Study of some Diophantine

Equations
3rd Annual Meeting of DMat-UA PhD Students
Universidade de Aveiro

Franco Golfieri (PDMA Programme)

October 27, 2023

Contents

1. Introduction
General results about rational points on curves
2. Application to Diophantine Equations
Basic ideas behind the Generalised Fermat Equation
3. General methods to discard modular forms
Some methods that we often use to prove certain Diophantine equations.
 Introduction

Introduction 1/17
 What is a Diophantine Equation?
We call a Diophantine Equation an equation of the form

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0,

where f is a polynomial with integer coefficients, and whose

solutions of interest are integer or rational ones.

Introduction 2/17
 What is a Diophantine Equation?
We call a Diophantine Equation an equation of the form

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0,

where f is a polynomial with integer coefficients, and whose

solutions of interest are integer or rational ones.

Problem 1. Is this solution solvable?

Introduction 2/17
 What is a Diophantine Equation?
We call a Diophantine Equation an equation of the form

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0,

where f is a polynomial with integer coefficients, and whose

solutions of interest are integer or rational ones.

Problem 1. Is this solution solvable?

Problem 2. If it is solvable, is the number of solutions finite or
infinite?

Introduction 2/17
 What is a Diophantine Equation?
We call a Diophantine Equation an equation of the form

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0,

where f is a polynomial with integer coefficients, and whose

solutions of interest are integer or rational ones.

Problem 1. Is this solution solvable?

Problem 2. If it is solvable, is the number of solutions finite or
infinite?
Problem 3. If it is solvable, determine all of its solutions.

Introduction 2/17
 Conics (g = 0)
C : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.

Is it solvable? Not always. See for example the conic

x2 + y 2 = −1.
However, if we have one rational point, we have infinitely many
and we can parameterize them. For C : x2 + y 2 = 1

Introduction 3/17
 Conics (g = 0)
C : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.

Is it solvable?

Introduction 3/17
 Conics (g = 0)
C : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.

Is it solvable? Not always.

Introduction 3/17
 Conics (g = 0)
C : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.

Is it solvable? Not always. See for example the conic

x2 + y 2 = −1.

Introduction 3/17
 Conics (g = 0)
C : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.

Is it solvable? Not always. See for example the conic

x2 + y 2 = −1.
However, if we have one rational point, we have infinitely many
and we can parameterize them.

Introduction 3/17
 Conics (g = 0)
C : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0.

Is it solvable? Not always. See for example the conic

x2 + y 2 = −1.
However, if we have one rational point, we have infinitely many
and we can parameterize them. For C : x2 + y 2 = 1

Introduction 3/17
 Cubics

C : ax3 + bx2 + cxy 2 + dy 3 + ex2 + f xy + gy 2 + hx + iy + j = 0.

Introduction 4/17
 Cubics

C : ax3 + bx2 + cxy 2 + dy 3 + ex2 + f xy + gy 2 + hx + iy + j = 0.

What can we say about its rational points?

Introduction 4/17
 Cubics

C : ax3 + bx2 + cxy 2 + dy 3 + ex2 + f xy + gy 2 + hx + iy + j = 0.

What can we say about its rational points?

For conics we have the following result
Theorem (Hasse-Minkowski, 1931)
A conic has a rational point if and only if it has solutions modulo p for
every prime and has a real solution.

Introduction 4/17
 Cubics

C : ax3 + bx2 + cxy 2 + dy 3 + ex2 + f xy + gy 2 + hx + iy + j = 0.

What can we say about its rational points?

For conics we have the following result
Theorem (Hasse-Minkowski, 1931)
A conic has a rational point if and only if it has solutions modulo p for
every prime and has a real solution.
Do we have an analogous of Hasse-Minkowski for cubics?

Introduction 4/17
 Cubics

C : ax3 + bx2 + cxy 2 + dy 3 + ex2 + f xy + gy 2 + hx + iy + j = 0.

What can we say about its rational points?

