23 Periodization through the ages: an introduction.

By Brandon Roberts

25 What’s wrong with news media headlines?

By Joshua Hockett

Copyright © July 1st, 2017 by Alan Aragon

Home: www.alanaragon.com
Correspondence: support@alanaragon.com

2 Complete guide to health behavior change.

By Justin Kompf

12 Investigating the potential impacts of

macronutrient tracking on personal satisfaction.
By Matthew Rizzo

19 Meal timing effects on insulin sensitivity and

intrahepatic triglycerides during weight loss.
Versteeg RI, Ackermans MT, Nederveen AJ, Fliers E,
Serlie MJ, la Fleur SE. Int J Obes (Lond). 2017 Aug 16.
doi: 10.1038/ijo.2017.199. [Epub ahead of print]
[PubMed]

21 The effects of beef, chicken, or whey protein

post-workout on body composition and muscle
performance.
Sharp MH, Lowery RP, Shields KA, Lane JR, Gray JL,
Partl JM, Hayes DW, Wilson GJ, Hollmer CA, Minivich
JR, Wilson JM. J Strength Cond Res. 2017 Apr 7. doi:
10.1519/JSC.0000000000001936. [Epub ahead of
print][PubMed]

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 1


Complete guide to health behavior change.
By Justin Kompf
_________________________________________________
Background
The benefits of exercise are well known and include reduced
risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer. Regular
exercise increases bone mineral density, lean body mass,
strength, endurance, and insulin sensitivity (Garber 2011,
Hass 2001, Nelson 2007, Pedersen 2009, Warburton 2006,
Westcott 2012). Most notably, people that don‘t exercise
have a decreased life expectancy (Lee 2012). In spite of the
benefits, only 25.5% of men and 17.7% of women meet both
the physical activity guidelines for aerobic training and
muscle strengthening set by the American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM) (Garber 2011, Haskell 2007, Nugent
2016).
Furthermore, nearly 70 percent of adults in the United States
are obese or overweight (Ogden, 2014) causing a number of
health problems including type 2 diabetes, cancer, and
coronary artery disease (Dixon 2010, Kopelman 2007). These
health problems cost an estimated $200 billion dollars
annually (Cawley, 2012). It has been proposed that over 50%
of deaths from diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular
disease could be prevented if people simply ate a healthy diet,
maintained a reasonable weight, exercised and abstained from
smoking (Mann 2016).In sum, nearly 80% of the population
is insufficiently active and 70% of the population is
overweight or obese.
Helping people change behavior is a complex and lengthy
process. There is no single solution to help everyone set and
achieve health-related goals. Because the process is highly
individual, health professionals can benefit tremendously
from an understanding of a strong theoretical approach to
behavior change combined with practical approaches towards
implementation.
Theoretical approach to the problem
Exercise and weight loss have biological, social, and
psychological components. For example, thereis evidence
that a Western diet can have detrimental impacts on the brain
which can make the execution of urge inhibition more
challenging (Davidson, Francis 2013).Biological components
of both weight loss and exercise are certainly important.
However, the premise of this article focuses on the social and
psychological components of behavioral change. To quote
Dr. Traci Mann and her colleagues:
“Social psychological models of self-regulation tend to
assume that people generally have sufficient and appropriate
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
knowledge to execute the task, and focus instead on the
mechanisms by which that knowledge is transformed into
behavior change, as well as why individuals who know
exactly what they must do to achieve optimal health still do
not do so.”
Behavioral theories suggest that behavioral intentions are the
antecedent to actual behavior. For example, in Icek Ajzen‘s
Theory of Planned Behavior, intentions are the most proximal
predictor of behavior with subjective norms, attitudes, and
perceived behavioral control influencing intention. In 2014,
Hagger and Chatzisarantis proposed an integrated behavior
change model which combined aspects of a motivational
theory, called Self-Determination Theory with the Theory of
planned behavior.
When individuals desire to change behavior, a goal is set. The
goal is reflective of certain behavioral intentions or
necessitates the creation of behavioral intentions. For a
person who wishes to exercise more and sets a goal of lifting
weights three times per week, their goal is the behavioral
intention. If a person wishes to lose weight they must select
behavioral categories (exercise more, eat more vegetables,
drink less soda) that they intend to change.
In the integrated health model shown below, autonomous
motivation is the antecedent to behavioral attitudes, norms,
and perceived behavioral control. To attain autonomous
motivation, goals must be set that a person personally values
or endorses. If the goal is not a specific behavioral category
(i.e. lose weight) then specific behavioral categories must be
selected and barriers to enacting the behaviors need to be
identified. Next, attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral
control/self-efficacy must be addressed.
Because autonomous motivation occurs when behaviors are
valued, values are included in the behavior change models. If
a person values a behavior or the outcome that the behavior
provides, they will be more likely to endure when the
behavior becomes challenging. Finally, many health
behaviors require a person to stop or reduce a behavior (i.e.
drink less alcohol, spend less time on the couch). Therefore,
an examination of the role of past behavior on present
behavior must be addressed.
Larger image here
[Back to Contents] Page 2
Goal setting
Goals are the specific aim of an action and describe a desired
end state. For example, a person may aim to lose 20 pounds
and take action by reducing soda intake. Based on 35 years of
research Locke and Latham concluded that goals have an
impact on behavioral performance through four mechanisms.
Goals (1) direct attention and efforts towards goal-relevant
activities, (2) energize the goal setter and increase effort, (3)
increase persistence, and (4) contribute to the creation of goal
attainment strategies (Locke & Latham 2002).
 Application: Measure importance, confidence, and
readiness
(stress, anxiety, depression), lack of energy, unrealistic goals,
and other priorities.
 Application: Measure barriers
A coach may use the following scale on an initial
consultation to help clients identify barriers to their weight
loss efforts. Compared to self-reporting, we found that when
participants used this scale they identified three times more
barriers compared to self-reporting. Thus, the scale may
prompt individuals to think of more situations where they
may encounter barriers (larger image here).

Clients are generally asked to describe goals or what they

desire to achieve by working with a coach on the first session.
When a client expresses the goal, the coach should measure
the importance of the goal as well as confidence in ability to
achieve the goal (Locke & Latham, 2002). In the book
Motivational Interviewing, Miller and Rollnick also suggest
that practitioners measure readiness to change. The addition
of readiness to reach a goal reflects a matter of prioritization.
A person may be confident that they can exercise 3 times per
week for 30 minutes and believe that doing this is important.
However, they may have a project at work that is consuming
all of their free time for the next three months.

