1.

Historical Context
From its founding in 625 BC to its fall in AD 476, the Roman Empire conquered and integrated
dozens of cultures.

The History of the Roman Empire could be divided into three distinct periods; The Period of Kings
(625-510 BC), Republican Rome (510- 31 BC), and Imperial Rome (31 BC - 476 AD)

Founding (c. 625 BC)

Rome was founded around 625 BC in the areas of ancient Italy known as Etruria and Latium. It is
thought that the city-state of Rome was initially formed by Latium villagers joining together with settlers
from the surrounding hills in response to an Etruscan invasion. It is unclear whether they came together in
defense or as a result of being brought under Etruscan rule. Archaeological evidence indicates that a
great deal of change and unification took place around 600 BC which likely led to the establishment of
Rome as a true city.

Period of Kings (625-510 BC)

The first period in Roman history is known as the Period of Kings, and it lasted from Rome’s
founding until 510 BC. During this brief time Rome, led by no fewer than six kings, advanced both
militaristically and economically with increases in physical boundaries, military might, and production and
trade of goods including oil lamps. Politically, this period saw the early formation of the Roman
constitution. The end of the Period of Kings came with the decline of Etruscan power, thus ushering in
Rome’s Republican Period.

Republican Rome (510-31 BC)

Rome entered its Republican Period in 510 BC. No longer ruled by kings, the Romans
established a new form of government whereby the upper classes ruled, namely the senators and the
equestrians, or knights. However, a dictator could be nominated in times of crisis. In 451 BC, the Romans
established the “Twelve Tables,” a standardized code of laws meant for public, private, and political
matters.

Soon after, Rome’s political atmosphere pushed the Republic into a period of chaos and civil war.
This led to the election of a dictator, L. Cornelius Sulla, who served from 82-80 BC. Following Sulla’s
resignation in 79 BC, the Republic returned to a state of unrest. While Rome continued to be governed as
a Republic for another 50 years, the shift to Imperialism began to materialize in 60 BC when Julius
Caesar rose to power.

By 51 BC, Julius Caesar had conquered Celtic Gaul and, for the first time, Rome’s borders had
spread beyond the Mediterranean region. Although the Senate was still Rome’s governing body, its power
was weakening. Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC and replaced by his heir, Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavianus (Octavian) who ruled alongside Mark Antony. In 31 BC Rome overtook Egypt which resulted
in the death of Mark Antony and left Octavian as the unchallenged ruler of Rome. Octavian assumed the
title of Augustus and thus became the first emperor of Rome.

Imperial Rome (31 BC – AD 476)

Rome’s Imperial Period was its last, beginning with the rise of Rome’s first emperor in 31 BC and
lasting until the fall of Rome in AD 476. During this period, Rome saw several decades of peace,
prosperity, and expansion. By AD 117, the Roman Empire had reached its maximum extant, spanning
three continents including Asia Minor, northern Africa, and most of Europe.
In AD 286 the Roman Empire was split into eastern and western empires, each ruled by its own emperor.
The western empire suffered several Gothic invasions and, in AD 455, was sacked by Vandals. Rome
continued to decline after that until AD 476 when the western Roman Empire came to an end. The
eastern Roman Empire, more commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, survived until the 15th century
AD. It fell when Turks took control of its capital city, Constantinople (modern day Istanbul in Turkey) in AD
1453.

The Roman civilization spanned almost 1,000 years and was a very productive time for art.
Because of the widespread nature of the Roman Empire, Roman art took on attributes from Greece,
Egypt, and the Etruscans. The influence of Greek art, however, is the most noticeable in the Roman style.
A good portion of Roman culture comes from Greece, including theology and artistic conventions.
Roman artists studied extensively to learn how to redo the Greek style and that bled into the
formation of Roman art, namely the use of naturalism and proportions. Instead of striving for a youthful
idealization, as the Greeks did, Roman artists strove to illustrate every flaw and wrinkle that made their
subject look as if they had devoted their entire lives to the wellbeing of the Republic. Many of these
individuals were made to look older in their portraits to convey a sense of wisdom and strength that was
only attainable to the older populations.

By the end of the Imperial period, the art shifted once more toward a more Egyptian or Near
Eastern influence. The individuals were less naturalistic and idealized. Figures were more frontal and
deeply carved. There was a lapse in extensive detail, flowing lines, and strict proportion as with the early
Roman and Classical Greek eras. There is also clear evidence of hierarchal scale, where the most
important figure in a mosaic or frieze is the largest and most prominent individual.

ROMAN ARTS IN PERIODS

In the Republican period, art was produced in the service of the state, depicting public sacrifices or
celebrating victorious military campaigns (like the Monument of Aemilius Paullus at Delphi). Portraiture
extolled the communal goals of the Republic; hard work, age, wisdom, being a community leader and
soldier. Patrons chose to have themselves represented with balding heads, large noses, and extra
wrinkles, demonstrating that they had spent their lives working for the Republic as model citizens,
flaunting their acquired wisdom with each furrow of the brow.

