MATB24 Linear Algebra II Assignment 2 — Solutions

Prof. T. Kielstra, Dept. of CMS, University of Toronto, Scarborough

1. (4.2.1) Let A be the following matrix over the complex numbers.

 
2 1
−1 3

For each of the following polynomials f over F, compute f (A),

(a) f = x2 − x + 2
(b) f = x3 − 1
(c) f = x2 − 5x + 7
Solution:

         
2 3 5 3 5 2 1 2 0 3 4
(a) A = , then f (A) = − + =
−5 8, −5 8 −1 3 0 2 −4 7
       
3 1 18 1 18 1 0 0 18
(b) A = , then f (A) = − =
−18 19 −18 19 0 1 −18 18
       
3 5 2 1 7 0 0 0
(c) f (A) = −5 + =
−5 8 −1 3 0 7 0 0

2. (4.2.2) Let T be the linear operator on R2 defined by

T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x3 , −2x2 − x3 )

Let f be the linear operator on R defined by −x · 2 + 2. Find f (T ).
Solution:

(−2T + 2I)(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = −2T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) + 2(x1 , x2 , x3 )

= (−2x1 , −2x3 , 4x2 + 2x3 ) + (2x1 , 2x2 , 2x3 )
= (0, 2x2 − 2x3 , 4x2 + 4x3 )

3. Let A be an n × n diagonal matrix over the field F. Let f be the polynomial over F defined by

f = (x − A11 ) · · · (x − Ann ),

what is the matrix f (A).

Solution:

f (A) = (A − A11 )(A − A22 ) · · · (A − Ann )

    
0 0 ··· 0 a11 − a22 0 ··· 0 a11 − ann 0 ··· 0
0 a22 − a11 · · · 0  0 0 ··· 0   0 a22 − ann ··· 0
= . ···
    
. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. 
 .. .. .. ..  
 . . . .   . . . .
0 0 ··· ann − a11 0 0 ··· ann − a22 0 0 ··· 0

The product of diagonal matrices is a new diagonal matrix whose diagonals are the products of the corresponding
diagonal entries. Each diagonal entry has a matrix in which it is 0. Thus the product matrix is a diagonal
matrix in which every diagonal entry is 0. That is, f (A) = 0.
4. (4.4.1) Let Q be the field of rational numbers. Determine which of the following subsets of Q[x] are ideals.
When the set is an ideal, find its monic generator.
(a) all f of even degree;

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 (b) all f of degree > 5;
(c) all f such that f (0) = 0;
(d) all f such that f (2) = f (4) = 0

Solution:
Let S denote each set.
(a) Not an ideal. Take x2 ∈ S and x ∈ Q[x]. Then x2 · x = x3 ∈
/ S.
(b) Not an ideal. Take x5 + 1, −x5 ∈ S. Then x5 + 1 + −x5 = 1 ∈
/ S.
(c) Ideal. The 0 polynomial is in the set and so are additive inverses since if f (0) = 0 then −f (0) = 0.
Similarly, if f (0) = 0 and g(0) = 0, then (f + g)(0) = f (0) + g(0) = 0. Let f ∈ Q[x] and g ∈ S. Then

(f g)(0) = f (0)g(0)
= f (0) · 0
=0

Its monic generator is a(x) = x. Certainly a(x) ∈ S since a(0) = 0. Given f (x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an xn ∈ S,
we have

f (0) = 0
=⇒ a0 = 0
=⇒ f (x) = a1 x + · · · + an xn
= x(a1 + · · · + an xn−1 )

So f is in the ideal generated by x. Every multiple of x also satisfies f (0) = 0 so S is generated by x.

(d) Ideal. Additive subgroup for the same reason as (c). Let f ∈ Q[x] and g ∈ S.

(f g)(4) = f (4)g(4)
=0
= f (2)g(2)
= (f g)(2)

Its monic generator is a(x) = (x − 2)(x − 4) = x2 − 6x + 8. Note a ∈ S. Let f ∈ S. Since f (2) = 0,

f (x) = (x − 2)q(x)

for some q ∈ Q[x] with deg(q) < deg(f ).

f (4) = 0
=⇒ (4 − 2)q(4) = 0
=⇒ q(4) = 0
=⇒ q(x) = (x − 4)p(x)

for some p ∈ Q[x]. Then f (x) = (x − 2)(x − 4)p(x) = a(x)p(x) so f is in the ideal generated by a(x).
Every multiple of a(x) also satisfies f (2) = f (4) = 0, so S is generated by (x − 2)(x − 4).

