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CLINICAL OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the most important aspects of history and
physical exam for diagnosing and managing breast
pain.
2. Summarize what you should tell a patient about the
possible causes of her nipple discharge.
3. Assess the amount of workup that should be completed
in the office for nipple discharge and what testing
should be referred to a consultant.
4. Cite what you should tell a patient with a breast mass
regarding the possibility of cancer.
5. Describe which tests you should order for a breast
mass that does not disappear with aspiration.
The three most common presenting problems related to the
female breast are breast pain, nipple discharge, and a palpable
mass (1). A woman with one or more of these problems is
often concerned whether it represents a malignancy. This con-
cern may be openly stated, but is often left unspoken, and an
important part of the management involves acknowledging
and appropriately addressing her fear.
BREAST PAIN
Mastalgia is a symptom complex of breast pain and tenderness,
with or without nodularity. Among presenting breast com-
plaints in primary care, mastalgia is at least as common, if not
more common, than finding a lump (1–3). Most women are
concerned about cancer. However, in a study of 987 women
whose only complaint was breast pain, !1% had a malignancy
on mammogram (4). Mastalgia is either cyclic or noncyclic,
and the management depends on this categorization.
Reassurance, after appropriate evaluation, that the pain is not
due to cancer will be sufficient for most women; roughly 15%
will require additional treatment (5).
Pathophysiology and Differential Diagnosis
Approximately two-thirds of women presenting with breast
pain have cyclic mastalgia, which is bilateral pain varying in
intensity throughout the menstrual cycle with the premenstrual
time often the most painful. It is thought to be hormonally
mediated although studies of circulating levels of progesterone,
estrogen, prolactin, or quantity of hormone receptors have
yielded conflicting results (6,7); however, altered hormone
CHAPTER
25
Breast Problems
Kendra L. Schwar tz
receptor sensitivity remains a possibility. The usual age at
presentation is 33 to 35 years; the condition also has been
reported by postmenopausal women on hormone therapy.
Noncyclic mastalgia is usually unilateral, typically occurs
in women over the age of 40 years, and is not temporally
related to the menstrual cycle. The differential diagnosis and
relative frequency of causes of mastalgia are summarized in
Table 25.1.
Postsurgical breast pain may occur at the site of an inci-
sion, particularly if the lines of Langer have been crossed.
Mondor’s disease (phlebitis of the thoracoepigastric vein) may
be related to a history of breast surgery, trauma, or radiation
(8). Costochondritis (Tietze syndrome) reportedly accounts for
approximately 7% of noncyclic mastalgia (9). Ruptured breast
implants may also be a cause of localized breast pain.
Although subclinical operable breast cancer may present with
noncyclic breast pain of recent onset, it is rare that pain is the
only presenting symptom in malignancy (4).
Clinical Evaluation
A thorough history will help classify the mastalgia as cyclic or
noncyclic. The physical examination is also important in deter-
mining the appropriate management strategy. A finding of
recent onset of unilateral noncyclic pain in a postmenopausal
woman should raise concern of malignancy. If a dominant
mass or unilateral nipple discharge accompanies the mastalgia,
cancer must be strongly considered.
HISTORY
Cyclic mastalgia is typically most severe premenstrually and
subsides during the menses. It is usually bilateral, in the upper
outer breast quadrants, and associated with nodularity.
Women often characterize the pain as dull, aching, or heavy.
The range of severity can be from mild to severe enough to
limit clothing selections, sleep positions, or hugging. Patients
should, therefore, be questioned regarding the effect on their
lives. Obtain a history of current hormone therapy or oral con-
traceptive therapy, and previous history of breast problems or
surgery. You should also ask about a family history of breast
problems, including cancer.
Women with noncyclic mastalgia are more likely to
describe their pain as unilateral, with no temporal relationship
to their menstrual cycle. It may be constant or remitting, but
the periods without pain are not related to the menses. The
pain is often described as sharp, burning, or drawing and is
more commonly located in the subareolar or medial portion of
the breast. Non-breast causes may result in symptoms such as
radiation to the arm or axilla, or pain with deep inspiration. As
297
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298 PA R T I I I • C O M M O N P R O B L E M S
TA B L E 2 5 . 1 Differential Diagnoses in Patients with Mastalgia