For conics we have the following result
Theorem (Hasse-Minkowski, 1931)
A conic has a rational point if and only if it has solutions modulo p for
every prime and has a real solution.
Do we have an analogous of Hasse-Minkowski for cubics? No

Introduction 4/17
 Cubics

C : ax3 + bx2 + cxy 2 + dy 3 + ex2 + f xy + gy 2 + hx + iy + j = 0.

What can we say about its rational points?

For conics we have the following result
Theorem (Hasse-Minkowski, 1931)
A conic has a rational point if and only if it has solutions modulo p for
every prime and has a real solution.
Do we have an analogous of Hasse-Minkowski for cubics? No

Example (Selmer, 1951)

The curve 3x3 + 4y 3 + 5z 3 = 0 has solutions in R and solutions in
Qp . However, it does not have rational solutions.

Introduction 4/17
 Elliptic curves (g = 1)
If C is a cubic, and it has a rational point, we can suppose that,

C : y 2 = x3 + ax2 + bx + c.

Introduction 5/17
 Elliptic curves (g = 1)
If C is a cubic, and it has a rational point, we can suppose that,

C : y 2 = x3 + ax2 + bx + c.

If it is non-singular, it is what we call an elliptic curve

Introduction 5/17
 Elliptic curves (g = 1)
If C is a cubic, and it has a rational point, we can suppose that,

C : y 2 = x3 + ax2 + bx + c.

If it is non-singular, it is what we call an elliptic curve

Theorem (Mordell, 1923)
If E is an elliptic curve, then E(Q) is a finitely generated abelian
group, i.e. E(Q) = Etors (Q) Zr
L

Introduction 5/17
 Elliptic curves (g = 1)
If C is a cubic, and it has a rational point, we can suppose that,

C : y 2 = x3 + ax2 + bx + c.

If it is non-singular, it is what we call an elliptic curve

Theorem (Mordell, 1923)
If E is an elliptic curve, then E(Q) is a finitely generated abelian
group, i.e. E(Q) = Etors (Q) Zr
L

Theorem (Mazur, 1978)

with 1 ≤ n ≤ 10 or n = 12,
®
Z/nZ
Etors (Q) =
Z/2Z × Z/(2n)Z with 1 ≤ n ≤ 4.

Introduction 5/17
 A problem I was thinking
Theorem (G., Villagra)
The equation

x2 + 2y 6 = z 4

does not have non-trivial primitive solutions.

Proof: If (a, b, c) is a solution, (c2 − a)(c2 + a) = 2(b3 )2 .

Introduction 6/17
 A problem I was thinking
Theorem (G., Villagra)
The equation

x2 + 2y 6 = z 4

does not have non-trivial primitive solutions.

Proof: If (a, b, c) is a solution, (c2 − a)(c2 + a) = 2(b3 )2 . Then
a = r2 − 2s2 , c2 = r2 + 2s2 and b3 = 2rs, for some r, s ∈ Z, with r
odd and s even.

Introduction 6/17
 A problem I was thinking
Theorem (G., Villagra)
The equation

x2 + 2y 6 = z 4

does not have non-trivial primitive solutions.

Proof: If (a, b, c) is a solution, (c2 − a)(c2 + a) = 2(b3 )2 . Then
a = r2 − 2s2 , c2 = r2 + 2s2 and b3 = 2rs, for some r, s ∈ Z, with r
odd and s even. Thus r = R3 , s = 4S 3 and (R2 /S 2 , c/S 3 ) is a
rational point of the elliptic curve E : y 2 = x3 + 32.

Introduction 6/17
 A problem I was thinking
Theorem (G., Villagra)
The equation

x2 + 2y 6 = z 4

does not have non-trivial primitive solutions.

Proof: If (a, b, c) is a solution, (c2 − a)(c2 + a) = 2(b3 )2 . Then
a = r2 − 2s2 , c2 = r2 + 2s2 and b3 = 2rs, for some r, s ∈ Z, with r
odd and s even. Thus r = R3 , s = 4S 3 and (R2 /S 2 , c/S 3 ) is a
rational point of the elliptic curve E : y 2 = x3 + 32. Since E(Q) = ∅
(using Magma for example), the result follows.

Introduction 6/17
 A problem I was thinking
Theorem (G., Villagra)
The equation

x2 + 2y 6 = z 4

does not have non-trivial primitive solutions.

