be correlated in date and time during playback on suitable equipment.
Latest IMO VDR / S-VDR Carriage Requirements
The International Maritime Organization resolution A.163 (78) requires a (S) VDR, which may be a
simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR), to be fitted to cargo ships above 3,000 gross tonnages.
“Administrations may exempt cargo ships from the application of the requirements when such ships
will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the implementation date specified
above”. The new rules stipulate that existing cargo ships on international voyages shall be fitted with
an S-VDR as follows:

Ship Type New ships built on or Existing ships built before 1st July 2002
after 1st July 2002
Passenger VDR VDR
Ro-Ro Passenger VDR VDR
Cargo ships over 20,000 GRT VDR S-VDR at 1st dry-docking after 1st July 2006,
but not later than 1st July 2009
Cargo ships 3,000 – 20,000 GRT VDR S-VDR at 1st dry-docking after 1st July 2007,
but not later than 1st July 2010