Module 5

~ Ancient Rome ~
Republic & Empire

Ancient Rome began as a

small Kingdom centered in the modern city
of Rome about 1000 B.C. Over its long history, it tran-
sitioned into a Republic (500 B.C to 29 B.C ) modeled after the
democracies of the ancient Greek city states. At the end of the 1st
century B.C., a young Roman senator and military leader took power as a
king once again, and Rome grew into a huge Empire, annexing most of
Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. The Roman Empire lasted for
hundreds of years (29 B.C. - 479 A.D), until invading Germanic tribes from
the North and Huns from the East, broke it apart.
 Brief History of Ancient Rome
“Beginning in the eighth century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy's Tiber River into an empire that at its
peak encompassed most of continental Europe, as well as Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean
islands. Among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish,
Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and calendar, and the emergence of Christianity as a
major world religion. After 450 years as a republic, Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar's rise and fall in the first
century B.C. The long and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity. By contrast,
the empire's decline and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the most dramatic implosions in the history of human civilization.”
Origins of Rome
As legend has it, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war. After killing his brother, Romulus
became the first king of Rome, which is named for him. A line of kings followed. Rome's era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with
the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical. A popular
uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king's son. Whatever the cause, Rome
turned from a monarchy into a republic, [inspired by the defunct democracies of the ancient Greek city states, that had disappeared
in the wake of Alexander the Great’s empire around 300 B.C.]
The Early Republic
During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. Rome's military conquests led directly to its
cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first
Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of
Greek art, philosophy and religion.
Internal Struggles in the Late Republic
Rome's complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an era of internal
turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove small farmers from public land, while
access to government was increasingly limited to the more privileged classes. Attempts to address these social problems, ended in
the reformers' deaths at the hands of their opponents. A civil war ignited from which Julius Caesar emerged as dictator of Rome for
life in 45 B.C. Less than a year later, Caesar was murdered by a group of his enemies. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir,
Octavian, joined forces to crush [his murderers.] By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid
meeting Caesar's fate, he made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the
political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title
of Augustus, becoming the first emperor of Rome.
Age of the Emperors
Augustus' rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana–two full
centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms, won numerous military victories and allowed Roman
literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish. Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of
devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of
deification for popular emperors.”
Excerpted from http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-rome (accessed 4/12/13)
 Roman Portraits
“Private portrait sculpture was most closely associated with funerary contexts.
Funerary altars and tomb structures were adorned with portrait reliefs of the
deceased along with short inscriptions noting their family or patrons. This funerary
context for portrait sculpture was rooted in the longstanding tradition of the display
of wax portrait masks, called imagines, in funeral processions of the upper classes to
commemorate their distinguished ancestry. These portrait masks, portraits of noted
ancestors who had held public office or been awarded special honors, were
proudly housed in the household [atrium] along with sculptured portrait busts
made of bronze, marble, or terracotta. In displaying these portraits so prominently
in the public sphere, aristocratic families were able to celebrate their history of
public service while honoring their deceased relatives.
In the Republic, public sculpture included honorific portrait statues of political
officials or military commanders erected by the order of their peers in the Senate.
These statues were typically erected to celebrate a noted military achievement,
usually in connection with an official triumph, or to commemorate some worthy
political achievement, such as the drafting of a treaty. A dedicatory inscription
detailed the subject's honors and life achievements, as well as his lineage and
notable ancestors. These inscriptions typically accompanied public portraits and
were a uniquely Roman feature of commemoration.
The express mention of the subject's family history reflects the great influence that
family history had on a Roman's political career. The Romans believed that ancestry
was the best indicator of a man's ability, and so if you were the descendant of great
military commanders, then you, too, had the potential to be one as well. The intense
political rivalry of the late Republican period gave special meaning to the display of
one's lineage as an essential factor for success.”
Excerpts from, Trentinella, Rosemarie. "Roman Portrait Sculpture: Republican through
Constantinian,” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Republican statue of a man holding 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo/hd_ropo.htm (October 2003).
busts of his ancestors.
 Roman Portraits
“The development of Roman portraiture is characterized by a stylistic cycle that can be
described as alternately realistic or idealizing, as each imperial dynasty sought to emphasize
certain aspects of representation in an effort to legitimize their authority or align themselves
with revered predecessors. These stylistic stages played off of one another while pushing the
medium toward future artistic innovations.

