Quality of Food:

Bioavailability of Nutrients:
"Bioavailability" is the ease with which any nutrient can make its way from the food you eat into
your body.
Hence, it refers to the proportion of a nutrient that is absorbed from the diet and used for
normal body functions.
The bioavailability "journey" that every nutrient takes is the same.
In the first part of the journey, the food must be digested (broken apart) so that the
nutrient can be freed from the food that contained it.
Once the nutrient has been freed from the food that contained it, the second part of
the journey involves absorption of the nutrient from the digestive tract into rest of the
body.
The bioavailability of a nutrient is governed by external and internal factors.
External factors include the food matrix and the chemical form of the nutrient in
question.
Whereas the Internal factors include gender, age, nutrient status and life stage (e.g.
pregnancy).
The bioavailability of macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins, fats – is usually very high at
more than 90% of the amount ingested.
On the other hand, micronutrients, i.e. vitamins and minerals, and bioactive phytochemicals
(e.g. flavonoids, carotenoids) can vary widely in the extent they are absorbed and utilised.
Minerals and other nutrients exist in different chemical forms in the food and this can influence
their bioavailability.
A classic example is iron.
In general we talk about two types of dietary iron; haem and non-haem iron.
The former is only found in meat, fish and poultry, whereas the latter occurs in foods of
plant and animal origin.
Appearance:

Texture:

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Flavor:

Quality of Packed and Frozen Food:

Food Additives:
Any of various chemical substances added to foods to produce specific desirable effects is called
Additives.
Food Additives are natural and synthetic compounds added to food to supply nutrients, to
enhance color, flavor, or texture, and to prevent or delay spoilage.
Additives such as salt, spices, and sulphites have been used since ancient times to
preserve foods and make them more palatable.
Many modern products, such as low-calorie, snack, and ready-to-eat convenience foods, would
not be possible without food additives
There are four general categories of food additives:

⦁ Nutritional additives,

⦁ Processing agents,

⦁ Preservatives,

⦁ Sensory agents.
These are not strict classifications, as many additives fall into more than one category.

⦁ Nutritional additives
Nutritional additives are utilized for the purpose of;

⦁ Restoring nutrients lost or degraded during production,

⦁ Fortifying or enriching certain foods in order to correct dietary deficiencies,

⦁ Adding nutrients to food substitutes.

Vitamins are commonly added to many foods in order to enrich their nutritional value.

⦁ Vitamins A and D are added to dairy and cereal products,

⦁ Several of the B vitamins are added to flour, cereals, baked goods, and pasta, and

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 ⦁ Vitamin C is added to fruit beverages, cereals, dairy products, and confectioneries.

⦁ Other nutritional additives include the essential fatty acid linoleic acid, minerals such as
calcium and iron, and dietary fibre.

⦁ Processing agents
A number of agents are added to foods in order to aid in processing or to maintain the desired
consistency of the product.
Several of these agents are discussed in detail below.

⦁ Emulsifiers are used to maintain a uniform dispersion of one liquid in another, such as oil in
water.
Emulsifiers:

⦁ Form and stabilize oil-in-water emulsions (e.g., mayonnaise),

⦁ Uniformly disperse oil-soluble flavour compounds throughout a product,

⦁ Prevent large ice crystal formation in frozen products (e.g., ice cream),

⦁ Improve the volume, uniformity, and fineness of baked products.

⦁ Stabilizers and thickeners have many functions in foods.

⦁ Most stabilizing and thickening agents are;

⦁ Polysaccharides, such as starches or gums,

⦁ Proteins, such as gelatin.

⦁ The primary function of these compounds is to act as thickening or gelling agents that
increase the viscosity of the final product.

⦁ Chelating / Sequestering agents protect food products from many enzymatic reactions that
promote deterioration during processing and storage.

⦁ These agents bind many of the minerals that are present in food (e.g., calcium and
magnesium) and are required as cofactors for the activity of certain enzymes.