Diagnosis Frequency
Cyclic Common (67%)
Noncyclic Somewhat common (33%)
Musculoskeletal other than Uncommon
costochondritis
Cancer Rare
Cervical radiculopathy Rare
Costochondritis Rare
Duct ectasia Rare
Trauma Rare
with cyclic mastalgia, ask patients about previous breast prob-
lems or surgery and any family history of breast problems or
cancer. If a nipple discharge is present, it should be evaluated
as described in the next section of this chapter.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
The clinical breast examination (CBE) includes both inspec-
tion and palpation. Further information on clinical breast
exam can be found on the American Cancer Society Website
(http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/54/6/327).
Inspection of the breasts focuses on evidence of trauma or old
surgical scars; both are related to noncyclic mastalgia.
Whether the history is consistent with cyclic or noncyclic
mastalgia, you should thoroughly palpate the breasts.
Nodularity is common with both complaints, but if a domi-
nant mass is found, the appropriate management protocol
should be followed to rule out malignancy.
Pain reproduced by palpation of the costochondral junc-
tion or the lateral chest wall suggests a musculoskeletal etiol-
ogy such as costochondritis. Pain exacerbated by specific neck
movements suggests cervical radiculopathy. If pain accompa-
nies nipple discharge or a palpable mass, management should
follow the guidelines outlined in those sections of this chapter.
LABORATORY TESTS
Diagnostic tests are not necessary unless a dominant mass is
found. Only 4 of 987 women with mastalgia and no other
symptoms or signs were found to have breast cancer in one
study, a number similar to that in asymptomatic women (4).
Management
For 85% of women with breast pain, whether cyclic or non-
cyclic, reassurance from the physician after evaluation that the
pain is not from cancer is sufficient treatment (5). For the
remaining women, additional treatment will be needed.
Management depends on whether the pain is cyclic or noncyclic.
CYCLIC PAIN
Behavioral Approaches
Objective evidence is lacking regarding the efficacy of most
therapies for cyclic mastalgia. Before starting pharmacologic
History and/or Physical Examination Features
Age !40 years, bilateral, pain related to menstrual cycle
Age "40 years, unilateral, pain unrelated to menstrual cycle
Reproduction of pain with palpation
Persistent pain in same location
Palpable mass on examination
Arm and neck pain present
Costochondral junction tenderness
Subareolar pain; discharge may be present
History of trauma or previous surgery
therapy, the physician should consider recommending a
patient pain diary (including severity scale), a well-fitted
brassiere (10), and diet modification.
• Keeping a daily record of the amount of pain for a mini-
mum of 2 months helps to determine whether the pain is
cyclic and its severity.
• In a small study of patients with breast pain, 75 women
found relief after being professionally fitted with a brassiere.
• Although not of proven benefit by randomized trials, remov-
ing dietary methylxanthines (caffeine has been studied the
most) and adopting a very low-fat diet may be helpful. There
is no evidence of effectiveness of vitamin B or E, and high
doses of these vitamins may increase mortality (11).
Pharmacotherapy
One herbal supplement and five medications (Table 25.2)
have shown benefit in controlled studies. Three of the medica-
tions: bromocriptine, tamoxifen, and goserelin—a luteinizing
hormone-releasing hormone analogue, are not generally rec-
ommended because of their adverse effects. Some studies have
noted a significant placebo effect, with 20% or more women
on placebo reporting improved symptoms (12,13). There is no
evidence to support the use of thyroid hormones, proges-
terone, diuretics, or oral analgesics in the treatment of cyclic
mastalgia.
Evening primrose oil, which is rich in gamma-linolenic
acid, is thought to exert its effect by normalizing blood levels
of essential fatty acids. In several trials, it was found to be
effective (7,14); yet a recent placebo controlled trial showed no
improvement in pain (13). It is well tolerated, has few adverse
effects (nausea and bloating being the most common) (14), and
is available over the counter.
The topical nonsteroidal gel, diclofenac, demonstrated
significant pain reduction compared with placebo when used
on the breast skin every 8 hours for 6 months (15). A smaller
uncontrolled study, using diclofenac or piroxicam gel, also
demonstrated improvement in pain symptoms after 2 months’
use (16). There were no side effects reported in either study.
Danazol, a synthetic androgen, is the only drug approved
by the US Food and Drug Administration for mastalgia. It is
thought to act by inhibiting the midcycle luteinizing hormone
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CHAPTER 25 • BREAST PROBLEMS 299