In the Republic, the most highly valued traits included a devotion to public service and
military prowess, and Republican citizens sought to project these ideals through their realistic
portrait busts that reflected every wrinkle and imperfection of the skin. [This dedicated
approach to realism is often referred to as veristic.] These heads were often placed on heroic,
full-length statues with more generic bodies. The overall effect of this style gave Republican
ideals physical form and presented an image that the sitter wanted to express.

Beginning with Augustus, the emperors of the Imperial Period made full use of the
medium's potential as a tool for communicating specific ideologies to the Roman populace.
Augustus' official portrait type was disseminated throughout the empire and established a
idealized portrait type that emphasized the youth, beauty, and benevolence of the new
dynastic family. In doing so, Augustus set a stylistic precedent that had lasting impact on
Roman portrait sculpture up to the early 4th century.”
Trentinella, Rosemarie. "Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo2/hd_ropo2.htm (October 2003).

Portrait heads of women were common during both the Republican and Imperial
periods. As with male portraits, busts of women were used in funerary rituals and were
portrayed as ancestors in the family home. Since women did not have the opportunity to hold
public office, serve in the military, or vote, their portraits did not reflect the deep seriousness
of the male veristic portrait. Women could, however, own property and many wielded power
and influence through their wealth. They could become famous and respected through their
patronage of cultural and religious institutions and the arts. (Text by Kubiski)
“Veristic” Portraiture: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/roman-republic/v/veristic-male-portrait

“Seemingly wrinkled and toothless, with sagging
jowls, the face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us
across the ages. In the aesthetic parlance of the
Late Roman Republic, the physical traits of this
portrait image are meant to convey seriousness of
mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public
career by demonstrating the way in which the
subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors.
*Head of an Old Patrician (Republican Period)*
While this representational strategy might seem unusual in the post-
modern world, in the waning days of the Roman Republic it was an
effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political
arena. The portrait dates to the middle of the first century B.C.E. The
name of the individual depicted is not unknown, but the portrait is
indicative of the veristic style of Roman portraiture.
Verism can be defined as a sort of hyperrealism in sculpture where the
naturally occurring features of the subject are exaggerated, often to
the point of absurdity. In the case of Roman Republican portraiture,
middle age males adopt veristic tendencies in their portraiture to such
an extent that they appear to be extremely aged and care worn. This
stylistic tendency is influenced both by the tradition of ancestral
imagines as well as a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and
ancestry.
The imagines were essentially death masks of notable ancestors that
were kept and displayed by the family. In the case of aristocratic
families these wax masks were used at subsequent funerals so that an
actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade
(Polybius History 6.53.54). The ancestor cult, in turn, influenced a deep
connection to family. For Late Republican politicians without any
famous ancestors (a group famously known as ‘new men’ or ‘homines
novi’) the need was even more acute—and verism rode to the rescue.
The adoption of such an austere and wizened visage was a tactic to
lend familial gravitas to families who had none—and thus (hopefully)
increase the chances of the aristocrat’s success in both politics and
business. This jockeying for position very much characterized the scene
at Rome in the waning days of the Roman Republic.“
Jeffrey A. Becker, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-
civilizations/roman/roman-republic/a/head-of-a-roman-patrician. (accessed 7-29-18).
*Portrait of an Elderly Woman*