Proof: If (a, b, c) is a solution, (c2 − a)(c2 + a) = 2(b3 )2 . Then
a = r2 − 2s2 , c2 = r2 + 2s2 and b3 = 2rs, for some r, s ∈ Z, with r
odd and s even. Thus r = R3 , s = 4S 3 and (R2 /S 2 , c/S 3 ) is a
rational point of the elliptic curve E : y 2 = x3 + 32. Since E(Q) = ∅
(using Magma for example), the result follows.
What happens when g > 1?

Introduction 6/17
 A problem I was thinking
Theorem (G., Villagra)
The equation

x2 + 2y 6 = z 4

does not have non-trivial primitive solutions.

Proof: If (a, b, c) is a solution, (c2 − a)(c2 + a) = 2(b3 )2 . Then
a = r2 − 2s2 , c2 = r2 + 2s2 and b3 = 2rs, for some r, s ∈ Z, with r
odd and s even. Thus r = R3 , s = 4S 3 and (R2 /S 2 , c/S 3 ) is a
rational point of the elliptic curve E : y 2 = x3 + 32. Since E(Q) = ∅
(using Magma for example), the result follows.
What happens when g > 1?
Theorem (Faltings, 1983)
If C is a rational curve of genus greater than 1, then |C(Q)| is finite.

Introduction 6/17
 Application to
Diophantine Equations

Application to Diophantine Equations 7/17

 Generalized Fermat Equation
The Diophantine equations that I study are of the form

AX p + BY q = CZ r . (1)

Application to Diophantine Equations 8/17

 Generalized Fermat Equation
The Diophantine equations that I study are of the form

AX p + BY q = CZ r . (1)

When p = q = r then an integer solution of (1) leads to a

rational point on the curve

AX p + BY p = C. (2)

of genus 2 , which is >

p−1

1 when p > 3.

Application to Diophantine Equations 8/17

 Generalized Fermat Equation
The Diophantine equations that I study are of the form

AX p + BY q = CZ r . (1)

When p = q = r then an integer solution of (1) leads to a

rational point on the curve

AX p + BY p = C. (2)

2 , which is > 1 when p > 3. Then by Faltings’s

of genus p−1

Theorem we can guarantee finitely many solutions.

Application to Diophantine Equations 8/17

 Generalized Fermat Equation
The Diophantine equations that I study are of the form

AX p + BY q = CZ r . (1)

When p = q = r then an integer solution of (1) leads to a

rational point on the curve

AX p + BY p = C. (2)

2 , which is > 1 when p > 3. Then by Faltings’s

of genus p−1

Theorem we can guarantee finitely many solutions.

Otherwise, this is not a curve, but a surface Sp,q,r in the affine
space A3 .

Application to Diophantine Equations 8/17

 Generalized Fermat Equation
Darmon and Granville (1995) showed that integer solutions of (1) are
d
in correspondence with coverings X −
→ P1 , with X a curve of genus
Å ã
1 1 1
2 − 2g = d + + −1 .
p q r

Application to Diophantine Equations 9/17

 Generalized Fermat Equation
Darmon and Granville (1995) showed that integer solutions of (1) are
d
in correspondence with coverings X −
→ P1 , with X a curve of genus
Å ã
1 1 1
2 − 2g = d + + −1 .
p q r

Then using Falting’s Theorem, they proved the following

Theorem (Darmon & Granville, 1995)
For any given positive integers p, q, r satisfying 1
p + 1
q + 1
r < 1, the
generalized Fermat equation

Axp + By q = Cz r

has only finitely many proper integer solutions.

Application to Diophantine Equations 9/17

 Darmon’s conjecture
Conjecture (Generalized Fermat Equation, Darmon)
The only primitive non-trivial solutions to the equation xp + y q = z r
with 1/p + 1/q + 1/r < 1 are the following
1p + 23 = 32 , 25 + 72 = 34 , 73 + 132 = 29 , 27 + 173 = 712 ,
35 + 114 = 1222 , 177 + 762713 = 210639282 ,
14143 + 22134592 = 657 , 92623 + 153122832 = 1137 ,
438 + 962223 = 300429072 , 338 + 15490342 = 156133 .