Collectively, these measures can give the coach an idea of

how motivated the client is to change. Most health and fitness
goals require the performance of several different behavioral
categories, with the two umbrella categories being exercise
and diet. When exploring appropriate behavioral options
related to exercise and diet change, it is important to consider
a client‘s readiness, willingness, and confidence to perform
the behaviors.
Identify the barriers
There are many barriers to weight loss. People claim that
failure to lose weight comes from a lack of willpower,
relaxation of vigilance, low metabolism, lack of time,
emotional eating, stress, peer pressure to eat unhealthy food,
lack of accountability, and lack of exercise (Green 2009,
Metzgar 2015, Thomas 2008).Recently, a colleague and I
interviewed 213 people with weight loss goals. This study is
currently unpublished and in the review process, however, the
responses we gathered were consistent with the literature and
included the following; lack of consistency, lack of
willpower, lack of time, lack of motivation, lack of exercise,
lack of knowledge, poor dietary behaviors/eating habits,
financial concerns, lack of support, health issues (injury,
medical condition), lack of timely results, mental health
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
Clients will also perceive barriers to consistent exercise. They
may experience negative psychological as well as physical
sensations including fatigue, sweating, boredom, muscle
soreness and anxiety over how they are being perceived
(Butryn 2011, Sicilia 2016). Exercise may not be a priority
(i.e. family time is more important), the client may also state
that they lack time, motivation, knowledge, support, or
confidence.
Rather than immediately providing suggestions or solutions
these barriers should be explored by listening to the client.
Based on the conversation with the client, a form of self-
regulation called coping plans should be formed. These plans
help people identify barriers and then plan ways to work
around them. For each barrier the client identifies,
contingency plans are formed so they have a blueprint on
how to act in situations that could disrupt goal attainment.
[Back to Contents] Page 3
Appropriate self-regulation strategies will be covered in later
sections.
Select behavioral categories & specific behaviors
Barriers describe what may cause goal failure. It is equally
important to decide which behaviors the client wants to
perform to attain success. Brown University Professor Rena
Wing discovered individuals who lose weight and keep it off
performed high levels of physical activity, ate low calorie
diets, ate breakfast, regularly self-monitored their weight,
maintained consistent eating patterns, and caught dietary slip
ups (Wing 2005). Dr. Catherine Metzgar and her colleagues
also identified portion control, accountability to others,
regular exercise, ability to forgive slip-ups, smarter snacking,
planning food intake, support from professionals, social
support, mindfulness in food choices, and education as
components of successful weight loss (Metzgar, et al., 2015).
 Application: Select behavioral categories and set mastery
goals
The individual who expressed the desire to lose 20 pounds
has stated what is called a performance goal. Performance
goals can be tracked easily but may be interpreted only in the
context of success or failure. There are many behaviors that
can be considered sub goals to reach the performance goal of
weight loss or habitual exercise. These goals (cook healthy
meals, eat more vegetables, perform resistance training) are
categorized as mastery goals. People who set mastery goals
are focusing on improving a specific skill set (Mann 2016).
Mastery goals reflect what is called a process orientation. As
described by author and Harvard professor Ellen Langer, the
process orientation is based on the principle that there are no
failures, only ineffective solutions (Langer). With this
mindset, setbacks are not failures, they simply provide
feedback to generate more effective solutions for skill
attainment (Mann 2016). Based on the goal, the client should
select mastery goals from a number of available options. It is
equally important that the behavioral goals that people chose
to attempt are personally endorsed and not forced upon them.
To foster a motivational environment for a behavior, people
must understand the meaning of the behavior and connect the
behavior to their goals and values. This is done when
individuals have a sense of freedom of choice and freedom
from external pressures to behave in certain ways (Ryan &
Deci, 2000).University of Rochester professors Richard Ryan
and Edward Deci write that:
“Autonomous acts proceed from one‟s core self, representing
those preferences and values that are wholeheartedly
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
endorsed…for an act to be autonomous it must be endorsed
by the self, fully identified with and „„owned.‟‟(Ryan & Deci
2006).
Addressing attitudes & competing goals
Behavioral theories, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior,
often address attitudes, social norms and confidence for
behavior as variables that contribute to actual behavior. For
example, attitude is a significant predictor of intention to
exercise and to eat fruits and vegetables (Smith-McLallen &
Fishbein, 2008, Terry 1996, Hausenblas 1997). Attitudes for
a specific behavior are measured on a good-bad and pleasant-
unpleasant continuum. Because attitudes are assessed in a
variety of ways it is possible that a person is ambivalent about
certain behaviors. For example, a person may believe
exercise is good for them but perceive it as an unpleasant
experience (Hausenblas, Carron, Mack, 1997). Similarly, a
client may feel that eating vegetables is good for them but not
enjoy the taste. A client may express their ambivalence by
saying:
―I‘d really like to learn how to perform resistance
training but I‘m afraid people will judge me‖
―I want to sign up for this 5k but I‘m afraid that I will
come in last place‖
―I know cooking healthier meals is good for me but I just
don‘t have the time‖
This ambivalence is the result of competing goals. A person
may express that they have the goal to exercise, but their goal
to succeed in their career trumps that goal (Mann 2016) or
their desire to spend time with their family is more important
(Godin 1993). Likewise, a person may have a weight loss
goal; however, they have a competing desire to eat tempting
foods.In the case of the decision to exercise or spend time
with the family, a person may believe that engaging in one
activity will eliminate the benefits of the other. If examining
the issue from an ‗either-or‘ perspective there are benefits and
consequences to both exercising and spending time with
family. Ambivalence may be more readily resolved if the
‗either-or‘ approach is avoided.
 Application: Widen the Options
Coaches should help client‘s devise multiple options to help
them select the most favorable. The failure to explore other
options before deciding on a course of action of a plan is
termed the "limited search trap'. A solution is to broaden the
search for different options that address different perspectives
(Nutt 2004). Rather than ‗either exercise or spend time with
[Back to Contents] Page 4
family‘, the potential exerciser may create other options such
as exercising during their lunch break or recruiting family
members to walk with them after dinner.
Addressing norms
Social norms are either descriptive or injunctive/subjective in
nature. Descriptive norms describe behaviors people engage
in whereas injunctive norms describe whether an individual
perceives that his or her behavior is approved or disapproved
(Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990;Yun &Silk, 2011).
Descriptive and injunctive norms within close social groups
have been identified as contributing factors to intention to
exercise and intention to eat healthy amongst individuals who
do not strongly self-identify as exercisers or healthy eaters
(Yun & Silk, 2011). Descriptive norms regarding fruit
consumption (Stok, de Ridder, de Vet, & Wit, 2014) and
engaging in physical activity while at work (Priebe & Spink,
2011b; 2015) have shown to positively influence such
behavior.
Overall, attitudes seem to be a more powerful predictor of
behavior than subjective norms (Hausenblas 1997). However,
norms may be mediated by other variables. If a person
identified strongly with their social group norms may have a
greater impact (Terry 1996).It is also possible that the
influence norms have on behavior is underreported because it
has an unconscious influence on behavior. To downplay the
importance of norms would also likely be a large oversight in
the behavioral change process. For example, it is recognized
that obesity exhibits a pattern of social clustering, meaning
that if people in one‘s social network gain weight, they are
themselves more likely to gain weight (Christakis 2007).