TA B L E 2 5 . 2 Management of Mastalgia
Treatment Common Dose Possible Adverse Effects Relative Cost SORT Rating
Cyclic Mastalgia
Proper-fitting brassiere N/A No adverse effects $ B
Evening primrose oil 1 gram every None $ B
8 hours
Topical nonsteroidal 50 mg diclofenac None $ A
anti-inflammatory gel every 8 hours
Danazol 50–100 mg every Weight gain, menstrual irregularity $$ A
12 hours
Bromocriptine 1.25–2.5 mg orally Nausea, vomiting, headache, postural $$ B
at bedtime hypotension
Tamoxifen (short-term 10 mg orally Long-term use associated with $$$ A
use only) per day endometrial cancer and osteoporosis
Goserelin 3.6 mg subcutan- Depression, vaginal dryness, hot $$$ B
eous per month flushes, oily hair/skin
Noncyclic Mastalgia
Topical non-steroidal 50 mg diclofenac None $ A
anti-inflammatory gel every 8 hours
Evening primrose oil 1 g every 8 hours None $ B

A # consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B # inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence; C # consensus, disease-oriented
evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series.
For information about the SORT evidence rating system, see http://www.aafp.org/afpsort.xml.

surge and by competitively binding estrogen and progesterone
receptors in the breast. Its overall improvement rate is estimated
at 70% (7). The starting dosage is 50 mg twice a day, with titra-
tion upward as needed and tolerated (Table 25.2). Prescribing
danazol only during the luteal phase has been studied in a ran-
domized trial of 100 women, and was found to be effective. It
may be associated with fewer adverse effects than continuous
dosing (17). Risks include thrombotic or thrombophlebitic
events as well as peliosis hepatitis and pseudotumor cerebri
with long-term use.
Bromocriptine, the prolactin inhibitor, has been success-
fully used in treating cyclic breast pain (18). The relatively
high incidence of adverse effects (20% to 33%) has limited its
use (Table 25.2).
Tamoxifen also is effective for cyclic mastalgia (19,20).
However, because of concerns regarding its effect on bone
density and possible association with endometrial cancer, it is
only recommended for short-term use in the treatment of
severe mastalgia, and then only if all other therapies have
failed.
In a randomized trial, goserelin, a luteinizing hormone-
releasing hormone analogue, improved breast pain during
treatment (21). Sixty-seven percent of women receiving a
monthly goserelin depot injection compared with 35% of
women receiving a sham injection reported an improvement
in their pain during the treatment period. However, at
6 months posttreatment, the two groups had similar pain
scores. There are numerous adverse effects associated with
goserelin injection (Table 25.2).
NONCYCLIC BREAST PAIN
Noncyclic breast pain is managed by treating the underlying
cause. If the pain is localized to the breast tissue, topical nons-
teroidal drugs or evening primrose oil can be tried (6). If the
pain is found to be musculoskeletal (as many as 90% of unilat-
eral noncyclic cases), analgesics and/or anti-inflammatory
drugs are recommended. Local injections of combined
steroids and anesthetics have proven beneficial in prospective
studies (22). Figure 25.1 is an algorithm for the diagnosis and
treatment of mastalgia.
In general, surgical intervention is not recommended for
treatment of mastalgia, except in the case of a dominant mass or
mammary duct ectasia (both are addressed later in this chapter).
In the past, procedures such as a subcutaneous mastectomy
were used to treat pain, often resulting in a painful scar.
NIPPLE DISCHARGE
Nipple discharges, secretions from the breast(s) of a woman
who is not lactating, are often categorized as either physiologic
or pathologic (nonphysiologic). Physiologic discharges are
described as nonspontaneous, bilateral, and arising from mul-
tiple ducts, whereas pathologic nipple discharges are typically
spontaneous, unilateral, and arise from a single duct.
Most nipple discharge is caused by benign conditions
(Table 25.3), but it is understandably a cause of concern. Once
a discharge is discovered, the anxious patient may manipulate
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300 PA R T I I I • C O M M O N P R O B L E M S

Figure 25.1 • Algorithm for mastalgia. Mastalgia

CBE # clinical breast examination; NSAID #
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. [permis-
History
sion needed]

Cyclic Noncyclic

CBE CBE

Mass No mass No mass Chest wall Mass

tenderness

Follow • Pain diary NSAID Follow

mass • Proper fitting brassiere or mass
protocol • Low-fat diet steroid protocol
• Methylxanthine injection
avoidance
• Reassurance

80% – 90% Medication

need no • Evening primrose oil
further • Danazol
therapy • Topical NSAID

TA B L E 2 5 . 3 Differential Diagnosis of Nipple Discharge

Frequency in Office Primary
Care (% Within Physiologic
Diagnosis or Pathologic Category) Typical Presentation
Physiologic
Idiopathic Common (40%–45%) Bilateral, milky or watery
Galactorrhea Somewhat common (25%–30%) Bilateral, milky (prolonged lactation)
Medication Uncommon (10%–15%) Bilateral, milky or watery
Anovulatory syndromes Rare (1%–2%) Bilateral, milky or watery, irregular menses
Sella turcica lesions Rare (1%–2%) Bilateral, milky or watery, irregular menses
Pathologic
Duct papilloma Common (40%–45%) Unilateral, serous or bloody
Fibrocyst Uncommon (15%–25%) Usually unilateral, greenish or serous
Duct ectasia Uncommon (15%–20%) Usually bilateral, multicolored, sticky
Eczema Rare Usually unilateral, bloody, crusting
Paget disease Rare Usually unilateral, bloody, crusting
Early ductal carcinoma Rare (5%–10%) Unilateral, serous or bloody
Infection/inflammation Rare (5%–10%) Usually unilateral, purulent
Adapted from: Newman HF, Klein M, Northrup JD, et al. Nipple discharge: frequency and pathogenesis in an ambulatory population. NY State J Med.
1983;83:928–933; Seltzer MH, Perloff LJ, Kelley RI, et al. The significance of age in patients with nipple discharge. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1970;131:519–522;
Fung A, Rayter Z, Fisher C, et al. Preoperative cytology and mammography in patients with single-duct nipple discharge treated by surgery. Br J Surg.
1990;77:1211–1212.
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CHAPTER 25 • BREAST PROBLEMS 301