Imperial Rome
Augustus’s rise to power in Rome signaled the end of the Roman Republic and the formation of Imperial
rule. Roman art was now put to the service of aggrandizing the ruler and his family. It was also meant to
indicate shifts in leadership.
Imperial art often hearkened back to the Classical art of the past. “Classical”, or “Classicizing,” when used
in reference to Roman art refers broadly to the influences of Greek art from the Classical and Hellenistic
periods (480–31 B.C.E.). Classicizing elements include the smooth lines, elegant drapery, idealized nude
bodies, highly naturalistic forms and balanced proportions that the Greeks had perfected over centuries of
practice.

2. The Characteristics of Roman Art

The art of the Roman Empire was heavily influenced by the Etruscans, Rome's predecessors on
the Italian mainland, and by the Hellenic influences of the Greeks. The Romans not only directly imitated
and copied Greek artistic ideas, Greek artists were brought to Rome and relied upon to design and repair
monumental buildings. The Greek influence was very predominant in Roman painting and sculpture.
 Roman art had a significant influence on Western culture, in part because of the longevity
of the Roman Empire and the amount of territory that the Empire encompassed. Roman art is often
criticized for being too dependent on the Greeks. While this is true in part, Roman art and artists made
significant advances in different aspects of art and architecture.

Romans refined the technique of painting mosaics and murals and emphasized natural
themes such as landscapes and narrative themes drawn from literature and mythology. The
primary colors used in Roman painting were deep red, yellow, green, violet and black. The best preserved
examples of Roman wall painting are Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Roman art also made important strides in sculpture, which can be divided into statues and relief
sculptures. The Greek influence is strongly felt in Roman statues, and, in fact, many Roman
statues and sculptures are copies or interpretations of Greek sculptures. However, many Roman
sculptures are characterized by their realism. Greek statues tend to idealize the human form.
Roman sculptors, on the other hand, presented realistic representations of their subjects with all
their flaws.

3. Prominent Artists
1. Publius Aelius Forunatus
a former slave that turned to painting and lived sometime during the second century. It
was extremely rare for a slave to earn their freedom and walks the streets as a citizen, but it was
even more rare for a slave to become an artist. His life as a former slave actually turned out to be
beneficial to the artist, as it made him famous throughout the empire, and he later found much
success through his art.

2. Iaia
Back in ancient rome, women is perceived to be lower than men. But, Iaia was able to
break the stigma because she worked faster and neater compared to her male counterpart– in
which she gained more popularity. The subject of her paintings usually centered around women,
and her most famous paintings were those of an old woman and a self-portrait. (this is because
she indulged more in romantic relationship with other women and thought as the reason why she
did not marry.

3. Arellius
As a painter, Arellius was famous for good and bad reasons. His skill was outstanding,
yet his choice of model for his paintings invited many frowns. He was prone to be in love and
being with a woman or many women– in short he is quite the Casanova of the ancient Roman
painter. When he took his tools to make the painting of goddesses, he added features of his
women, the mistresses, in. Hence, an additional figure of prostitute-likes was also presented in
his paintings. It's considered as an insult to picture the supposedly divine women that way.

4. The Malibu Painter

The Malibu Painter’s name is unknown, but the name “Malibu Painter” was coined from
the female portrait which is now displayed in a museum in Malibu. He's credited as the painter of
Fayum mummy portraits which was very thick of Egyptian style. It's presumed that he lived in
Egypt around 75 and 100 AD.

5. Gaius Fabius Pictor

 Gaius Fabius Pictor said to mark the beginning of Roman paintings. It was said that his
work has survived longer than almost all others, with his last painting surviving for 150 years
before the next discovered piece. He was recognized as a painter after his paintings of the temple
of Salus. His paintings were preserved until the reign of Emperor Cius. However, a fire destroyed
the temple and all his paintings disappeared with it. Before this painter there was no tradition of
painting existing in Rome.
*The Temple of Salus was an sanctuary in Ancient Rome dedicated to the goddess Salus
-The goddess Salus was the personification of security, prosperity and well-being of both the
individual and the state, publicly and privately.

6. Spurius Tadius
- Also known as either Ludius/Stadius was considered as master of painting landscapes during his
time. Tadius was recognized by his paintings of villas and ports, which is detail and dramatic.