When people eat in groups they tend to eat more than if they
were alone (de Castro 1992, Redd). People model the eating
behavior of who they are with. If an eating companion
consumes a lot of food the individual dining with them will
tend to eat more than if the companion was a light eater
(Cruwys). Individuals have also indicated that their weight
loss efforts have been sabotaged by others (i.e. they make
snide remarks about attempts to be healthy) (Hindle,
Kiernan). On the other hand, people who gain support and
complete weight loss interventions with friends are less likely
to regain weight (Wing, Jeffery 1999).
 Application: Compliments, socialization strategies, and
examining relationships
There are different ways in which people receive support. A
person may be supported with compliments or with reminders
to perform certain behaviors. People who regain weight have
reported receiving reminders as support whereas successful
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
individuals report the receiving compliments (Karfopoulou et
al., 2016).If a client typically eats or plans to eat with a large
group of people, instruct them to wait ten minutes before
touching their food. If their meal is finished and people are
socializing at the dinner table, have clients move any
appetizers or bread that is left on the table out of arms reach.
Stanford University Professor Michaela Kiernan recommends
that individuals nurture existing positive friendships, examine
social networks to manage relationships that involve
sabotage, and developing friendships that revolve around
healthy behaviors (Kiernan).
Self-efficacy: Strengthening confidence for behaviors
The confidence in one‘s ability contributes to behavior. A
person may hold favorable attitudes towards exercise but lack
the confidence that they can participate in a program.
Similarly, they place a high importance on weight loss but
fail to believe in their ability to follow through on weight loss
behaviors.Self-efficacy is mediated strongly by performance
accomplishments (Bandura, 1977). Confidence in one‘s
abilities is correlated with reaching recommended amounts of
exercise (Patterson 2015). According to the social cognitive
theory, self-efficacy beliefs function with perceived goals,
outcome expectations, self-regulation and environmental
contributors to direct motivation and action (Bandura, 1998;
2004). Personal efficacy will also determine how much effort
will be spent and how long effort will continue in the face of
obstacles. The stronger the self-efficacy beliefs the longer
people will persist in a task that requires effort (Bandura,
1977).
 Application: Provide mastery experience
A coach can help a client increase efficacy for a behavior by
decreasing the difficulty of the task. For example, a client
may have low self-efficacy towards exercising two times per
week for an hour but they may feel very confident that they
can exercise one time per week for thirty minutes. In this
instance, the coach offers less challenging options that the
client can succeed at and thus provide mastery experience. It
is recommended that the coach decrease the difficulty of the
behavior until efficacy is high.
Furthermore, it would be unwise to place a client in a position
where the likelihood of failure is high. If a trainer is coaching
resistance training, introducing back squats on the first day to
a new client is ill advised. Instead start out with an easier
movement such a body weight squat to build confidence. A
coach also should not expect a client to go from eating fast
food each day to making gourmet health recipes. Do not have
a client attempt to make such a large leap from where they
are to an idealized version of health.
[Back to Contents] Page 5
Evaluate confidence on a scale of 1-10 with 1 representing
the lowest level of confidence for a behavior and 10
representing absolute certainty in one‘s ability to perform the
behavior. If confidence is low decrease the difficulty of the
behavior. Once the client has had mastery experience with
certain behaviors the complexity of the behavior can be
increased. It is worth noting that the new behavior can and
should be somewhat challenging and above the normative
level. If a client does not experience a small challenge they
may not have the opportunity to see that they are capable of
overcoming obstacles.
Role of past behavior
Habits form when people respond the same way in the same
context over time. If a person has a strong habit, contextual
cues can activate the behavior and make it more challenging
to perform alternative behaviors (Vernhoeven). Attitudes and
intentions to perform behaviors are excellent for predicting
non-habitual behaviors but have less power to predict
habitual behaviors (Ouellette & Wood). Reflecting habitual
control of behavior, people with a strong habit for popcorn
consumption during movies eat similar amounts regardless of
the taste of the popcorn or how hungry they actually are
(Neal, Wood, Wu Kurlander).
 Application: Change the context
Habits are contextually dependent; therefore, the stability of
the habitual behavior is vulnerable to disruption by changing
the environment. A person who watches television at night
may always snack at the same time that they watch TV. The
setting cognitively activates the snacking behavior. Despite
motivation to avoid snacking the person experiences a 'pull'
to do so. Continuing with the popcorn example, people who
have strong popcorn eating habits eat less when they switch
to eating with their non-dominant hand. This works by
presumably removing automaticity of behavior and allowing
intentional control (Neal, Wood, Labrecque, Lally).
Implementation intentions and environmental modification,
which are highlighted in the self-regulation section are also
useful strategies to help individuals disrupt habits.
Identify values
Values help an individual create a path to the person they
want to become (Harris). University of North Carolina
Professor Steven Hitlin described values as enduring goals
(Hitlin 2004).Values focus on ideals, are more resistant to
change than attitudes, guide goals, motivate behavior, and
also direct the evaluation of behavior (Hitlin 2004,
Verplanken 2002). Because values guide goals, they are
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
distinctly different than a goal. Goals create the pathway to
valued living (Lillis 2014). Specifically, values drive goals
and goals require behavioral strategies that fall into specific
categories.
For example, a person may value being adventurous, hiking
mountains, going kayaking, and backpacking. Being
overweight and out of shape would deter a valued life.
Consistent exercise and healthy living may be a goal that
allows this person to consistently act upon their values.
Values are also important because they do not have an end
state whereas goals do. Thus, values can direct long-term
behavior even after goals are achieved (Lillis, 2014). Many
people gain weight back after a goal has been met. However,
if a person has values that necessitate consistent healthy
behavior, they may avoid weight regain or falling back into
unhealthy habits.
 Application: Value clarification
Values are an abstract concept, are not always thought about,
and thus having values does not guarantee value-behavior
congruency. Therefore, identification and clarification of
values are important. Health behavior change necessitates
foregoing food pleasures and experiencing negative physical
or emotional states when exercising. A person who has yet to
identify their values may quit an exercise program or a
dietary lifestyle change because of these unpleasant
outcomes. However, the person who has identified values
may interpret these unpleasant experiences as necessary to
reach a valued life (Forman 2015).A coach may help a client
identify values by consistently asking why a goal or goal
statements are important to them.
Strengthening intentions with self-regulation strategies
Self-regulation is a broad term that describes the strategies
and processes people use to attain a goal. It is the
combination of goal setting, which was described previously,
and goal striving. Goal striving is the planning and
subsequent execution of the behaviors that contribute to goal
attainment and the inhibition of behaviors that would disrupt
attainment (Mann 2016).There are several different self-
regulation strategies that have been tested in the literature and
it is important to distinguish appropriate strategies for
emotional regulation as well as behavioral regulation.
[Back to Contents] Page 6
Thoughts and actions will be inherently intertwined but the
regulation of each may be context dependent. A person may
need self-regulation strategies to enact a behavior, to avoid
enacting a temping behavior (i.e. eat chocolate) and also to
cope with negative emotional thoughts. Respectively to each
category, three self-regulation strategies include (1)
implementation intentions, (2) personal environmental
modifications and (3) experiential acceptance.
 Application: Implementation intentions