5. (4.4.2) Find the g.c.d. of each of the following pairs of polynomials

(a) 2x5 − x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 4, x4 + x3 − x2 − 2x − 2;
(b) 3x4 + 8x2 − 3, x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 6;
(c) x4 − 2x3 − 2x2 − 2x − 3, x3 + 6x2 + 7x + 2;

Solution:
Let f and g be the first and second polynomial listed respectively. Let I = hf, gi denote the ideal generated
by f and g.

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(a)

h1 (x) = f (x) − 2xg(x) = −2x4 + x3 + x2 − 2x + 4

∈I
h2 (x) = 2g(x) + h1 (x) = 3x3 − x2 − 6x
∈I
h3 (x) = 3h1 (x) + 2xh2 (x) = x3 − 9x2 − 6x + 12
∈I
h4 (x) = h2 (x) − 3h3 (x) = 26x2 + 12x − 36
∈I
 
1 1
h5 (x) = 13h3 (x) − xh4 (x) = −41x2 − 32x + 52
3 2
∈I
41 170 62
h6 (x) = h4 + h5 (x) = − x−
26 13 13
∈I
170 2898 680
h7 (x) = h5 (x) − xh6 (x) = − x+
13 · 41 533 41
∈I
2898 · 13 20518
h8 (x) = h6 (x) − h7 (x) = −
533 · 170 1105
=⇒ 1 ∈ I

So the gcd is 1.
(b)

h1 (x) = f (x) − 3xg(x)

= −6x3 − x2 − 18x − 3
1
h2 (x) = (6g(x) + h1 (x))
11
= x2 + 3
h3 (x) = h1 (x) + 6xh2 (x)
= −x2 − 3
h4 (x) = h2 (x) + h3 (x)
=0
√ √ √
Thus x2 +3 ∈ I. Note that f (±i 3) = g(±i 3) = 0. For all polynomials p, q, we have (pf +qg)(±i 3) = 0,
/ I. The polynomial x2 + 3 is the least degree monic polynomial with roots at ±3i, so the gcd is
so 1 ∈
x + 1.
(c)

h1 (x) = f (x) − xg(x)

= −8x3 − 9x2 − 4x − 3
h2 (x) = 8g(x) + h1 (x)
= 39x2 + 52x + 13
39
h3 (x) = h1 (x) + xh2 (x)
8  
3 65 2 13 117
= x − x−
52 8 2 8
=x+1

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 Note that f (−1) = g(−1) = 0. For all polynomials p, q, we have (pf + qg)(−1) = 0, so 1 ∈ / I. The
polynomial x + 1 is the least degree monic polynomial with a root at −1, so the gcd is x + 1.
6. (4.4.3) Let A be an n × n matrix over a field F. Show that the set of all polynomials f in F such that f (A) = 0
is an ideal.
Solution:
Certainly f = 0 is in the set I. If f ∈ I, then −f (A) = 0 and so −f ∈ I. If f, g ∈ I, then (f + g)(A) =
f (A) + g(A) = 0. Thus f + g ∈ I.

Now let f ∈ F[x] and g ∈ I. Then (f g)(A) = f (A)g(A) = f (A) · 0 = 0. So I is an ideal.

7. (4.4.4) Let F be a subfield of the complex numbers, and let
 
1 −2
A=
0 3
Find the monic generator of the ideal of all polynomials f in F[x] such that f (A) = 0.
Solution:
The characteristic polynomial of A is f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 3) = x2 − 4x + 3. Note that any monic polynomial
g of degree 1 or 0 does not satisfy g(A) = 0 since A + kI is non-zero for all k. Thus the monic generator has
degree ≥ 2. Note
f (A) = (A − I)(A − 3I) = 0
so x2 − 4x + 3 is a monic generator.
8. (4.4.5) Let F be a field. Show that the intersection of any number of ideals in F is an ideal.
Solution: T
Let A be a set and {Iα : α ∈ A} a collection of ideals of F. Denote I = α∈A Iα . Each ideal T contains 0 ∈ F,
thus 0 ∈ I. Let x ∈ I. Since −x ∈ Iα for all α ∈ A, by consequence of being ideals, −x ∈ I = α∈A . Now let
x, y ∈ I. For all α ∈ A, since x, y ∈ Iα and Iα is an ideal, we have x + y ∈ Iα , so x + y ∈ I.