Although these two portrait busts both date from the 1st
century CE, during the Early Imperial Period, their style is quite
different. The elderly woman adheres to the veristic portrait
tradition begun during the Republic. The younger woman, with
her flawless skin and elaborate hairdo is more intent on
showing an idealized beauty, a trend that developed during the
reign of Augustus, the first emperor, who adopted the idealism
of the Greek Classical Period for his own portraits. The young
woman certainly must have come from an aristocratic family,
considering the extravagant curls and braids of her hair, which
would have required both leisure time and another pair of
expert hands to complete. Although the portrait of the elderly
woman indicates that she, too, had enough wealth to
commission a marble bust, this sculpture focuses solely on her
facial features. Her sagging skin and furrowed brow are
tempered by a slight smile, as if to indicate her life was not one
of hardship, but of contentment. (Kubiski)
 Veristic vs. Idealized
Our interest in portraiture - from
the highly realistic to “Photo-
shopped” idealism can be traced
back to ancient Rome.
 Augustus - First Roman Emperor
The person who established
Imperial Period 27 BC to ca 500 CE
imperial rule in Rome was Octavian,
the adopted son of Julius Caesar, a
prominent citizen and politician, whose
own political ambitions for absolute
power ended when he was
assassinated on the Senate floor by his
colleagues in 44 BC. Only 19-years-old
at the time, Octavian set out to take
revenge on Caesar’s enemies, and
conducted a decade-long military
campaign against a succession of
challengers that finally ended with the
defeat of Cleopatra and her Roman
lover, Mark Antony. Octavian, however,
learned from the example of Caesar,
and rather than seize power, he waited
patiently for the Senate to appoint him
“dictator” for life (Roman law indicated
the role of dictator was a temporary
position to be used only under times of Roman Empire at Augustus’ death in 14 AD
national emergency.) When he was appointed emperor in 27 BC, the Senate also changed Octavian’s name to Augustus which loosely
translates as “illustrious one.”
Augustus restored a period of peace and prosperity to Rome, a time known as the pax Romana or peace of Rome, which lasted
for over 200 years. Warfare concentrated on expanding the borders of the empire into foreign lands, while internal conflict was
reduced. Augustus patronized the arts, and is best known for his transformation of Rome from a city of travertine (a local yellow
stone) to a city of marble. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of
deification for the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperor’s to use their deification to find, prosecute, and execute monotheistic
Jewish and Christian religious minorities, since the emperor could require every citizen to worship him in the form of offering a
sacrifice before his cult statue – many of which were set up around the empire. This was particularly true for converts to Christianity,
which began under the reign of Augustus. (Kubiski)
 *Augustus of Primaporta*
“Under Augustus, the imperial family and its circle soon
came to monopolize official public statuary. Official imperial
portrait types were principally displayed in temples dedicated
to the imperial cult, and were carefully designed to project
specific ideas about the emperor, his family, and his authority.
These sculptures were extremely useful as propaganda
tools intended to support the legitimacy of the emperor's
Coin with Augustus powers. Two of the most influential, and most widely
disseminated, media for imperial portraits were coins and
sculpture, and official types laden with propagandistic
connotation were dispersed throughout the empire to
announce and identify the imperial authority. Scholars believe
that official portrait types were created in the capital city of
Rome itself and distributed to the provinces to serve as
prototypes for local workshops, which could adapt them to
conform to local iconographic traditions and therefore have
more meaningful local appeal. Coins by their very nature are
easily and quickly dispersed, reaching countless citizens and
provincial residents, and thus the emperor's image could be
seen and his power recognized by people all across the vast
empire.
Conversely, in the instance of the "bad" emperors such
as Nero and Domitian, whose reigns were characterized by
destructive behavior and who were posthumously condemned
by the Senate, imperial portraits were sometimes recycled or
even destroyed. Typical effects of a damnatio memoriae, a
modern term for the most severe denunciation, included the
erasure of an individual's name from public inscriptions, and
even assault on their portraits as if brought against the subject
himself. Imperial portraits of "bad" emperors were also
removed from public view and warehoused, often later
recycled into portraits of private individuals or emperors of the
following decades. A re-carved portrait is relatively easy to
recognize; certain features such as a disproportionate hairline
or unusually flattened ears are signs that a bust had been
altered from an earlier likeness.”
REQUIRED: https://smarthistory.org/augustus-of-primaporta-2/
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo/hd_ropo.htm 2013)
Compare to the earlier SmartHistory lecture on veristic male
portraits.
 Are the Portraits of Augustus realistic?