Habits are linked to the environment and are mentally easy to
access, meaning behaviors that are habitual are not
cognitively taxing to perform and do not require as much
planning. A self-regulation strategy called implementation
intentions links behaviors with the environment to essentially
harness the power of habit. Implementation intentions dictate
the when and where a behavior will occur. For example, a
person may select the specific behavior of exercising three
times per week. There implementation intention would be the
following:
―When I am done with work and driving home, I will
stop at the gym to exercise for 30 minutes. I will do this
on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday‖
Text message reminders can also help an individual follow
through on their implementation intentions (Prestwich, 2009).
The website ohdontforget.com, set‘s up automatic text
message reminders for a person at any time they wish. If a
person leaves work at 5:00pm they can set up a text message
reminder for 4:50 to go to the gym.
 Application: Personal environmental modifications
The current environment has been coined ‗obesogenic‘,
meaning there is a high availability of high fat, high sugar
foods for a very cheap price. People are consistently tempted
with unhealthy food which makes commitment to a weight
loss goal challenging. Availability and accessibility of food
influences consumption (Story, Wansink, Wansink &
Painter). High visibility of food also serves as a continuous
temptation (Wansink). Avoiding these temptations all
together may be the best self-regulation strategy a person can
employ.
A person should modify their physical environment to make
healthy decisions more likely to occur. Self-regulation
strategies include reducing the proximity and visibility of
unhealthy food, and increasing the difficulty to obtain
unhealthy foods (Wansink, Wansink & Painter). People
should repackage bulk foods into individual servings and
reduce the size of their plates and glasses so that they eat and
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
drink less. An entire household environmental modification
checklist can be found here:
(http://food.unl.edu/documents/ControlDiabetes/March2016/
4-SlimByDesignHandout.pdf).
The environment can also be used to a person‘s advantage by
using action triggers. Habits are linked to environmental
triggers. For example, most people have coffee every
morning as part of a daily routine. If they wanted to eat a
healthier breakfast such as a fruit smoothie, they may link this
new behavior to the habit of making coffee.Their
implementation intention would read like this:
―When my coffee is brewing in the morning I will make a
fruit smoothie‖
 Application: Experiential acceptance
People who are attempting to live a healthier lifestyle will
inevitably have emotional conflicts. Therefore, emotional
self-regulation strategies are just as useful as behavioral self-
regulation strategies. Suppression of negative thoughts or
urges can actually backfire. The converse of suppression is
acceptance. Experiential acceptance is the degree that an
individual is willing to have challenging thoughts, feelings, or
sensations while engaging in behaviors that promote a valued
life (Katterman).
A person who wants to lose weight may have a variety of
negative thoughts or feelings. They will be tempted by food,
will have set-backs where they believe they may be a failure,
or have anxiety over how their efforts are perceived. If a
person indulges in food, the feelings of hunger or temptation
way go away, but this would not help them get any closer to
living a valued life. If a client is willing to let these thoughts
or feelings occur, they are experiencing experiential
acceptance. Closely related to experiential acceptance is a
concept called ‗workability‘. Cognitive fusion refers to the
tendency for people to believe the exact content of their own
thoughts or feelings (Harris).For example, people may have
thoughts such as the following:
―People are judging me because I don‘t know what I am
doing.‖
―I‘ve tried to lose weight before and failed, why should
now be any different‖
Rather than examining whether or not these thoughts are true
or false, a coach may help clients examine the ―workability‖
of a negative thought or feeling. As it relates to negative
emotional affective states, workability entails asking the
[Back to Contents] Page 7
question, ―If you let this thought guide your behavior, will
that help you create a richer, fuller, and more meaningful
life?‖ (Harris).
Conclusions
Heath behavioral change interventions should be based upon
well researched theories. There are several cognitive
variables that contribute to goal attainment. Coaching
strategies, goal type as well as motivation to reach the goal,
specific barriers, attitudes, norms, confidence in one‘s
abilities, and past behavior need to be considered. While a
person may have a weight loss goal they should focus on the
mastery of specific behaviors necessary to attain that goal.
When an individual wants to change values should be
identified as they will help the person persist in their goal
efforts. Specific strategies also need to be formed based on
the needs of the individual.
_________________________________________________
Justin Kompf is a certified personal
trainer and certified strength and
conditioning coach. From 2012 to
2017 he worked as a lecturer and
strength coach at SUNY Cortland.
He has published work in ACSM ‘s
health and fitness journal, the
Strength and Conditioning Journal,
and Sports Medicine. Justin is
currently working on his PhD in
exercise and health sciences at
UMass Boston.
Facebook: www.facebook.com/JustinKompfPersonalTrainerStrengthCoach/
Website: www.Justinmkompf.com
_________________________________________________
References
Ajzen, I. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1991. 50: p. 179-
211. [PubMed]
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory
of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 1977. 84(2): p
191-215. [PubMed]
Bandura, A. Health promotion from the perspective of social
cognitive theory. Psychology and Health,1998. 13: p. 623-
649. [PubMed]
Bandura, A. Health promotion by social cognitive means.
Health Education & Behavior, 2004. 31(2): p. 143-164.
[PubMed]
Butryn, N.A., Forman, E.M., Hoffman, K.L., Shaw, J.A.,
Juarascio, A.S. A pilot study of acceptance and commitment
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
therapy for promotion of physical activity. Journal of
Physical Activity & Health, 2011. 8(4):p. 516-522. [PubMed]
Cawley, J., Meyerhoefer, C. The medical care cost of obesity:
An instrumental variables approach. Journal of Health
Economic, 2012. 31: p. 219-230. [PubMed]
Cialdini, R.B, Reno, R.R., Kallgren, C.A. A focus theory of
normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce
littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 1990. 58(6): p.1015-1026. [CBSM]
Christakis, N.A., Fowler, J.H. The spread of obesity in large
social network over 32 years. New England Journal of
Medicine, 2007. 357(4): p. 370-379. [PubMed]
Clifford. D., Curtis, L. Motivational interviewing in nutrition
and fitness. Guilford press. New York, 2015. [Amazon]
Cruwys, T., Bevelander, K.E., Hermans, R.C. Social
modeling of eating: A review of when and why social
influence affects food intake and choice. Appetite, 2015.86: p.
3-18. [PubMed]
Davidson, T.L., Kanoski, S., Schier, L.A., Clegg, D.J.,
Benoit, S.C. (2007). A potential role for the hippocampus in
energy intake and body weight regulation. Current Opinion
Pharmacology, 2007. 7(6): p. 613-616. [PubMed]
deCastro, J.M., Brewer, M. The amount eaten in meals by
humans is a power function of the number of people present.
Physiology & Behavior, 1992. 51(1): p. 121-125. [PubMed]
Dixon, J.B. The effect of obesity on health outcomes.
Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology, 2010. 316: p. 104–108.
Francis, H., Stevenson., R. The longer-term impacts of
Western diet on human cognition and the brain. Appetite,
2013. 63: p. 119-128. [PubMed]
Forman, E.M., Butryn. M.L. A new look at the science of
weight control: How acceptance and commitment strategies
can address the challenge of self-regulation. Appetite 84,
2015. 171-180: p. 2015. [PubMed]
Garber, C.E., Blissmer, B., Deschenes, M.R., Franklin, B.A.,
Lamonte, M.J., Lee, M.D, Nieman., D.C., Swain, D.P.
American College of Sports Medicine position stand.
Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and
maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and
neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for
prescribing exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports&
Exercise, 2011.43(7):p. 1334-1359. [PubMed]
[Back to Contents] Page 8
Godin G. Theories of reasoned action and planned behavior:
usefulness for exercise promotion. Medicine & Science in
Sports& Exercise, 1994.26(11): p. 1391-1394. [PubMed]
Green, A.R., Larkin, M., Sullivan, V. Oh stuff it! The
experience and explanation of diet failure: An exploration