Application to Diophantine Equations 10/17

 Darmon’s conjecture
Conjecture (Generalized Fermat Equation, Darmon)
The only primitive non-trivial solutions to the equation xp + y q = z r
with 1/p + 1/q + 1/r < 1 are the following
1p + 23 = 32 , 25 + 72 = 34 , 73 + 132 = 29 , 27 + 173 = 712 ,
35 + 114 = 1222 , 177 + 762713 = 210639282 ,
14143 + 22134592 = 657 , 92623 + 153122832 = 1137 ,
438 + 962223 = 300429072 , 338 + 15490342 = 156133 .
Darmon offers a reward of
Ç å
1
300 1 1 1 −1
p + q + r

(Canadian) dollars for a non-primitive solution to xp + y q = z r .

Application to Diophantine Equations 10/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + < 1 and + + < 1
2 6 p 2 4 p

for p > 3.

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + < 1 and + + < 1
2 6 p 2 4 p

for p > 3. By the ABC conjecture, one expects that our equation does
not have solutions for p greater enough.

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + < 1 and + + < 1
2 6 p 2 4 p

for p > 3. By the ABC conjecture, one expects that our equation does
not have solutions for p greater enough.
First Cases
d = 1 (Bennett & Chen, 2012)

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + < 1 and + + < 1
2 6 p 2 4 p

for p > 3. By the ABC conjecture, one expects that our equation does
not have solutions for p greater enough.
First Cases
d = 1 (Bennett & Chen, 2012)
d = 3 (Koutsianas, 2020)

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + < 1 and + + < 1
2 6 p 2 4 p

for p > 3. By the ABC conjecture, one expects that our equation does
not have solutions for p greater enough.
First Cases
d = 1 (Bennett & Chen, 2012)
d = 3 (Koutsianas, 2020)
d = 2, 6 (Pacetti & Villagra 2022)

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Cases that I studied
x2 + dy 6 = z p and x4 + dy 2 = z p

Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + < 1 and + + < 1
2 6 p 2 4 p

for p > 3. By the ABC conjecture, one expects that our equation does
not have solutions for p greater enough.
First Cases
d = 1 (Bennett & Chen, 2012)
d = 3 (Koutsianas, 2020)
d = 2, 6 (Pacetti & Villagra 2022)
d = 4, 5, 7, 11, 15, 19 (G., Pacetti & Villagra, 2023)

Application to Diophantine Equations 11/17

 Modularity method
(a, b, c) non-trivial primitive solution of x2 + dy 6 = z p
↓
√ √
E(a,b,c) : y 2 + 6b −dxy − 4d(a + b3 −d)y = x3
l
f ∈ S2 (Na,b,c )
↓
g ∈ S2 (M ), M |N

Application to Diophantine Equations 12/17

 Modularity method
(a, b, c) non-trivial primitive solution of x2 + dy 6 = z p
↓
√ √
E(a,b,c) : y 2 + 6b −dxy − 4d(a + b3 −d)y = x3
l
f ∈ S2 (Na,b,c )
↓
g ∈ S2 (M ), M |N
So the idea is to try to eliminate all functions in this latter space for p
greater enough.

Application to Diophantine Equations 12/17

 General methods to
discard modular forms

General methods to discard modular forms 13/17

 Mazur’s Trick
Suppose we want to discard g ∈ S2 (M ).

General methods to discard modular forms 14/17

 Mazur’s Trick
Suppose we want to discard g ∈ S2 (M ). Let l 6= p

General methods to discard modular forms 14/17

 Mazur’s Trick
Suppose we want to discard g ∈ S2 (M ). Let l 6= p

p|N (κ(l)al (E(a,b,c) ) − al (g)).

Theorem (G., Villagra & Pacetti, 2022)

Let p > 1627 be a prime number. Then there are no non-trivial
solutions of the equation

x2 + 13y 6 = z p

General methods to discard modular forms 14/17

 Mazur’s Trick
Suppose we want to discard g ∈ S2 (M ). Let l 6= p

p|N (κ(l)al (E(a,b,c) ) − al (g)).