⦁ Preservatives
Food preservatives are classified into two main groups:

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 ⦁ Antioxidants

⦁ Antimicrobials

⦁ Antioxidants
Antioxidants are compounds that delay or prevent the deterioration of foods by oxidative
mechanisms.
The oxidation of food products involves the addition of an oxygen atom to or the removal of a
hydrogen atom from the different chemical molecules found in food.
Two principal types of oxidation that contribute to food deterioration are:

⦁ Autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids

⦁ Enzyme-catalyzed oxidation.

⦁ Autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids:

The autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids involves a reaction between the carbon-carbon
double bonds and molecular oxygen (O2).
The products of autoxidation, called free radicals, are highly reactive, producing compounds
that cause the off-flavours and off-odours characteristic of oxidative rancidity.

⦁ Enzyme-catalyzed oxidation:
Specific enzymes may also carry out the oxidation of many food molecules.
The products of these oxidation reactions may lead to quality changes in the food.
For example, enzymes called phenolases catalyse the oxidation of certain molecules
(e.g., the amino acid tyrosine) when fruits and vegetables are cut or bruised.
The product of these oxidation reactions, collectively known as enzymatic browning, is a dark
pigment called melanin.

⦁ Antimicrobials
Antimicrobial agents inhibit the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in food.
Antimicrobials are most often used with other preservation techniques, such as refrigeration, in
order to inhibit the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), or common salt, is probably the oldest known antimicrobial agent.
Organic acids, including acetic, benzoic, propionic, and sorbic acids, are used against
microorganisms in products with a low pH.
Nitrates and nitrites are used to inhibit the bacterium Clostridium botulinum in cured meat
products (e.g., ham and bacon).

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Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are used to control the growth of spoilage microorganisms in dried
fruits, fruit juices, and wines.
Nisin and natamycin are preservatives produced by microorganisms.
Nisin inhibits the growth of some bacteria while natamycin is active against molds and
yeasts.

⦁ Sensory agents

⦁ Colorants
Colour is an extremely important sensory characteristic of foods; it directly influences the
perception of both the flavour and quality of a product.
The processing of food can cause degradation or loss of natural pigments in the raw materials.
In addition, some formulated products, such as soft drinks, confections, ice cream, and snack
foods, require the addition of colouring agents.
Colorants are often necessary to produce a uniform product from raw materials that vary in
colour intensity.
Colorants used as food additives are classified as:

⦁ Natural: Natural colorants are derived from plant, animal, and mineral sources.

⦁ Synthetic: Synthetic colorants are primarily petroleum-based chemical compounds.

⦁ Flavourings
The flavour of food results from the stimulation of the chemical senses of taste and smell by
specific food molecules.
Taste reception is carried out in specialized cells located in the taste buds.
The four basic taste sensations—sweet, salty, bitter, and sour—are detected in separate
regions of the tongue, mouth, and throat.
In addition to the four basic tastes, the flavouring molecules in food stimulate specific
olfactory (smell) cells in the nasal cavity.
A flavour additive is a single chemical or blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin that
provides all or part of the flavour impact of a particular food.
These chemicals are added in order to replace flavour lost in processing and to develop new
products.
Natural flavourings are derived or extracted from plants, spices, herbs, animals, or microbial

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fermentations.
Artificial flavourings are mixtures of synthetic compounds that may be chemically identical to
natural flavourings.

⦁ Sweeteners
Sucrose or table sugar is the standard on which the relative sweetness of all other sweeteners is
based.
Because sucrose provides energy in the form of carbohydrates, it is considered a nutritive
sweetener.
Other nutritive sweeteners include glucose, fructose, corn syrup, high fructose corn syrup, and
sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol, mannitol, and xylitol).