using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of
Health Psychology, 2009. 14(7): p. 997-1008. [PubMed]
Hagger, M.S., Chatzisarantis N.L. An integrated behavior
change model for physical activity. Exercise & Sport Science
Review,2014. 42(2): p. 62-69. [PubMed]
Harris R. ACT Made Simple: An Easy-To-Read Primer on
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Oakland, CA: New
Harbinger, 2009. [Amazon]
Haskell, W.L., Lee, I.M., Pate, R.R., Powell, K.E., Blair,
S.N., Franklin, B.A, Macera C.A., Heath, G.W., Thompson,
P.D., Bauman, A. Physical activity and public health:
Updated recommendation for adults from the American
College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart
Association. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,
2007.39(8): p. 1423-1434. [ResearchGate]
Hausenblas, H.A., Carron, A.V., Mack, D.E. Application of
the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior to
exercise behavior: A Meta analysis. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 1997. 19: p. 36-51. [ResearchGate]
Hindle, L., Carpenter, C. An exploration of the experiences
and perceptions of people who have maintained weight loss.
Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, 2011. 24:p. 342-
350. [PubMed]
Hitlin, S., Piliavin, J.A. Values: Reviving a dormant concept.
Annual Review of Sociology, 2004. 30: p. 359-393. [AnnRev]
Karfopoulou, E., Anastasious, C.A., Avgeraki, E., Kosmidis,
M.H., Yannakoulia, M. The role of social support in weight
maintenance: Results from the MedWeight Study. Journal of
Behavioral Medicine. 2016; 39(3): 511-518. [PubMed]
Katterman, S.N., Goldstein, S.P., Butryn, M.L., Forman,
E.M., Lowe, M.R. Efficacy of an acceptance-based
behavioral intervention for weight gain prevention in young
adult women. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science,
2014.3: p. 45-50. [ResearchGate]
Kiernan, M., Moore, S.D., Schoffman, D.E., et al. Social
support for healthy behaviors: Scale psychometrics and
prediction of weight loss among women in a behavioral
program. Obesity, 2012. 20(4): p. 756-764. [PubMed]
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
Kopelman P. Health risks associated with overweight and
obesity. Obesity Reviews, 2007. 8: 13-17. [PubMed]
Langer, Ellen J. Mindfulness. Reading, Mass: Addison-
Wesley Pub. Co, 1989. Print. [Amazon]
Lee, I.M., Shiroma, E.J., Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S.N.,
Katzmarzyk, P.T, Lancet Physical Activity Series Working
Group. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-
communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of
disease and life expectancy. The Lancet, 2012.380(9838): p.
219-229. [PubMed]
Lillis, J., Kendra, K.E. Acceptance and commitment therapy
for weight control: Model, evidence, and future directions.
Journal of Contextual& Behavioral Sciences, 2014. 3(1): p.
1-7. [PubMed]
Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P. Building a practically useful
theory of goal setting and task motivation. American
Psychologist, 2002. 57(9): p. 705-717. [PubMed]
Mann, T., de Ridder D, Fujita, K. Self-regulation of health
behavior: Social psychological approaches to goal setting and
goal striving. Health Psychology, 2016. 32(5): p. 487-498.
[PubMed]
Metzgar, C.J., Preston, A.G., Miller, D.L., Nickols-
Richardson, S.M. Facilitators and barriers to weight loss and
weight loss maintenance: A qualitative exploration. Journal
of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 2015. 28: p. 593-603.
[PubMed]
Miller WR Rollnick S. Motivational interviewing: Preparing
people for Change. New York: Guilford Press, 2002.
[Amazon]
Neal, D.T., Wood, W., Wu, M.,Kurlander, D. The pull of the
past: When do habits persist despite conflicting motives?
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2011.37(11):
1428-1437. [PubMed]
Neal, D.T., Wood, W., Labrecque, J.S., Lally, P. How do
habits guide behavior? Perceived and actual triggers of habits
in daily life. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
2011.48: p. 492–98. [ScienceDirect]
Nelson, M.E., Rejeski, W.J., Blair, S.N., Duncan, P.W.,
Judge, J.O., King, A.C, Castaneda-Sceppa, C. Physical
activity and public health in older adults. Recommendation
from the American College of Sports Medicine and the
American Heart Association. Circulation, 2007. 135(6): p. 1-
12. [Scholar Commons – USC]
[Back to Contents] Page 9
Nugent C. QuickStats: Percentage of U.S. adults who met the
2008 federal physical activity guidelines for aerobic and
strengthening activity, by sex- National Health Interview
Survey, 2000-2014. MMWR, 2016.65. [CDC]
Nutt PC. Expanding the search for alternatives during
strategic decision-making. Academy of Management
Perspectives, 2004. 18(4): p. 13-27. [AMP]
Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Kit, B.K., Flegal., K.M.
Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United
States, 2011-2012. Journal of the American Medical
Association, 2014. 311(8): p. 806-814. [PubMed]
Ouellette, J.A,Wood. W. Habit and intention in everyday life:
The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future
behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 1998. 124(1): p. 54-74.
[ResearchGate]
Patterson, M.S., Umstattd Meyer, M.R., & Beville, J.M.
Potential predictors of college women meeting strength
training recommendations: Application of the integrated
behavioral model. Journal of Physical Activity and Health,
2015. 12: p. 998-1004. [PubMed]
Pedersen BK. The diseasome of physical inactivity–and the
role of myokines in muscle–fat cross talk. Journal of
Physiology 2009.587(23): p. 5559-5568. [PubMed]
Prestwich, A., Lawton, R., & Conner, M. The use of
implementation intentions and the decision balance sheet in
promoting exercise behaviour. Psychology and Health, 2003.
18(6): 707-721. [ResearchGate]
Prestwich, A., Perugini, M., & Hurling, R. Can the effects of
implementation intentions on exercise be enhanced using text
messages? Psychology and Health, 2009. 24(6), 677-687.
[PubMed]
Priebe, C.S., & Spink, K.S. Using messages promoting
descriptive norms to increase physical activity. Health
Communication,2011. 27: p. 284-291. [PubMed]
Priebe, C.S., & Spink, K.S. Less sitting and more moving in
the office: Using descriptive norm messages to decrease
sedentary behavior and increase light physical activity at
work. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2015. 19: 76-84.
[ResearchGate]
Redd, M.,& de Castro, J.M. Social facilitation of eating:
Effects of social instruction on food intake. Physiology &
Behavior, 1992. 52(4): p. 749-754. [PubMed]
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L. Self-Determination and the
facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and
well-being. American Psychologist, 2000. 55(1): p. 68-78.
[PubMed]
Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L. Self-regulation and the problem of
human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-
determination, and will? Journal of Personality, 2006. 74(6):
p. 1557-1585. [PubMed]
Sicilia, A., Sáenz-Alvarez, P., González-Cutre, D., Ferriz, R.
Social physique anxiety and intention to be physically active:
A self-determination theory approach. Research Quarterly
for Exercise and Sport, 2016: 87(4): p. 354-364. [PubMed]
Smith-McLallen, A., Fishbein, M. Predictors of intentions to
perform six cancer-related behaviours: Roles for injunctive
and descriptive norms. Psychology Health & Medicine, 2008.
13(4): p. 389-401. [PubMed]
Stok, F.M., de Ridder, D.T., de Vet E., & Wit, J.B. Don't tell
me what I should do, but what others do: The influence of
descriptive and injunctive peer norms on fruit consumption in
adolescents. British Journal of Health Psychology,2014. 19:
p. 52-64. [PubMed]
Story, M., Kaphingst, K.M., Robinson-O'Brien, R., Glanz, K.
Creating healthy food and eating environments: Policy and
environmental approaches. .Annual Review of Public Health,
2008. 29: p. 253-272. [PubMed]
Terry, D.J., Hogg, M.A. Group norms and the attitude-
behavior relationship: A role for group identification.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1996. 22(8): p.
776-793. [ResearchGate]
Thomas, S.L, Hyden, J., Karunaratne, A., Kausman, R.,
Komesaroff, P.A. "They all work...when you stick to them":
A qualitative investigation of dieting, weight loss, and
physical exercise, in obese individuals. Nutrition Journal,
2008. 7: p. 34. [PubMed]
Vernhoeven, A.A., Adriaanse, M.A., Evers, C., de Ridder
DT. The power of habits: Unhealthy snacking behaviour is
primarily predicted by habit strength. British Journal of
Health Psychology, 2012.17: p. 758-770. [PubMed]
Verplanken, B., Holland, R.W. Motivated decision making:
Effects of activation and self-centrality of values on choices
and behavior. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,
2002. 82(3): p. 434-447. [PubMed]
[Back to Contents] Page 10
Wansink, B. Environmental factors that increase the food
intake and consumption volume of unknowing consumers.
Annual Review of Nutrition, 2004. 24: p. 455-479. [PubMed]