Now let r ∈ F and x ∈ I. For any α ∈ A, since Iα is an ideal, rx = xr ∈ Iα , thus rx ∈ I. Hence, I is an ideal.
9. (4.4.6) Let F be a field. Show that the ideal generated by a finite number of polynomials f1 , · · · , fn in F is the
intersection of all ideals containing f1 , · · · , fn . (Bonus: Consider the integers. Show that the ideal generated by
a finite number of integers a1 , ..., an ∈ Z is the the intersection of all ideals containing the integers a1 , · · · , an .)
Solution:
Let I denote the ideal generated by a finite number of polynomials f1 , . . . , fn . Let J denote the intersection of
all ideals containing f1 , . . . , fn .

Let x ∈ I. Then x = a1 f1 + · · · + an fn for some a1 , . . . , an ∈ F[x]. Let J 0 be any ideal containing f1 , . . . , fn .

Since J 0 is an ideal, we have a1 f1 + · · · + an fn = x ∈ J 0 . This is true for all such J 0 , so x ∈ J. This shows
I ⊆ J.

Note that I contains f1 , . . . , fn since it is generated by them. By definition of intersection, I ⊆ J.

10. Let F be a field. Consider a finite number of polynomials f1 , · · · , fn in F. Take the intersection of the ideals
that each polynomial generates. Show that this forms an ideal whose generator is the least common multiple of
the polynomials f1 , · · · , fn . (Bonus: Consider the integers. Consider a finite number of integers a1 , ..., an ∈ Z.
Take the intersection of the ideals that each integer generates. Show that this forms an ideal whose generator
is the least common multiple of the integers a1 , · · · , an .)
Solution:
Question 8 shows that their intersection forms an ideal I. Let f be the least common multiple of the polynomials
f1 , . . . , fn so that f is monic. Let g ∈ I. Since g ∈ hfi i for each i = 1, . . . , n, it follows that g = pi fi for some
pi ∈ F[x]. That is, fi g for each i. By definition of lcm, f g, so g ∈ hf i.

Now let g ∈ hf i. This means g = pf for some p ∈ F[x]. For each i = 1, 2 . . . , n, since f is a multiple of
Tn must have g be a multiple of fi . So g ∈ hfi i. Since this is true for all i = 1, . . . , n, it follows that
fi , we
g ∈ i=1 hfi i = I.

(Same procedure for integers)

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11. Show that every complex number can be represented using a real polynomial modulo x2 + 1.
Solution:
Let z = a + bi for some a, b ∈ R. It can be represented with the polynomial f (x) = a + bx. To show this
representation works, let w = c + di so g(x) = c + dx represents it. Then

z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
(f + g)(x) = a + c + (b + d)x

and

zw = (a + bi)(c + di)
= ac − bd + (ad + bc)i
(f g)(x) = (a + bx)(c + dx)
= ac + (ad + bc)x + bdx2
= ac + (ad + bc)x + bdx2 + bd − bd
= ac − bd + (ad + bc)x + bd(x2 + 1)
≡ ac − bd + (ad + bc)x (mod x2 + 1)

12. Analogous to the 2 × 2 case discussed in class, use permutations to derive the formula for the determinant
|A| = det(A) of a general 3 × 3 matrix:
 
a11 a12 a13
A =  a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33

Solution:
There are 3! = 6 possible permutations in S3 .

1. σ1 = (1)
This permutation has 0 transpositions. This produces the term (−1)0 a1σ1 (1) a2σ1 (2) a3σ1 (3) = a11 a22 a33
2. σ2 = (1 2)
This permutation has 1 transposition. This produces the term (−1)1 a1σ2 (1) a2σ2 (2) a3σ2 (3) = −a12 a21 a33
3. σ3 = (1 3)
This permutation has 1 transposition. This produces the term (−1)1 a1σ3 (1) a2σ3 (2) a3σ3 (3) = −a13 a22 a31
4. σ4 = (2 3)
This permutation has 1 transpositions. This produces the term (−1)1 a1σ4 (1) a2σ4 (2) a3σ4 (3) = −a11 a23 a32
5. σ5 = (1 2 3) = (1 3)(1 2)
This permutation has 2 transpositions. This produces the term (−1)2 a1σ5 (1) a2σ5 (2) a3σ5 (3) = a12 a23 a31
6. σ6 = (1 3 2) = (1 2)(1 3)
This permutation has 2 transpositions. This produces the term (−1)2 a1σ6 (1) a2σ6 (2) a3σ6 (3) = a13 a21 a32
Thus
det(A) = a11 a22 a33 − a12 a21 a33 − a13 a22 a31 − a11 a23 a32 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32