Preservatives:
These are the numerous chemical additives used to prevent or retard spoilage caused by
chemical changes, e.g., oxidation or the growth of mold.
Along with emulsifying and stabilizing agents, preservatives also help to maintain freshness of
appearance and consistency.
Preservatives are of various types that are suited to certain products and are effective against
specific chemical changes.
Antimycotics inhibit the growth of molds in such products as fruit juice, cheese, bread,
and dried fruit; examples are sodium and calcium propionate and sorbic acid.
Antioxidants (e.g., butylated hydroxytoluene, or BHT) retard the development of
rancidity produced by oxidation in margarine, shortening, and a variety of foods
containing fats and oils.
Antibiotics such as the tetracyclines are used to prevent the growth of harmful bacteria
in poultry, fish, and canned foods.
Humectants, substances that absorb moisture, help to retain the moisture content in
such products as shredded coconut.
Preservatives used to maintain moisture and softness in baked goods are known as
antistaling agents (e.g., glyceryl monostearate).
In addition to retarding spoilage, some preservatives have an aesthetic role
An example of one such preservative is sodium nitrate (or its nitrite form), controversial
because of its association with the formation of an alleged carcinogen.
Nitrate and nitrite are used in the curing of meats to prevent the development of
botulism-causing bacteria; they also impart the reddish colour characteristic of ham,
bacon, and luncheon meats.

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Opponents of these additives argue that modern sanitation and refrigeration eliminate the
need for chemical preservatives.
Industry representatives defend their use for cosmetic reasons, pointing out that the natural
brownish colour of these meats would be unappetizing.

Antioxidants
Antioxidant is a type of molecule that neutralizes harmful compounds called free radicals that
damage living cells, spoil food, and degrade materials such as rubber, gasoline, and lubricating
oils.
Antioxidants can take the form of enzymes in the body, vitamin supplements, or industrial
additives.
They are routinely added to metals, oils, foodstuffs, and other materials to prevent free radical
damage.
Antioxidants in the Human body.
About 5 percent of the oxygen humans breathe is converted into free radicals.
The presence of free radicals in the body is not always detrimental.
Free radicals produced in normal cellular metabolism are vital to certain body functions,
such as fighting disease or injury.
A the body ages or is subjected to environmental pollutants, such as cigarette smoke,
overexposure to sunlight, or smog, the body becomes overwhelmed by free radicals.
An excessive number of free radicals causes damage by taking electrons from key cellular
components of the body, such as protein, lipids, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
These reactions make cells more vulnerable to cancer-causing chemicals, called
carcinogens.
Free radicals may lead to heart disease by oxidizing low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol, the so-called bad cholesterol.
Free radicals have also been implicated in cataract - a clouding of the lens of the eye
that can lead to blindness.
Antioxidants work to control the levels of free radicals before they do oxidative damage to the
body.
Dietary antioxidants supplement the action of enzymes that occur naturally in the body.
Some studies show that a diet high in foods that are rich in antioxidants may decrease the risk
of cancer and heart disease.
Studies are indecisive, however, and research into the health benefits of antioxidants is

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ongoing.
Dietary sources of antioxidants in the body:
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a well-known antioxidant that may prevent cataracts
and cancers of the stomach, throat, mouth, and pancreas.
It may also prevent the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, lowering the risk of heart disease.
Foods that are high in vitamin C include strawberries, oranges, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts.
Beta-carotene absorbs free radicals that target molecules in the cell membrane.
Beta-carotene occurs naturally in orange-colored fruits and vegetables and dark green,
leafy vegetables.
Some of the best sources of beta-carotene are sweet potatoes, spinach, and carrots.
Studies suggest that in addition to reducing the risk of cataract, cancer, and heart attack, beta-
carotene may also reduce the risk of stroke.
As an antioxidant, vitamin E may also protect from heart disease and cataract and may
strengthen the immune system.
Good sources of vitamin E include wheat germ oil and sunflower seeds.
Antioxidants in the Industry
Antioxidants are also used in industry as product additives and in food processing and
preservation.
Industrial antioxidants slow or prevent oxidative damage that causes food to spoil, rubber to
harden, fats and oil to change color or go rancid, and gasoline to oxidize.
Foods that are commonly preserved with antioxidant additives include cheese, bread, and oil.