Theorem (G., Villagra & Pacetti, 2022)

Let p > 1627 be a prime number. Then there are no non-trivial
solutions of the equation

x2 + 13y 6 = z p

Obstacles:

General methods to discard modular forms 14/17

 Mazur’s Trick
Suppose we want to discard g ∈ S2 (M ). Let l 6= p

p|N (κ(l)al (E(a,b,c) ) − al (g)).

Theorem (G., Villagra & Pacetti, 2022)

Let p > 1627 be a prime number. Then there are no non-trivial
solutions of the equation

x2 + 13y 6 = z p

Obstacles:
It could happen that κ(l)al (E(a,b,c) ) − al (g) = 0.

General methods to discard modular forms 14/17

 Mazur’s Trick
Suppose we want to discard g ∈ S2 (M ). Let l 6= p

p|N (κ(l)al (E(a,b,c) ) − al (g)).

Theorem (G., Villagra & Pacetti, 2022)

Let p > 1627 be a prime number. Then there are no non-trivial
solutions of the equation

x2 + 13y 6 = z p

Obstacles:
It could happen that κ(l)al (E(a,b,c) ) − al (g) = 0.
If M is big (M > 10000), it is inefficient to calculate al (g).

General methods to discard modular forms 14/17

 Symplectic Method
g Ag .

General methods to discard modular forms 15/17

 Symplectic Method
g Ag . Sometimes, Ag ∼ Egr .

General methods to discard modular forms 15/17

 Symplectic Method
g Ag . Sometimes, Ag ∼ Egr . Then

E(a,b,c) [p] ∼
= Eg [p].

General methods to discard modular forms 15/17

 Symplectic Method
g Ag . Sometimes, Ag ∼ Egr . Then

E(a,b,c) [p] ∼
= Eg [p].

The symplectic method analyzes the symplectic type of this

isomorphism.

General methods to discard modular forms 15/17

 Symplectic Method
g Ag . Sometimes, Ag ∼ Egr . Then

E(a,b,c) [p] ∼
= Eg [p].

The symplectic method analyzes the symplectic type of this

isomorphism.
Theorem (G., Villagra & Pacetti)
The equation x2 + 11y 2 = z p does not have non-trivial primitive
solutions if p > 557 and either one of the following conditions holds:
3|xy
p ≡ 3 (mód 4)

General methods to discard modular forms 15/17

 Asymptotic result
When Kf := Q(ap (f )) 6= Kg := Q(aq (g)) then we can discard g.

General methods to discard modular forms 16/17

 Asymptotic result
When Kf := Q(ap (f )) 6= Kg := Q(aq (g)) then we can discard g.
What happen when Kf = Kg ?

General methods to discard modular forms 16/17

 Asymptotic result
When Kf := Q(ap (f )) 6= Kg := Q(aq (g)) then we can discard g.
What happen when Kf = Kg ?
In that case, we study the algebra of endomorphism of Af and Ag .

General methods to discard modular forms 16/17

 Asymptotic result
When Kf := Q(ap (f )) 6= Kg := Q(aq (g)) then we can discard g.
What happen when Kf = Kg ?
In that case, we study the algebra of endomorphism of Af and Ag .
For p greater enough we obtain a strong relation between them that
allows us to obtain an asymptotic result for d.

General methods to discard modular forms 16/17

 Asymptotic result
When Kf := Q(ap (f )) 6= Kg := Q(aq (g)) then we can discard g.
What happen when Kf = Kg ?
In that case, we study the algebra of endomorphism of Af and Ag .
For p greater enough we obtain a strong relation between them that
allows us to obtain an asymptotic result for d.
Theorem (G., Villagra & Pacetti, 2023)
Let d be a prime number
√ congruent to 19 modulo 24 and such that the
class number of Q( −d) is prime to 3. Then there are no non-trivial
primitive solutions of the equation

x2 + dy 6 = z p

for p greater enough.

General methods to discard modular forms 16/17

 Thank you for your attention!

General methods to discard modular forms 17/17