13. (4.5.2) Assuming the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, prove the following. Iff and g are polynomials of the
field of complex numbers, the g.c.d(f, g) = 1 if and only if f and g have no common root.
Solution:

=⇒ : Suppose gcd(f, g) = 1. For the sake of contradiction, assume f and g have a common root at a ∈ C.
Consider the ideal I = hf, gi generated by f and g. Elements of I are of the form f1 f + f2 g for some
f1 , f2 ∈ C[x]. (f1 f + f2 g)(a) = f1 (a)f (a) + f2 (a)g(a) = 0, and so this polynomial also has a root at a ∈ C.
It follows that 1 ∈/ I since 1 does not have any roots as a polynomial. But this contradicts the assumption
that 1 = gcd(f, g) and so 1 ∈ I = hf, gi = h1i.

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 ⇐= : Suppose f and g have no common root. For contradiction, assume gcd(f, g) 6= 1. Note that at least one
of f, g is non-zero otherwise they would have common roots by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. So
gcd(f, g) 6= 0. This means there exists some monic polynomial d(x) with degree ≥ 1 such that gcd(f, g) = d
and so hf, gi = hdi. By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, d has a root at a ∈ C. Every polynomial
in hdi is of the form hd for some h ∈ C[x]. Since d(a) = 0, we also have (hd)(a) = h(a)d(a) = 0. Since
hdi = hf, gi, we have f, g ∈ hdi. But this means f (a) = g(a) = 0, contradicting our assumption that f
and g have no common roots.
Definition: Under modular arithmetic, we have the following definition. f and g and congruent modulo p if
f − g is divisible by p, that is to say the remainder of f − g divided by p is zero.

14. (4.5.5) Prove, for any non-zero polynomial p, that congruence modulo p is an equivalence relation.
(a) It is reflexive: f ≡ f mod p
(b) It is symmetric: if f ≡ g mod p, then g ≡ f mod p.
(c) It is transitive: if f ≡ g mod p and g ≡ h mod p, then f ≡ h mod p.

Bonus: Show this result is also true for the integers.

Solution:
(a) f − f = 0 = 0 · p + 0, thus f ≡ f (mod p).
(b) Suppose f ≡ g (mod p). Then f −g = pq for some polynomial q. We have g−f = −(f −g) = −pq = p(−q),
so g ≡ f (mod p).
(c) Suppose f ≡ g (mod p) and g ≡ h (mod p). This means f −g = pq1 and g −h = pq2 for some polynomials
q1 , q2 . Then f − h = f − g + g − h = pq1 + pq2 = p(q1 + q2 ), and so f ≡ h (mod p).
(Same idea for integers)

15. (4.5.8) If p is an irreducible polynomial and f g ≡ 0 mod p, prove that either f ≡ 0 mod p or g ≡ 0 mod p.
Give an example to show that this is false if p is not irreducible. (Bonus: show a similar result if p is a prime
number when considering the integers and give an example where this is false when p is not a prime number.
Solution:
Let d = gcd(f, p) be monic. Since p is irreducible and d p, we have d = 1 or d = p since d is monic. If d = p,
then we are done since then d = p divides f and so f ≡ 0 (mod p). Otherwise, if d = 1, then the ideal hf, pi
generated by f and p is equal to that generated by 1, i.e. F[x]. This means there exists a, b ∈ F[x] such that

1 = af + bp
=⇒ g = gaf + gbp
= (f g)a + pgb

Since p divides f g (by consequence of f g ≡ 0 (mod p)), the sum (f g)a + pgb must be divisible by p, that is
g ≡ 0 (mod p).

For an example, take p(x) = x2 − 1, f (x) = x − 1 and g(x) = x + 1 in R[x]. (f g)(x) = x2 − 1 = p(x) but neither
f nor g are divisible by p.