the breast and nipple frequently to see if the discharge is still
present, which may provoke more discharge. The prevalence
of nipple discharge is about 10% based on a study of 2,685
women undergoing a routine health examination that
included breast compression toward the nipple (23). The sig-
nificance of the finding of nipple discharge depends on the
age, gravidity, parity, and menopausal status of the woman, as
well as the characteristics of the discharge itself.
Pathophysiology and Differential Diagnosis
Physiologic breast secretions are related to hormonal influ-
ences (i.e., prolactin) on breast tissue and are typically bilateral,
involve multiple ducts, and require some form of manipula-
tion to be expressed. Galactorrhea, a milky discharge, is the
most common physiologic discharge and requires investiga-
tion for an endocrine abnormality or a pharmacologic cause if
the woman is not pregnant or lactating. Precipitators may
include nipple stimulation, sexual orgasm, sleep, exercise, and
food ingestion. Galactorrhea may occur for 1 to 2 years or
longer after childbirth and the discharge may be unilateral.
Pathologic reasons for increases in prolactin include
hypothalamic lesions, pituitary tumors, chest wall trauma,
hypothyroidism, renal failure (decreased prolactin clearance),
and anovulatory syndromes, such as polycystic ovaries.
Medications that may cause hyperprolactinemia or increase
prolactin secretion are listed in Table 25.4. Other physiologic
peptides that have prolactin-releasing activity include thyroid
releasing hormone, serotonin, vasoactive intestinal peptide,
and vasopressin.
Pathologic discharges can originate either from the nipple
and areola region or from a breast duct. Eczema, nipple ade-
noma, and Paget disease can cause erythema and ulceration of
the nipple skin, with an associated bloody discharge (Table 25.3).
Ductal diseases associated with nipple discharge are duct ecta-
sia (periductal mastitis), duct papilloma, and early ductal
carcinoma. Duct papilloma is a benign condition of epithelial
hyperplasia within the ducts. Papillomas that occur more
peripherally are usually multifocal and have an increased risk
for breast cancer.
Infection and abscess can lead to a purulent discharge
(Table 25.3). Mastitis is more common in the puerperium, but
can occur after weaning.
Clinical Evaluation
HISTORY
As Table 25.4 illustrates, important points to cover in the his-
tory of a woman presenting with nipple discharge include
whether the discharge is bilateral, the characteristics of the
secretion, recent pregnancy, current medications, menstrual
cycle, menopausal status, exercise and sleep habits, sexual
activity, and recent surgery or trauma.
A serous, watery, bloody, or serosanguineous discharge
from one breast, especially in a postmenopausal woman, is the
most concerning presenting complaint for cancer.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A CBE should be completed including inspection of the skin
and four quadrant palpation for masses to see if the discharge
appears to be confined to a single duct (as in ductal papilloma
or carcinoma). You should pay special attention to the subare-
olar region to identify the area at which pressure produces the
discharge, and palpate for masses. A careful breast examina-
tion takes at least 5 minutes.
LABORATORY TESTS
If the history and physical examination are consistent with
galactorrhea, and all physiologic and pharmacologic causes
have been excluded, use a prolactin level to rule out hyperpro-
lactinemia (Fig. 25.2). For women who are experiencing

TA B L E 2 5 . 4 Key Elements of the History and Physical Examination for Nipple Discharge
Question/Maneuver Purpose
Spontaneous or expressed discharge Spontaneous is more indicative of cancer
Bilateral or unilateral discharge Unilateral is more indicative of cancer
Characteristics of discharge Milky suggests galactorrhea
Serous, bloody, watery increases suspicion for cancer
Multicolored suggests duct ectasia
Irregular menses in premenopausal woman Suggests hyperprolactinemia
Headaches, amenorrhea, visual disturbances Increase suspicion for pituitary or hypothalamic problem
Medications* May be the cause of discharge
Palpable mass Increases suspicion for cancer
Recent pregnancy or weaning Suggests galactorrhea or mastitis
Sexual, exercise, and sleep patterns Nipple stimulation, sexual orgasms, increased exercise and sleep may
cause discharge
Skin changes May suggest adenoma, eczema, Paget disease
*Medications associated with increased prolactin levels include amphetamines, cocaine, H2-receptor antagonists, hallucinogens, haloperidol, methyldopa,
metoclopramide, opiates, oral contraceptives, phenothiazines, reserpine, tricyclic antidepressants, and verapamil.
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302 PA R T I I I • C O M M O N P R O B L E M S

Figure 25.2 • Algorithm for Nipple

nipple discharge. CBE # Discharge
clinical breast examination; TSH #
thyroid-stimulating hormone;
CT # computed tomography;
MRI # magnetic resonance imag- Physiologic Pathologic
characteristics: characteristics:
ing. [permission needed]
• Milky, sticky • Bloody/clear/serous
• Expressed • Spontaneous
• Bilateral • Unilateral

Medication Galactography CBE

inventory; (useful if
discontinue those experienced
that technician) or
affect prolactin mammography

Dominant
mass
If results
Serum prolactin and TSH levels are
suspicious,
perform Follow
excisional mass
Increased Normal Increased biopsy protocol
TSH prolactin prolactin