4. Notable Artworks
1.Augustus of Primaporta
One of Augustus’ most famous portraits is the so-called Augustus of Primaporta of 20
B.C.E. At first glance this statue might appear to simply resemble a portrait of Augustus as an
orator and general, but this sculpture also communicates a good deal about the emperor’s power
and ideology. In fact, in this portrait Augustus shows himself as a great military victor and a
staunch supporter of Roman religion. The statue also foretells the 200 year period of peace that
Augustus initiated, called the Pax Romana.

significance: This statue of Emperor Augustus is a prime example of the Roman fascination with idealized
representations of individuals. It symbolizes the Augustan propaganda campaign, which aimed to present
Augustus as a divine figure and bring about an era of peace and prosperity

2.Pantheon
building in Rome that was begun in 27 BC by the statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa,
probably as a building of the ordinary Classical temple type—rectangular with a gabled roof
supported by a colonnade on all sides.

significance: The Pantheon is a remarkable example of Roman engineering and architecture. Its dome is
considered a marvel of ancient engineering. The building's design also reflects the Roman penchant for
grandeur and large-scale construction projects, showcasing the empire's wealth and power.

3. Trajan’s Column
monument that was erected in 106–113 CE by the Roman emperor Trajan and survives
intact in the ruins of Trajan’s Forum in Rome.

Significance: This monument commemorates Emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. The
continuous frieze winding around the column depicts detailed scenes of the military campaign,
showcasing Roman military might and organizational skill. It's a testament to Roman conquest and
engineering prowess.

4. .Colosseum
 also called Flavian Amphitheatre, giant amphitheatre built in Rome under the Flavian
emperors.

significance: The Colosseum is a quintessential example of Roman entertainment and engineering

prowess. It could hold up to 80,000 spectators and was used for gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and
other public spectacles, reflecting the Roman love for entertainment and the grandeur of the empire.

5. Innovations and Techniques

1. Advances in Architecture: Roman mastery of architecture had a profound impact on art. The
development of arches, vaults and domes enabled the construction of large structures such as the
Colosseum and the Pantheon. These architectural achievements gave artists new opportunities for
monumental art and sculptural decoration of buildings.

2. Concrete: The Roman invention of concrete, known as opus caementicium, played a fundamental role
in both architecture and art.It allowed the creation of intricate and durable sculptures and architectural
elements, such as: intricate reliefs and decorative elements that decorated temples and public buildings.

3. Mosaics and Frescoes: Roman art was known for its exquisite use of mosaics and frescoes. Mosaics,
made from small colored stones or pieces of glass to create intricate patterns and images, decorate floors
and walls. The frescoes, created by painting directly on wet plaster, were used to decorate the interiors of
houses and public spaces. These techniques enabled vivid and detailed depictions of scenes, often from
mythology or everyday life.

4. Statues and Portraits: Roman artists excelled in creating realistic statues, especially portraits.
Innovations in marble carving techniques allowed for greater levels of naturalism and detail in the
sculpted figures. Roman portraits captured the individual characteristics and nuances of their subjects
and reflected a move toward more realistic depictions.

5. The development of the Arc de Triomphe: The Romans introduced the triumphal arch, a monumental
and ornate architectural structure to commemorate military victories and important events. These arches
often featured detailed sculptural reliefs and inscriptions that celebrated historical events and prominent
figures, combining architecture and art in significant ways.

6. Influence of Greek Art: The Romans were inspired by Greek art and adapted Greek art styles and
techniques, including idealized forms and themes, to create their own unique art. This fusion of Greek and
Roman influences resulted in a classical aesthetic that characterized much of Roman art.

7. Cameos and Intaglio: Roman artists developed the techniques of carving cameos and intaglio
engraving on semi-precious stones. These miniature works of art often featured portraits, mythological
scenes, and intricate patterns. They were used as jewelry or to make seals and signatures.

8. The Domus Aurea: Emperor Nero’s “Golden House”, the Domus Aurea, featured groundbreaking
artistic innovations, including large vaulted ceilings with elaborate stucco work and fresco decorations.
The luxurious and ingenious interior design of this palace influenced later architectural and decorative
styles.

6. Art Movements
a. Roman art during the Roman period evolved through various movements and styles, reflecting
the changing socio-political and cultural landscape of the Roman Empire. Beginning with the
 Republican period influenced by Greek and Etruscan traditions, it transitioned to the idealized
Augustan style, characterized by the promotion of the emperor and classical aesthetics. The
Flavian and Trajanic era emphasized grand architectural projects, while Hadrianic art embraced
Greek influences. The Severan period introduced a more emotive style in portraiture. As the
empire waned, late Roman art became more symbolic, paving the way for early Christian art. This
rich artistic heritage ultimately played a pivotal role in shaping Western art and culture.

b. Roman art during the Roman period aimed to serve the goals of celebrating power and authority,
often portraying emperors and the state as omnipotent, while also adapting and evolving through
various principles. It blended naturalistic depictions with idealized forms, drew inspiration from
multiple sources, and achieved architectural innovations like the Colosseum and the Pantheon.
Key figures like Emperor Augustus promoted classical ideals, while Hadrian encouraged the
integration of Greek aesthetics, and numerous anonymous portrait sculptors contributed to lifelike
representations. Roman art's diverse and eclectic nature, influenced by both foreign cultures and
indigenous traditions, played a pivotal role in shaping Western art and architecture, leaving a
legacy of monumental structures and captivating sculptures that continue to inspire and captivate
to this day.