Wansink, B., Painter, J.E., Lee, Y.K. The office candy dish:
Proximity's influence on estimated and actual consumption.
International Journal of Obesity, 2006. 30: p. 871-875.
[PubMed]

Warburton, D.E., Nicol, C.W., Bredin, S.S. Health benefits of

physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ, 2006. 174(6): p. 801-
809. [PubMed]

Westcott, W.L. Resistance training is medicine: Effects of

strength training on health. Current Sports Medicine Report,
2012.11(4): p. 209-216. [PubMed]

Wing RR, Jeffery RW. Benefits of recruiting participants

with friends and increasing social support for weight loss and
maintenance. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology,
1999. 67(1): p. 132-138. [PubMed]

Wing, R.R., Phelan, S. Long term weight loss and

maintenance. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
2005. 82: p. 222-225. [PubMed]

Yun, D., Silk, K.J. Social norms, self-identity, and attention

to social comparison information in the context of exercise
and healthy diet behavior. Health Communication, 2011.
26(3): p. 275-285. [PubMed]

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 11


Investigating the potential impacts of macronutrient
tracking on personal satisfaction.
By Matthew Rizzo
_________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
In fifth grade classrooms across America, there are students
categorizing the three major macronutrient groups into the
nationally accepted food pyramid created by the United
States Department of Agriculture. However, as ―the incidence
of obese individuals in the total U.S. adult population
increased from 14.5% in 1971 to nearly 31% in 2000,‖
doctors, dieticians, and even ordinary folks have grown to
question this omnipresent guideline and have become
inquisitive to explore alternative methods of dietary
maintenance.1 From adolescence, ideas about proper nutrition
are propelled towards people through education,
commercials, annual consultations with primary care
physicians, and social media. This has become quite an
ethical issue, with an increasing number of dietary claims
deemed valid by society as a result reading one ‗fact‘,
triggering a wave of people to stupor into a state of anoesis,
accepting presented material and consequently tailoring their
lives, well-being, and health to the confines of an
advertisement.
A flexible method of macronutrient tracking, commonly
referred to as ‗If It Fits Your Macros‘ (IIFYM), has been
explored and recently surged into popularity from fitness
enthusiasts, traveling with a signal cascade effect all the way
to the mainstream population. IIFYM is based largely upon
research showing more favorable effects of flexible dietary
control compared to a rigid, all-or-nothing approach that
paints a black-white picture of ―good‖ and ―bad‖ foods to
either include or avoid.2-4 The validity of IIFYM in regards to
dietary impact has been confirmed through research
examining effects on body composition, however the
personal and emotional viability of this method (specifically,
the precise tracking of macronutrient grams) is yet to be
explored. Often, ―new ideas in nutrition are quickly
incorporated by the health-conscious segment of society‖ but
lose steam, as individuals grow disgruntled when a lack of
sustainability divulges personal disappointment and even
depression.1 The purpose of this research experiment is to
explore and gain experience understanding accurate
identification of the level of personal satisfaction in
individuals as a direct consequence of the application of
macronutrient tracking methods.
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
RESEARCH QUESTION
The research questions that guide this specific study evaluate
mainstream facets of life that carry the ability to reflect the
overall happiness of an individual. In order to obtain
applicable results from those questions, a control group was
construed; individuals that never track their macronutrient
intake (which was defined in this study as ―carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins‖) were members of the control group.
Participants that track their macronutrient intake in any
form, were defined as the experimental group. Voluntary
participants of this study appraised the following key
variables: ‗Perception of Current Body Image‘, ‗Romantic
Relationship‘, ‗Familial Relationship(s)‘, ‗Job‘, ‗Work-Life
Balance‘, and ‗Overall Assessment of Personal Feelings and
Attitudes‘. In order to maximize operationalization, these
attributes were scored on a scale of one through five,
including the option of N/A; each numerical index was
clearly defined, as comparable numbers can mean divergent
things to different people. The scale presented to participants
on the survey was as follows for all but one of the questions
that were used to generate the ‗Happiness Index‘:
Score Meaning
N/A Not Applicable
1 Very Unhappy
2 Unhappy
3 OK
4 Happy
5 Very Happy
The one exception was the question ―Based on the scale
below, what is your perception of your current body image?‖
The reason that the scale was changed, is because the
question was intended to be clear, with corresponding
answers presented as more relevant to the question.
Additionally, N/A was not a valid option for the question.
The generated scale was as follows:
Score Meaning
1 I am very dissatisfied.
2 I am slightly dissatisfied.
3 I am neutral.
4 I am slightly satisfied.
5 I am extremely satisfied.
A matrix design was exercised to use space efficiently,
increase comparability, and facilitate completion. In addition
to the perceptive data that was collected from subjects, a
series of factual questions were queried. Participants were
asked their age, gender, relationship status, and level of
[Back to Contents] Page 12
education. Closed questions were used because they ―provide appropriate to have a larger and more diverse sample size and
more uniform responses, are more easily processed, and can query the location of online participants. Realistically, more
be transferred directly into data for analysis‖.5 They were research should be conducted to confidently generalize these
designed to be clear and unambiguous in order to ensure that findings to a larger population.
the researcher does not convey ―opinions or perspectives.‖ In
order to account for confounding factors that carry the The numerical indexes discussed in the ‗Research Question‘
potential to skew data if left unaddressed, participants were are an example of an ordinal measure, which was the selected
also asked to evaluate their level of adherence to measurement of scoring for this experiment. They were
macronutrient tracking, current status of being in the state of ―logically rank-ordered‖ and represented ―relatively more or
a caloric surplus, caloric deficit, or at caloric maintenance, less of the [examined] variable‖.5 These measures were
the length of time they have been tracking their macronutrient displayed on the survey for participants, and the values in the
intake, and the method they use to track their macronutrient table below were then again converted as follows with the
intake. The resulting data from questions provided the purpose of using quantitative data to perform statistical
opportunity for the researcher to analyze the explanatory analysis:
variables and summated to one larger score, called the
‗Overall Happiness Index‘. The index was referenced to Length of Time Adherence
formulate conclusions about the relationship between I do not track = 0 I do not track = 0
macronutrient tracking and overall personal satisfaction. Less than 1 week = 1 Less than 20% = 1
Less than 1 month = 2 Track between 20-39% = 2
METHODS 1-4 months = 3 Track between 40-59% = 3
5-8 months = 4 Track between 60-79% = 4
To gather empirical data an electronic questionnaire was
9-12 months = 5 Track between 80-99% = 5
prepared on SurveyMonkey. Because of the nature, design,
1-2 years = 6 100% = 6
and time constraints of this study, it would not have been as
More than 2 years = 7
effective to observe behavior directly. If behavior were to be
directly observed, the findings of the research would then
This research experiment mainly falls under the category of
reflect the opinion of the researcher in evaluating the personal
exploratory research, however, elements of the analysis seek
happiness of another individual. This would have created a
to explain the absence or presence of causal relationships
bias in the data collection and consequently a distorted,
within the study and contain aspects that were explanatory in
inadequate, and unreliable analysis that breeds an invalid
nature. The study was also cross-sectional, because it
study. Because elements of happiness are internal, the most
consisted of a survey that was given at one particular instance
conscientious method to gather the appropriate data for this
in a participant‘s life. The proposed survey was voluntary,
study is through the use of a survey. A survey was conducted
with a majority of proposed face-to-face participants
on July 23, 2017 and July 24, 2017 through SurveyMonkey
declining to participate. Because ―the clearest concern in the
and posted on a public Facebook page, which provided access
protection of the subjects‘ interest and well-being is the
to the population ranging across multiple states, in order to
protection of their identity‖, surveys were devised with an
eliminate the opportunity for bias as well as increase the
obligation of anonymity. No online subjects were specifically
likelihood of a diversified group of subjects to study.
or individually sought out through messaging or e-mailing.
Participants were not paid for their participation and the title
This would have resulted in a bias sample.
of the survey, ―Lifestyle Survey‖, was made as general as
possible in an attempt to prevent ―volunteers [that are] more
One question that was initially pondered for the study but was
interested in a [particular] subject or stimulus.‖5 Additionally,
swiftly omitted was the inquiry as to if a participant has ever
the face-to-face survey was conducted on July 29, 2017, at a
had an eating disorder. Although this information may have
grocery store, as the researcher assumed the population found
proved highly beneficial in analyzing results, it possessed the
at a grocery store would be more representative of the overall
―potential for psychological harm to subjects‖ by
population, since food is a life necessity. This was a
―remind[ing] them of a traumatic or unpleasant experience.‖
preferential location, as opposed to on a college campus,
As it should be to the utmost important to researchers to
which could have threatened validity by excluding many age
conform to ethical norms and never harm participants,
groups and social classes from the opportunity to participate
questions must be both carefully crafted and delicately
in the survey. The targeted population ideally would have
selected.
been the general U.S. population, however in order to apply
research to this population, it would have been more

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 13

FINDINGS Potential confounding factor regression: assessing
correlation between age and the ‘Overall Happiness Index
Scores’ of individuals that do track their macronutrients

Larger image here

Larger image here

Potential confounding factor multiple regression: Percent breakdown of participant’s perception of

Assessing correlation between overall discipline levels variables that influence the ‘Final Overall Happiness
(length of time, adherence, and frequency) with the Index Score’
‘overall happiness index scores’ of individuals that do
track their macronutrients