Ideopathic Normal Irregular

Hypothyroidism
galactorrhea menses menses

• Lifestyle
inventory CT or MRI
(sleep, sex, head
food)
• Trauma
history

+ –
Make Idiopathic
modification, hyper-
recheck prolactinemia
prolactin

amenorrhea or other symptoms indicating pituitary or hypo-
thalamic dysfunction, the prolactin and thyroid-stimulating
hormone levels should be checked to rule out hyperprolactine-
mia and hypothyroidism, respectively. A $-human chorionic
gonadotropin test for pregnancy should also be considered.
If both the prolactin and thyroid-stimulating hormone
are normal and the patient is having regular cycles, a diagnosis
of idiopathic galactorrhea can be made, and no further testing
is indicated. If the patient has irregular menses or an elevated
prolactin level, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the pos-
terior fossa of the brain is warranted to look for pituitary
tumor. The higher the prolactin level, the greater the chance
of pituitary adenoma; levels over 150 ng/mL are rare for
causes other than prolactinoma (24).
Discharges that are more suspicious for cancer (i.e., unilat-
eral, spontaneous, occurring in an older woman, bloody,
serosanguineous, or watery) can first be tested with a guaiac
card for the presence of blood, although reports are inconsistent
regarding the predictive value of this test. The percentage of
cancers whose discharges tested positive for hemoglobin ranges
from 53% to 100% (25–27). Fluid cytology can also be obtained,
although its clinical utility is debatable. The sensitivity of cytol-
ogy is low (up to 45% in patients with carcinoma have normal
cytology) and the specificity is high (96% to 97%) (27–29). Thus,
it is useful when positive but does not rule out malignancy when
negative. If cytology is negative and a bloody nipple discharge
persists, an excisional biopsy should be performed. Cytology
cannot differentiate between in situ and invasive cancer.
IMAGING
Surgical duct excision, which is the most specific diagnostic
test, has traditionally been the method of choice for evaluating
pathologic discharges. Galactography (or ductography), a
radiographic procedure that involves injecting a radiopaque
dye into a suspicious duct, may be helpful in differentiating
between a benign and malignant neoplasm. An advantage of
galactography is better localization of the lesion, which allows
a more conservative surgical excision; however, the procedure
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CHAPTER 25 • BREAST PROBLEMS 303

is not always available. Mammary endoscopy (ductoscopy),
also not consistently available, is an option to directly observe
intraductal pathology, obtain biopsy samples, lavage fluid, and
ductoscopically guided duct excision (30).
Mammography should be ordered in women whose his-
tory and CBE raise suspicion of cancer. Although the sensitivity
of mammography for detecting cancer in patients with a nip-
ple discharge varies considerably, from 13% (25) to 90% (31),
the specificity is higher than 95%. Given the potentially high
false-negative rate, the best use of mammography may be to
determine if other nonpalpable abnormalities are present,
which would increase the suspicion for cancer. Ultrasound
may be more appropriate for younger women (younger than
age 35 years) because of their dense breasts.
Management
If the history, CBE, and discharge indicate galactorrhea, a cause
for hyperprolactinemia should be sought; if found, begin reme-
dies such as a change of medication or lifestyle or evaluation for
pituitary tumor. If the only abnormal result is an elevated pro-
lactin level in a normally menstruating woman, a diagnosis of
idiopathic hyperprolactinemia can be made. However, the
patient should be followed closely for further increases in the
prolactin level and signs or symptoms of pituitary tumor.
If the galactorrhea is bothersome or the hyperprolactine-
mia is associated with diminished libido, amenorrhea, and
infertility, a dopamine agonist can be used for treatment (24).
Bromocriptine and cabergoline are approved by the US Food
and Drug Administration for this purpose.
In the case of clear or blood-related (serous, serosan-
guineous, or sanguinous) spontaneous discharges, especially if
unilateral, a mammogram and/or galactogram or ductoscopy
(if available) should be ordered. If the result is suspicious or
discharge persists, surgical excision of the abnormal area is
necessary for definitive diagnosis. If a mass is palpable in a
woman with a pathologic discharge, she should be treated as
described in the following section.
PALPABLE BREAST MASS
Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women and
the second leading cause of cancer death. The majority of cases
present as a palpable mass, usually found by the patient. For
this reason, most women are understandably frightened on dis-
covering a breast mass. Among the common presenting breast
complaints, breast mass ranks second to breast pain (1). A com-
plaint of finding a breast mass must always be taken seriously.

TA B L E 2 5 . 5 Differential Diagnosis of Breast Mass

Diagnosis Age Group (y) Diagnosis (%) Usual Characteristics of the Mass
Breast cancer 25–40 !10 Unilateral, hard, and immobile
41–50 10–20
51–70 50–80
"70 "80
Breast cyst 25–40 !5 Unilateral, soft, and well-defined
41–50 10–20
51–70 7–12
"70 !10
Fibroadenoma !25 50–75 Unilateral, smooth, and mobile
26–50 10–30
51–70 !5
"70 !1
Fibrocystic changes !25 10–25 Bilateral, soft, and irregular; change with cycle
26–40 30–40
41–70 Uncommon*
"70 Rare
Duct papilloma Uncommon for all Unilateral subareolar mass with discharge
ages, but most
frequent at
ages 30–50
Adapted from: Byrne C. Breast. In: Harras A, Edwards BK, Blot WJ, et al., eds. Cancer Rates and Risk. Washington, DC: National Cancer Institute. NIH
publication no. 96–691. 1996:120–126; Devitt JE. Benign breast disease in the postmenopausal woman. World J Surg. 1989;13:731–735; Hindle WH. Other
benign breast problems. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1994;37:916–924; Ligon RE, Stevenson DR, Diner W, et al. Breast masses in young women. Am J Surg.
1980;140:779–782; Ferguson CM, Powell RW. Breast masses in young women. Arch Surg. 1989;124:1338–1341.
*More frequent in women on hormone therapy.
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304 PA R T I I I • C O M M O N P R O B L E M S