7. Influences and Relevance

Roman art was heavily influenced by the art of Etruscan and Greek cultures, with Greek
painting's realism and technical mastery influencing Roman painters. Etruscan styles and themes were
also heavily incorporated into Roman art, reflecting the merging of various cultural influences.

A.Education and language

Greek education and language were highly valued in the Roman Empire, with Greek slaves in
high demand as tutors, musicians, doctors, and artists. Greek teachers were mandatory for upper-class
Romans' prosperity.

B.Literature, Drama and Music

Greece's influence on the Roman Empire was evident in literature, drama, and music. Literature
served as a model for Rome, suggesting themes and inspiring new desires. Greek drama and music
heavily influenced the Roman Empire, with Roman dramas being moral and didactic, drawing from both
Greek and Roman history. However, Greek dramas were typically religious, while Roman dramas were
primarily for entertainment.

C.Architecture and Art

Greeks significantly influenced Roman architecture and art, incorporating Greek models into their
designs. Romans built structures like colonnades and rectangular-based designs, incorporating concrete
for construction.

D.Religion
Early Roman religious beliefs, similar to Greeks, utilized a polytheistic system of worship with
gods and goddesses, showcasing Greece's significant role in Rome's development.

8. Critiques and Controversies

1. **Copycat Culture:** Critics argue that Roman art often imitated and adapted Greek art, leading to
claims of unoriginality. The Romans drew heavily from Greek aesthetics, and some view this as a lack of
originality in their artistic expression.

2. **Socio-Political Propaganda:** Much Roman art was created for political purposes, portraying rulers
and emperors in idealized forms to legitimize their power. Some see this as propaganda rather than
genuine artistic expression.

3. **Cultural Appropriation:** The Romans absorbed and adapted art and culture from various conquered
territories, sometimes without proper attribution. This has led to debates about cultural appropriation and
the erasure of local identities in Roman art.

4. **Ethical Themes:** Roman art often depicted themes of violence, gladiatorial combat, and eroticism.
These depictions have been criticized for glorifying brutality and objectifying the human body.

5. **Looting and Repatriation:** Controversies have arisen over the acquisition of Roman artifacts, with
demands for repatriation to their places of origin. Many Roman antiquities were acquired through
questionable means, including looting and theft.

6. **Restoration and Preservation:** The methods used in the past for the restoration and preservation of
Roman artifacts have also been criticized. Overzealous or poorly executed restorations have altered the
original character of artworks.

7. **Authenticity and Forgery:** The art world has seen Roman art forgeries, which have raised doubts
about the authenticity of some pieces, causing embarrassment for collectors and museums.

8. **Decay and Neglect:** Some Roman archaeological sites and artworks have suffered from neglect,
decay, and environmental damage, leading to criticism of inadequate preservation efforts.

10. Legacy and Revival

a. Art
The Romans adopted parts of other cultures. This was true of Roman art. The Romans
were especially influenced by the art of the Greeks. The Romans were skilled in creating realistic
statues. They imitated Greek sculptures, but they were particularly good at making their sculpted
images lifelike. Romans were also great patrons (sponsors) of art. As a result, the Romans left
behind many examples to inspire future generations.

b. Architecture
The Romans’ greatest contributions to science and technology came in the practical field
of architecture. Roman builders learned from the Greeks, Etruscans, and others. Then they
added their own genius to take feats of construction to new heights. The Romans learned how to
use the arch, the vault, and the dome to build huge structures. A vault is an arch used to support
a ceiling or roof. A dome is a vault in the shape of a hemisphere that rests on a circular wall.

The Romans were the first to make widespread use of concrete. With concrete, they
were able to build much bigger arches than anyone had attempted before. Thus, the grand style
of Roman buildings has inspired many architects through the centuries. One Roman innovation
that was widely copied was the triumphal arch.
c. Engineering
The Romans’ greatest contributions to science and technology came in the practical field
of engineering. Roman builders learned from the Greeks, Etruscans, and others. Then they
added their own genius to take feats of construction to new heights. The Romans changed
engineering as well as architecture. They were the greatest builders of roads, bridges, and
aqueducts in the ancient world. Their techniques set the standard of road building for 2,000
years.

The Romans also set a new standard for building aqueducts. They did not invent the
aqueduct, but once again the Romans learned the technique and expanded on it. They created a
system of aqueducts for Rome. The aqueducts brought water from about 60 miles away to the
homes of the wealthiest citizens, as well as to the city’s public baths and fountains. The Romans
built aqueducts in other parts of the empire as well.