Left: Doryphorus
All other images are of Augustus
Yes, but we wouldn’t refer to this as
veristic realism, as Augustus’s
identifying features, such as his long
face and cleft chin, have also been
“cleaned up” to conform more to the
aesthetics of Greek art from the
Classical Period. In fact, Augustus’s
portraits barely show him aging over
the course of his 43-year reign.
 *Augustus of Primaporta*
• Marble life-size copy of bronze original. Many copies of the original were made and distributed across the empire.
• Augustus preferred the idealized realism of the Classical Period – rather than the more emotional style of Hellenism,
which was in fashion when he became emperor, and under his armor and military cloak (slung around his hips) he has
the idealized body and pose of the Doryphorus, implying that he too is a hero.
• The iconography of the emperor’s clothing and surrounding objects create a message for the Roman viewer.
• He wears the attire of a military commander.
• His raised, pointing hand was gesture understood by all Romans to punctuate the important points of a speech;
however, the fingers of this hand are restored and he may have originally held a spear like the Doryphorus.
• The figures on his breastplate, the Cupid at his feet, and the fact that he is represented barefoot, the standard
representation of gods or heroes in classical iconography, all suggest not only is Augustus is favored by the gods, but he
is also divine.

Color Reconstruction
Traces of color were still
visible when this statue was
excavated in 1863. A
scientific analysis of the
surface during a cleaning in
1999, was able to identify
some of the colors used.
They are similar to the bright
reds, blues, yellows and
greens that were commonly
used on ancient sculpture.
There still is some disagree-
ment about how much paint
was used. Was the surface
richly saturated with paint as
we see in this reconstruction,
or perhaps more sparsely
applied to the white marble?
 *Augustus of Primaporta* Iconography
• Iconography = symbolism
• Placed at his feet, Cupid symbolizes Augustus’
divine family ancestry.
• Cupid was the offspring of an affair between Mars –
the god of war, and Venus – the goddess of love.
The dolphin is a symbol for Venus. Julius Caesar, the
great uncle and adoptive father of Augustus traced
his ancestry back to another son of Mars and Venus
– the legendary Roman hero, Aeneas.
• The breastplate - center – The Parthians, return the
standard of Rome, after Augustus defeated them.
• Central image is surrounded by representations of
the gods and personifications signifying that
Augustus is divinely empowered and protected by
the gods.
*Ara Pacis - Altar of Peace*

REQUIRED LECTURE: https://smarthistory.org/ara-pacis/

 *Ara Pacis – The Allegory Panel with Female Personifications*

• Personification is an image of a person who represents an idea such as the statue of liberty, blind justice, or Uncle Sam.
• Identified by their symbols (or attributes)--the objects they hold or that surround them.
• The flying draperies above the heads of the two women also identify them as personifications rather than real women.
Center = mother earth, Left personification = Rivers, Right personification = Oceans
• Allegory = the earth will flourish with the PEACE maintained by the Roman Empire
 *Ara Pacis – Procession of Augustus’s Family*

Augustus promoted large ROMAN families. He was a bit nervous that all the non-Romans attached to the growing empire
would outnumber and out power native-born Romans. This procession includes his family members - some of whom can be
recognized from other portraits. The fact that children are included is striking since they are rarely represented in ancient
art. Augustus was at the head of the procession, but his face is heavily damaged, and not included in this detail. (Kubiski)
 Classical vs. classical

Parthenon Ara Pacis

The style of the Parthenon frieze and the Ara Pacis reliefs are incredibly similar, despite their separation of about 350 years.
Augustus emulated this style in the art he commissioned. Note the difference between the terms Classical and classical.
The first is a proper noun of a time period, the second is an adjective.
Parthenon Frieze - Classical Period 480-332 BCE (proper noun)
Ara Pacis - classical in style refers to any art that emulates Greek art from the Classical and Hellenistic periods (not the
earlier Archaic or Geometric Periods. (adjective). Both the Parthenon and the Ara Pacis are classical, but only the Parthenon
is from the Classical Period. We can define so much art created since ca. 450 BC as classical, from the White House to the
Michigan State Capital to Heritage Hall (WMU).
 Colosseum ~ Rome

Colosseum: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/v/colosseum-amphitheatrum-flavium-c-70-80-
c-e-rome
 The *Colosseum* uses all 3 orders
developed by the Greeks in the the
architecture. Each level is
decorated by a single order, which
are placed in chronological order
Notice the from the bottom to the top
dentil molding