present, the patient should be asked if it coincides with her

TA B L E 2 5 . 6 Red Flags Suggestive of
menstrual cycle, because masses associated with fibrocystic
Breast Cancer changes are often painful in the premenstrual period.
Symptom Characteristics PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Pain Unilateral, noncyclic The clinical breast examination should include inspection and
Nipple discharge Unilateral palpation of both breasts as well as palpation of the axillary
Watery, serous, serosanguineous, and supraclavicular lymph node regions (http://caonline.
bloody amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/54/6/327). Table 25.6 outlines
Single duct red flags suggestive of breast cancer. Skin retraction, dimpling,
Breast mass Unilateral edema (peau d’orange), and bloody nipple discharge should
Hard, immobile raise suspicion for malignancy. If a mass is found, carefully
Noncystic palpate the opposite breast to determine if a symmetric mass is
Skin retraction, dimpling, or present. If a mirror-image mass or thickening is found, the
edema (peau d’orange) risk of cancer is very low.
The typical malignant mass is immobile and rock hard
History Postmenopausal with irregular borders. With this finding on CBE, especially in
Previous patient history of breast the presence of enlarged axillary nodes, an immediate referral to
cancer a surgeon for biopsy should be made. Table 25.7 lists key ele-
Family history of breast cancer ments of the history and physical examination for palpable mass
and suggested diagnosis. However, physical characteristics of a
breast mass alone should not dictate the workup. The test char-
Pathophysiology and Differential Diagnosis acteristics of clinical breast exam are shown in Table 25.8; phys-
The risk of breast cancer increases with age, and post- ical examination is accurate ([true positive % true negative]/total
menopausal women presenting with a mass are much more patients) in only 60% to 80% of cases (36,37) Malignant masses
likely to have cancer than premenopausal women. Other causes can resemble all other types of breast masses and reexamination
of a breast mass are shown in Table 25.5. Fibroadenoma and of any breast mass is recommended within the next month, dur-
fibrocystic masses are the most common causes of a breast ing the time of least hormonal influence (3 to 10 days after the
mass in women younger than age 25 years (32), whereas duct onset of menses) (32). An effective office tracking system is nec-
papillomas typically occur in the late menstrual years. essary to ensure that these patients are not lost to follow-up; if
that possibility exists, the woman should be referred to a sur-
Clinical Evaluation geon rather than told to return for reexamination.
HISTORY LABORATORY TESTS
The provider should assess breast cancer risk factors in every The first step in evaluating a breast mass, especially in a peri-
woman with a breast mass. Family history of breast cancer in a menopausal or older woman, is to determine whether the
first-degree relative increases the risk two times; if three first- mass is cystic or solid (Fig. 25.3). Breast cyst aspiration can be
degree relatives have been affected, the risk increases up to four- performed in the office using a 22-gauge needle and syringe.
fold (33). A personal or family history of breast or ovarian cancer The location of the mass should be carefully documented in
diagnosed before age 40 years increases the risk of breast cancer case of a bloody aspirate. To rule out the rare intracystic carci-
and should raise suspicion of a hereditary cancer syndrome (34). noma, you should send all bloody aspirates and any aspirate
A previous diagnosis of atypical hyperplasia on breast biopsy is a obtained from a postmenopausal woman not on hormone
risk factor (35). History of pregnancy before age 30 years is pro- therapy for cytology.
tective, as is a fewer number of years menstruating (35). Alternatively, an ultrasound can be obtained to determine
In addition, the patient should be questioned regarding if the mass is cystic. Aspiration has the advantage of therapeu-
nipple discharge and pain in the affected breast. Nipple dis- tically draining the cyst and providing a more expedient diag-
charge may accompany duct papilloma or cancer. If pain is nosis. If the ultrasound shows a cyst, the cyst should still be

TA B L E 2 5 . 7 Key Elements of the History and Physical Examination for Palpable Mass
Question/Maneuver Purpose
Age; previous or family history of breast, Determine whether there is an increased risk
endometrial, or ovarian cancer; menstrual of breast cancer
history
Pain or tenderness Suggests fibrocystic mass or fibroadenoma
Nipple discharge Suggests duct papilloma or carcinoma
Mirror image mass in opposite breast Suggests fibrocystic changes
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CHAPTER 25 • BREAST PROBLEMS 305

TA B L E 2 5 . 8 Characteristics of Diagnostic Tests Used to Identify Malignancy in a Woman with a Breast Mass
Test Sensitivity Specificity LR! LR"
Clinical breast examination 0.92 0.65 2.6 0.1
Mammography 0.89 0.65* 2.5 0.2
Fine-needle aspiration 0.83† 0.90‡ 27 0.2
Ultrasound 0.78 0.89 7.1 0.3
Clinical breast examination % fine-needle aspiration % 0.99 0.98 50 0.02
mammography (positive result on one or individual tests is
a positive triple test result; all test results negative is a
negative triple test result)