Larger image here

Larger image here

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 14

Direct comparison in frequency of categorized responses
from participant’s perception of variables that influence
the ‘Final Overall Happiness Index Score’
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
DISCUSSION
This investigation was conducted with the goal of
ascertaining knowledge pertaining to the impacts, if any, of
macronutrient tracking on personal happiness. Specifically,
this research was designed with the quest of exploring if
individuals that track their macronutrient intake of
carbohydrates, fats, and protein, have a different level of
personal happiness and satisfaction than individuals who do
not track their macronutrient intake in any form.
The average ‗Happiness Index Score‘ was 0.17075981 points
higher for individuals that do track their macronutrient intake.
However, this information alone is not enough to conclude
that this difference is significant and not due to chance or
randomization. To acquire this information objectively, a
Two-Sided T-Test was performed. Statistical analysis must
be used to determine if it is reasonable to claim that the
average numerical ‗Happiness Index Score‘ of individuals
that never track their macronutrient intake was significantly
different from the average ‗Happiness Index Score‘ of the
individuals that do track their macronutrient intake. The null
hypothesis for this inferential, statistical computation was that
the average ‗Happiness Index Score‘ of individuals that do
track their macronutrient intake and the average ‗Happiness
Index Score‘ of individuals that do not track their
macronutrient intake are equal. The resulting P-value of this
procedure was 0.0335213. Therefore, because the P-value
[Back to Contents] Page 15
was less than 5%, the null hypothesis is rejected. reconnaissance about these factors, multiple regression was
Consequently, it can be stated with approximately 96% utilized. The ‗Length of Time‘ a participant has been
confidence that the averages are significantly different. tracking, their level of ‗Adherence‘ and ‗Frequency‘ in terms
of days per week were set as independent variables to predict
the dependent variable, ‗Happiness Index Score‘. Like the
Because it was determined that the averages are significantly
results of the single regression, all of the independent
different, a One-Sided T-Test was selected and performed to variables had P-Values greater than 0.05. As a result, it
assess if the average of one variable, the ‗Happiness Index cannot be stated with reasonable statistical support that the
Score‘ for trackers, is larger than the average of another ‗Happiness Index Score‘ is directly dependent on any of those
variable, the ‗Happiness Index Score‘ for non-trackers. The three variables. It is important to note that ‗Length of Time‘
average ‗Happiness Index Score‘ for individuals that never tracking had the closest computation to an acceptable P-
track their macronutrient intake was 3.52477018. The average value, at 0.082112221.
‗Happiness Index Score‘ for individuals that do track their
Additional discoveries: ‘Results at ‘face’ value’
macronutrient intake was 3.69553. The averages were
different. Per contra, these averages alone cannot be accepted
A cornerstone of research is to understand how the method of
merely at face value; a One-Sided T-Test was necessary to
data collection impacts the data itself. As surveys were
determine the statistical significance of variegating
dispensed and collected both in person as well as through an
‗Happiness Index Scores‘. The resulting value for a One-
online platform, the experiment merited exploring the
Sided T-Test when comparing the data above was
presence or absence of diversity in responses. This disclosure
0.01676065. The P-value was smaller than 5%, thus it is
proved propitious to the procurement of additional
conclusive. The assertion that the overall personal satisfaction
discoveries. According to the data, participants that
of participants that do track their macronutrient intake is
completed the survey in person and classified themselves as
higher than that of participants that do not track their
trackers had a happiness index score of 3.809524, while
macronutrient take can be confirmed. This P-value was
participants that classified themselves as non-trackers and
smaller than the P-value of the Two-Sided T-Test, making it
completed the survey virtually had a happiness index score of
even more reliable, as P-value and conclusive properties are
3.685938. This difference in happiness level is worth
inversely proportional. Therefore, it can be stated with
exploring in future studies to truly understand the impacts not
approximately 98% confidence that this data is statistically
only of macronutrient tracking on personal satisfaction, but
significant and is not due to chance or randomization.
also on the impacts of methods of research. It is possible that
the ―social desirability of answers‖ caused participants in a
Once the macroscopic property of this experiment was
face-to-face situation to ―answer through a filter of what will
analyzed, it was necessary to determine if any specific
make them look good‖.5 Another possibility is that the
attributes of particular variables correlated with the findings
sample size of face-to-face survey takers was small, causing
on a more microscopic level. It is important to address that
outliers to skew data more strongly than it would in a larger
―people are continually growing [older]‖, and with age, some
sample size. Because the number of face-to-face participants
believe comes ―wisdom.‖3 It is possible that this research
that engaged in macronutrient tracking was seven, it did not
could be challenged by proposing that older participants are
meet the required sample size value of 10 to perform a T-Test
more stable, wiser in determining important elements of life,
to examine statistical significance. Therefore, this would be
and are subsequently settled with a greater level of happiness.
an excellent focus for impending studies that can be designed
To address this potentially confounding factor, regression
with minimal time constraints and a larger sample size.
was performed on trackers. Using paired data, age was
assigned the independent variable and ‗Happiness Index
‘Hungry, ‘hangry’, or happy?’
Score‘ was defined as the dependent variable. The results
indicated that the P-value was 0.256707158, which is greater
Intuition may lead researchers or observers of research to
than 5% and is not considered reliable according to the
believe that individuals on a caloric deficit would be less
standard of 95% confidence. Additionally, the R2 value was
happy than individuals on a caloric surplus. This can be seen
0.007789685, which falls between the interval of zero and
ubiquitously in society, as members of the population from
two, deeming it poor. Thus, based on this statistical test, age
multiple generations wear shirts and post Internet memes that
did not appear to be a confounding factor in this study.
state ―I‘m sorry for what I said when I was hungry.‖ If this
proposal were true, it could have caused the happiness index
Another potential confounding factor that may lead
researchers to misidentify the conclusions of this experiment score to vary based on what fraction of the population
was the overall discipline level of trackers. To make a surveyed was in a caloric deficit, the extent of the caloric

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 16

deficit, or the length of time a participant endured the deficit.
The average ‗Happiness Index Score‘ of trackers was
examined for the following categories: ‗Caloric Deficit‘,
‗Caloric Maintenance‘, ‗Caloric Surplus‘, and ‗Not Sure of
Caloric Position‘ in order to delve into this topic.
Surprisingly, individuals that were in a ‗Caloric Deficit‘ had a
minutely higher average happiness index than both
individuals in a ‗Caloric Surplus‘ and individuals at ‗Caloric
Maintenance‘. Another unexpected result was that the
participants who were the least sure of their caloric position
had the lowest ‗Happiness Index Score‘ of the four groups
mentioned. If individuals that are knowledgeable about their
status are happier, perhaps greater levels of education about
macronutrient position can lead to greater awareness of
dietary status, and eventually greater happiness. More
research would be needed to further examine the validity of
these findings and proposals, however this observation opens
doors to exciting avenues of research. Future studies
pertaining to happiness and macronutrient tracking may seek
to investigate the happiness levels between the variance of
macronutrient intake positions and education.
CONCLUSIONS
The application of inferential statistics permitted for a more
accurate, objective, and reliable analysis of data to assess the
potential impacts of macronutrient tracking on personal
satisfaction. The calculations merit a conclusion for this
experiment that individuals who tracked their macronutrient
intake appeared to have a greater level of personal
satisfaction than individuals that did not track their
macronutrient intake. Results may have arisen in favor of
happiness lying in the hands of macronutrient trackers as a
result of their ‗Body Image Perception‘ scores being such a
great deal higher than that of non trackers. This is one of
many possibilities that can be explored in subsequent studies
with explanatory design. In order to strengthen or solidify the
conclusion of this study, it would be beneficial to determine if
results can be replicated. Replication would serve as a
safeguard to ensure validity and prevent overgeneralization
via selective observation.
A strength of this study lies in the sample size, given the time
and financial constraints of the research. Additionally, the
questions of the study were carefully crafted to be
straightforward in nature and did not interject personal
opinions of the researcher. Another component that enhanced
the fitness of the study was the implementation of procedures
used in inferential statistics, to support the validity of the
research.
Although bias was not intentional in the methodology of this
research, it can prove difficult to avoid unintentional bias.
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
Participants did not have the opportunity to state their
location of residence, which makes it harder to generalize
results to a population. Although this was omitted to promote
survey efficiency and restrain the length and arduous nature
of the survey, it could have hurt the validity in the application
of these results to a larger population. Some cynics to this
research may also argue that there is web-based bias,
claiming that Facebook pages are not adequate platforms for
the representativeness of a population. On the contrary, the
―1.9 Billion monthly users‖ that CNN announced Facebook
possessed in May, 2017 is a substantial clod of the world
population.6
Perhaps, without the constraints of time that were present,
this study could be improved by conducting a panel study.
This design that addresses the time dimension of research can
serve to reduce external threat and chance that results are sui
generis and due to a specific instance in time as opposed to a
lasting result that incites permanent behavior.
Another aspect of the survey design that may merit
augmentation upon another attempt at this study is the
potential integration of questions about caloric intake.
Individuals were given the option to select if they track their
macronutrients or not, but had no opportunity to disclose if
they count calories, which may have been an internal threat to
the study. There is a distinct difference between counting
calories and counting macronutrients; where calorie-counting
focuses on the totality of energy consumption, macronutrient
counting can arguably be considered a cynosure to what an
individual is consuming within their diet. Although the focus
of this study was specifically pertaining to macronutrient
counting, alternatives must be considered.
In the field of health sciences, many studies have been
conducted recently that both question and subsequently
confirm the validity of macronutrient tracking as a valid,
effective, and evidence-based practice. This research
occurred as a result of inquiry, primarily from the
bodybuilding community  however, the research has also
annexed the attention of ordinary people. Now that this
flexible dieting technique has been proven credible for weight
maintenance purposes, its effects on human mental health,
specifically overall happiness and personal satisfaction, were
examined to provide a complete analysis of the effectiveness
and potency of macronutrient counting. The information that
results from this study can be followed up in future studies
and then applied to a greater population of individuals, on a
quest to guide them to make more comprehensive decisions
regarding their happiness and dietary decisions.
[Back to Contents] Page 17
APPENDIX: Physical surveys and conduction I am an FAU Alum - BA/BS degree(s). I
am a Natural Pro Bodybuilder and
Natural Pro Mens Physique
Competitor. After a combination of
browsing the “bodybuilding.com MISC
in highschool and later taking classes I
started counting macros for my
personal fitness journey in 2005 and
have not stopped since- over a decade
of experience. I had been helping
friends before creating my business
'Unrivaled Physiques' in 2013 which I
have been doing full time since. I hope
to spread positive, useful, non-biased
data and research to the nutrition and fitness community as my mentors have.
I enjoy all schools of though and a few researchers I admire are such the likes
of Layne Norton, Alan Aragon, Lyle McDonald, and Eric Helms.