Corinthian

Ionic

Doric
• 4 levels of seating - lower status women and slaves stood or sat on the top floor
• Numbered doors and ramps led spectators to seats
• Colosseum
Pits underground with rooms for gladiators and cages for animals
 Corinthian Order in the Forum of Augustus

20th century Corinthian Capital

The Temple of Mars and the colonnade in the Forum of

Augustus use the Corinthian Order, a style that developed
during the Greek Hellenistic period that features curling
acanthus leaves in the capital. It may also include small
scrolls, borrowed from the Ionic Order. The acanthus plant
(known in Michigan as Bear’s Britches) features large leaves
lobed leaves with a rounded or spikey profile. It grows like a
weed in the Mediterranean in dry soil.
 *Colosseum* Arch Technology
• “An arch is an opening spanned by a collection of wedge shaped pieces
(voussoirs)) which stay in position by pressing in on one another. The
simplest and visually most natural shape for an arch is the semicircle
but many other designs have been used.
• The central voussoir (keystone) is traditionally the last to be set into
position to "lock" the whole thing into a strong and stable structure. A
keystone is not always necessary, however; there may be a joint at the
apex instead, as is common in Gothic arches.
• Gravity tries to pull the keystone downwards, but the thrust is carried
on either side by the voussoirs immediately flanking it. These in turn
have their total thrust carried through the whole semicircle of pieces
in a sideways direction until it reaches the vertical part of the wall and
can descend directly to the foundation. In short, an arch works
because vertical weight is deflected into sideways thrust and
transferred to the walls.
• The graphic at right shows the principal parts of a conventional
semicircular arch. Most arches of this type are made slightly taller than
true semicircles. The smaller inset drawing shows how an arch
converts the downward pressing weight of the wall above it into
outward thrust.
• Because of the sideways thrust the arch is not a stable structure in
itself, because that thrust tries to make the bottom of the structure
spread out on either side. To stop this happening there must be Solid flanks are unnecessary where
enough solid material at the side to act as flanking buttresses. For this colonnades are completely circular. The best
reason an arch is more naturally placed within the body of a wall example of such a construction is the
rather than at either end. Series of arches are suitable for bridge Colosseum at Rome, consisting of three
building or aqueducts because the river banks or valley sides make stories of circular arch colonnades
excellent buttresses! Similarly, long colonnades consisting of repeated surmounted by a visually solid fourth-story
arches, need sizeable lengths of unperforated [no doors or windows]
wall. Built between 70 and 82 A.D., the
wall at each end to beat the combined thrust of the entire series,
though intervening posts or piers can themselves be quite slender. structure is still standing and is still
structurally sound. www.robinsonlibrary.com
/technology/building/details/arches.htm (6-12-14).
Groin (or cross) vaults in the tunnels and
passageways of the Colosseum direct the
weight to heavy piers.
 Roman arch and vaults built with arch technology

KEYSTONE
Arch Technology
• Arch re-distributes
the weight (thrust) of
the roof diagonally to
the vertical supports.
• Fewer supports are
needed
• Architecture with
Tunnel / Barrel Vault Groin / Cross Vault open space is
possible for 1st time

Centering

Post & Lintel Construction at

BUTTRESS
DOME
Temple of Karnak
*Pantheon* - circular building topped with a dome, classical Greek Temple facade

Pantheon
Pantheon – model
Dome once covered with gilded copper.
Pantheon – Materials & Technology
• Arch technology
• Wall 20’ thick at base and narrows gradually throughout the walls and dome
• Concrete dome is strong and lightweight
• Aggregate in the concrete is heavy at the bottom (i.e. Marble) and lighter in the dome (i.e. pumice and pottery bits).
• Coffers cut out of dome also lighten weight of roof
REQUIRED LECTURE:
http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/roman-architecturethe-pantheon.html
Raining in the oculus of the Pantheon, which is quickly removed by drains in the floor

DRAIN
 Corinthian capitals in the Interior as well as the exterior
Pantheon - Interior - marble veneering with stone from around the empire