Adapted from: van Dam PA, Van Goethem MLA, Kersschot E, et al. Palpable solid breast masses: retrospective single- and multimodality evaluation of
201 lesions. Radiology. 1988;166:435–439; Wolberg WH, Tanner MA, Loh WY. Fine-needle aspiration for breast mass diagnosis. Arch Surg. 1989;124:
814–818; Kaufman Z, Shpitz B, Shapiro M, et al. Triple approach in the diagnosis of dominant breast masses: combined physical examination, mammog-
raphy, and fine-needle aspiration. J Surg Oncol. 1994;56(4):254–257; Hammond S, Keyhani-Rofagha S, O’Toole RV. Statistical analysis of fine-needle aspi-
ration cytology of the breast. A review of 678 cases plus 4,265 cases from the literature. Acta Cytol. 1987;31:276–280; Butler JA, Vargas HI, Worthen N,
et al. Accuracy of combined clinical-mammographic-cytologic diagnosis of dominant breast masses. Arch Surg. 1990;125:893–895.
Abbreviation: LR, likelihood ratio.
*Range, 0.55–0.74.
†
Range, 0.65–0.99.
‡
Range, 0.55–0.97, but more recent work suggests a higher specificity.

aspirated and cytology performed as indicated previously. In a
study of 174 patients with palpable cystic masses, characteris-
tics detected on ultrasound that were significantly correlated
with malignancy included thick wall, mural tumor, internal
septae, and size "3 cm (38).
IMAGING
Mammography is obtained to evaluate for clinically occult malig-
nancies, not to characterize the mass. It is not recommended in
women younger than 25 to 30 years of age or in pregnant women
because the increased density of the breast tissue in these women
renders the mammogram difficult to interpret. In addition, the
breast is more radiosensitive in younger women, theoretically
increasing risk of cancer from mammograms. An interval of 2
weeks between a mammogram and cyst aspiration is recom-
mended because aspiration can sometimes result in hematoma
formation, which could confuse mammographic interpretation.
A negative mammogram should not be interpreted as
reassuring in the presence of a breast mass. The test character-
istics for mammography in women with a palpable mass are
shown in Table 25.8. Particularly in premenopausal women,
mammography is more likely to yield a false-positive result
(a cancer scare) rather than a true positive (cancer) or a false
negative (missed cancer).
DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES
Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is recommended as the third
component of the triple approach (along with CBE and mam-
mography) in a breast mass workup. FNA should be per-
formed by a clinician comfortable with and experienced in the
procedure, usually a surgeon. One review (39) found that the
sensitivity and specificity of FNA ranged from 77% to 99%
and from 55% to 99%, respectively, although recent publica-
tions show improved specificity (see Table 25.8).
Common reasons for a false-negative reading are an inad-
equate sample and a well-differentiated tumor. In such cases,
the procedure must be repeated, or an open biopsy must be
performed. If there is any question of atypia, an excisional
biopsy should be done. If the results of the FNA show malig-
nancy, you should discuss treatment options with the patient
and plan definitive surgery.
Excisional biopsy is the gold standard for diagnosis of a
breast mass. However, it has been estimated that if all “lumps”
were biopsied, only 20% to 25% would be malignant (40).
Consequently, the triple approach to a breast mass (as outlined
in the following section) has gained popularity in recent years.
Management
The management recommendations for the evaluation of a
breast mass are consistent. A triple approach (CBE, mam-
mography, and FNA) is recommended to minimize both the
number of excisional biopsies done for benign disease, and
the number of missed cancers. In a series of 234 patients who
underwent an excisional biopsy in addition to this triple
approach, all patients who had breast cancer had at least one
positive test result (41). Although the specificity for the triad
of tests was only 57%, the negative predictive value was
100%—all patients who had negative findings for malig-
nancy in the three tests had benign lesions on excisional
biopsy. Another study of 259 women with palpable breast
masses confirmed these findings (42). Dynamic MRI is a pro-
cedure that may have accuracy similar to that of the triple
test (43); however, the triple test remains the gold standard.
Figure 25.3 is an algorithm for the management of a palpa-
ble breast mass.
If a cystic mass recurs after aspiration, mammography
and excisional biopsy should be recommended. Intracystic or
partially cystic cancers should be suspected if the aspirate is
bloody, or if a residual mass persists directly after aspiration.
In those cases, you should recommend mammography and
excisional biopsy. All patients should be rechecked in 4 to
6 weeks after the initial aspiration.
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306 PA R T I I I • C O M M O N P R O B L E M S

Figure 25.3 • Algorithm for palpable Palpable

breast mass. CBE # clinical breast exami- Breast Mass
nation; FNA # fine-needle aspiration.
History
(determine
breast cancer
risk factors)

Premenopausal Postmenopausal

CBE CBE

Questionable
mass Mass
or
mirror-image
mass

Re-examine Dominant In-office

days 3–10 mass aspiration
of cycle

No mass or Cystic Solid

continued
mirror-image
mass Mammography
and FNA or
mammography
• Reassurance Clear Bloody and excisional
• Follow closely fluid fluid biopsy

Mass still Mass Cytology

present disappears

Mammography Recheck in Normal Atypical or

and FNA 4–6 weeks cells malignant
or cells
mammography
and excisional No Cyst
biopsy cyst recurs
Mammography
and excisional
Follow Excisional biopsy
closely biopsy

If any of the components of the triple approach are suspi-
cious or consistent with malignancy, the mass should be
biopsied. If all three results are negative, the mass can be closely
followed with CBE by the same examiner every 3 months for
two visits, then again in 6 months to determine if it is stable.
Benign breast masses may spontaneously resolve over time.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Lactating Breast
Mastitis is a cellulitis of the interlobular connective tissue
within the mammary gland. The clinical spectrum can range
from focal inflammation to systemic flulike symptoms of fever,
chills, and muscle aches. The affected breast will usually
exhibit a tender, erythematous, wedge-shaped swelling.
Estimates of the incidence of mastitis range from 2.5% to 33%
of breastfeeding women; the actual value is probably closer to
10% (44,45). Most cases occur within the first 2 months postpar-
tum. The infection is bacterial, usually staphylococci; the breast
skin and the infant’s mouth have been proposed as the source.
The key to the management of mastitis is complete empty-
ing of the breast, warm compresses, early antibiotics, and bed rest.
The patient should be advised to continue breastfeeding (46,47);
stopping breastfeeding would put her at increased risk of abscess
formation. In fact, some experts recommend increased feedings
on the affected side to minimize stasis. Others recommend
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starting feedings with the unaffected breast to allow the affected
breast to “let down,” thereby diminishing any pain accompanying
feeding. Antibiotic coverage of gram-positive organisms with an
agent such as dicloxacillin or erythromycin for at least 10 days will
usually control the infection and is safe for the infant.
The Abnormal Screening Mammogram
The management of nonpalpable mammographic abnormali-
ties is a common concern of family physicians. The American
College of Radiology has published recommendations to facili-
tate decision making when a screening mammographic abnor-
mality is detected (48). The American College of Radiology’s
Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System classifies lesions
into five categories: benign, likely benign, intermediate, likely
malignant, and malignant. Additional imaging studies, such as
spot compression or ultrasound, may be recommended to char-
acterize the abnormality on the screening mammogram. If the
results of the screening mammogram or the additional studies
are benign or likely benign, a final recommendation is made of:
normal screening interval, shorter follow-up interval, or biopsy
(options for which include fine-needle, core, and excisional).
An abnormal mammogram report should prompt you to
perform a history and CBE, if it has not already been done. If
an abnormal physical finding (e.g., dominant mass) is present,
that algorithm should be followed. A previous mammogram
for comparison is very helpful. Lesions classified as probably
benign have a low risk (!2%) of cancer and can be followed
with mammographic surveillance. Reports of intermediate,
suspicious, or malignant lesions should be aggressively man-
aged to obtain a final diagnosis. If a report provides ambigu-
ous recommendations, it is advisable to consult a surgeon.
KEY POINTS
• Breast pain can be classified as cyclic (bilateral pain, most
severe premenstrually and subsiding during menses) or
CHAPTER 25 • BREAST PROBLEMS 307
noncyclic (often unilateral, sharp, burning, or drawing); the
former is managed using a well-fitted brassiere, a trial of
diet modification and medications including evening prim-
rose oil, topical nonsteroidal gel, and hormonal therapy
(e.g., danazol) and the latter by addressing the underlying
cause (e.g., musculoskeletal, tender mass).
• A focused examination for a breast complaint includes a
clinical breast examination (inspection, palpation) and
chest wall examination. Additional testing is needed for
identification of a dominant mass or nipple discharge.
• Women with a physiologic nipple discharge (nonsponta-
neous, bilateral, milky, arising from multiple ducts) should
undergo a medication review and get a prolactin level to
rule out hyperprolactinemia; if elevated, an MRI of the pos-
terior fossa of the brain is obtained to look for a pituitary
tumor. If serum prolactin is not elevated (or following neg-
ative imaging), women can be offered a dopamine agonist
(e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline) if the galactorrhea is
bothersome or associated with diminished libido, amenor-
rhea, and infertility.
• Women with a pathologic discharge (spontaneous, unilat-
eral and arising from a single duct) should have the dis-
charge tested for blood and possibly for malignant cells
(cytology). Surgical duct excision is the most specific diag-
nostic test, but galactography (or ductography) may be
helpful. Most are due to benign conditions; cancer is iden-
tified in 5% to 10% of cases.
• For women with a breast mass, clinicians should perform a
risk assessment for cancer, a clinical breast exam with
breast cyst aspiration if the mass is cystic, mammography or
ultrasound (the latter used for women younger than age 30
years or to assist with identifying a cyst), and an FNA.
• Red flags suggestive of breast cancer include a mass that is
unilateral, hard, immobile, with skin retraction, dimpling,
edema (peau d’orange), and bloody nipple discharge; espe-
cially in a postmenopausal woman.