Thank you for reading!

Social Media:
@unrivaledphysiques
www.unrivaledphysiques.com
mrizzo@unrivaledphysiques.com
Admin of "IIFYM Competition Prep” Facebook Group
_________________________________________________

References

1. Levetin, Estelle, and Karen McMahon. Plants & Society.

New York: McGraw Hill, 2016. Print.
2. Palascha A, van Kleef E, van Trijp HC2. How does
thinking in Black and White terms relate to eating
behavior and weight regain? J Health Psychol. 2015
May;20(5):638-48. [PubMed]
3. Stewart TM, Williamson DA, White MA. Rigid vs.
flexible dieting: association with eating disorder
symptoms in nonobese women. Appetite. 2002
Feb;38(1):39-44. [PubMed]
4. Smith CF, Williamson DA, Bray GA, Ryan DH.
Flexible vs. Rigid dieting strategies: relationship with
adverse behavioral outcomes. Appetite. 1999
Jun;32(3):295-305. [PubMed]
5. Maxfield, Michael G., and Earl R. Babbie. Research
Methods. Cengage Learning, 2015. 2016. Print.
6. Fiegerman, Seth. ―Facebook Tops 1.9 Billion Monthly
Users.‖ CNNMoney, Cable News Network, 3 May 2017,
http://money.cnn.com/2017/05/03/technology/facebook-
earnings/index.html

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 18


Meal timing effects on insulin sensitivity and
intrahepatic triglycerides during weight loss.
Versteeg RI, Ackermans MT, Nederveen AJ, Fliers E, Serlie
MJ, la Fleur SE. Int J Obes (Lond). 2017 Aug 16. doi:
10.1038/ijo.2017.199. [Epub ahead of print] [PubMed]
BACKGROUND: Several human and rodent studies suggest
that in addition to the amount of energy consumed, timing of
food intake contributes to body weight regulation.
Consuming most energy in the morning has favorable effects
on weight loss and weight maintenance. Whether this also
affects glucose metabolism and liver fat independently from
weight loss is unknown. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized
that during weight loss, consuming most energy in the
morning improves insulin sensitivity and reduces hepatic fat
content more than consuming most energy in the evening.
METHODS: Twenty-three obese insulin resistant men (age
59.9±7.9 years, BMI 34.4±3.8 kg/m2) followed a four-week
hypocaloric diet intervention with either 50% of daily energy
consumed in the morning (BF-group) or evening (D-group).
Insulin sensitivity, measured with a 2-step hyperinsulinemic
euglycemic clamp using a glucose tracer, intrahepatic
triglycerides (IHTG), measured using magnetic resonance
spectroscopy, and resting energy expenditure (REE) were
assessed before and after the diet intervention. RESULTS:
Meal macronutrient composition and weight loss (6.5±1.5 vs
6.2±1.9% respectively, P=0.70) did not differ between the
BF- and D-group. Endogenous glucose production (EGP)
(P=<0.001), hepatic and peripheral insulin sensitivity
(P=0.002; P=0.001 respectively) as well as IHTG content
(P=<0.001) all significantly improved with weight loss, but
were not different between the BF- and D-group. In addition,
both groups decreased REE and respiratory quotient equally.
CONCLUSIONS: During weight loss, consuming most
energy in the morning instead of the evening does not have
additional beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity and IHTG
content. These results do not support weight independent
effects of meal timing on glucose metabolism and IHTG in
hypocaloric conditions in obese men. International Journal of
Obesity accepted article preview online, 16 August 2017.
doi:10.1038/ijo.2017.199. SPONSORSHIP: This research
was supported by the Dutch Technology Foundation STW
(Perspective grant OnTime project 12189), which is part of
the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO),
and which is partly funded by the Ministry of Economic
Affairs.
Study strengths
This was the first study to ever examine the effect of calorie
distribution (meal timing) through the day on glucose control
and liver fat under hypocaloric conditions. The assessment of
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
resting energy expenditure (REE) and substrate utilization
(via respiratory quotient, or RQ – a relative measure of fat vs
carb oxidation) were nice touches that allowed potential
mechanistic explanations to the findings. In order to impose
the calorie distribution differences between the diets,
breakfast and dinner were replaced by a protein-enriched
liquid meal and a bar. These products were provided by the
lab on a weekly basis. The (partial) provision of intake
lessened the chances and magnitude of mismeasurement and
misreporting.
Study limitations
The authors acknowledged several limitations. First of all, the
BF group (50% of daily calories consumed in the morning)
was tested after a longer ‗fasting‘ period by sheer default of
the comparison, where testing was done first thing in the
morning. So, while both groups were tested after an overnight
fast, it‘s possible that the longer hypocaloric state of BF could
have been a confounding variable (but note that no
differences in metabolic outcomes were seen despite this).
Another limitation the authors conceded to was that the
subjects self-reported their intake in free-living conditions. I
mentioned earlier that this limitation was mitigated by some
of the food (bars & shakes) being provided to the subjects.
Also, these results could be limited to the population profile
(obese, sedentary, middle-aged men), and thus are not
necessarily generalizable to leaner or athletic populations. A
final acknowledged limitation was the possibility that energy
requirements could have been underestimated. In other
words, a larger deficit than the projected 50% decrease from
maintenance could have been imposed. However, the authors
disclaim this limitation with the fact that no significant
difference in weight loss occurred between groups, so any
sort of underprescribed caloric allotment was equally
imposed on both groups. I would add that the body
composition assessment method was single frequency
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), whose accuracy is
inferior to the more recently developed multi-frequency
BIA,1 which has shown similar performance to dual X-ray
absorptiometry (DXA). Another limitation I would add is the
relatively short trial duration (4 weeks) leaves open questions
about how the results might have played out in the longer-
term.
Conclusion/application
The main finding of this study was a lack of significant
difference in the primary outcome measures (glucose
control/insulin sensitivity and intrahepatic triglyceride
reduction), as well as secondary measures (REE & RQ).
Although this challenges the idea that meal timing matters
with respect to the parameters assessed (particularly in
hypocaloric conditions that would allow weight loss), the
current body of controlled intervention literature in this area
[Back to Contents] Page 19
is mixed. Some studies favor earlier-shifted caloric obese adults. Steroids. 2012 Mar 10;77(4):323-31.
distribution for weight or fat loss3-6 while others showed the [PubMed]
opposite,7,8 or no significant difference (the present study),9 7. Sofer S, Eliraz A, Kaplan S, Voet H, Fink G, Kima T,
one study showing an advantage to subjects who made more Madar Z. Greater weight loss and hormonal changes after
substantial change to their breakfast habits regardless whether 6 months diet with carbohydrates eaten mostly at dinner.
they were skippers or regular eaters (although habitual non- Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011 Oct;19(10):2006-14.
skippers who adopted a skipping pattern lost more weight [PubMed]
than the converse of that),10 and one study showing no 8. Sensi S, Capani F. Chronobiological aspects of weight
between group-differences in fat mass, but a better loss in obesity: effects of different meal timing regimens.
preservation of lean mass in the group consuming larger Chronobiol Int. 1987;4(2):251-61. [PubMed]
evening meals.11 9. Versteeg RI, Ackermans MT, Nederveen AJ, Fliers E,
Serlie MJ, la Fleur SE. Meal timing effects on insulin
The collective body of evidence does not lean compellingly sensitivity and intrahepatic triglycerides during weight
in favor of any particular type of calorie distribution. loss. Int J Obes (Lond). 2017 Aug 16. doi:
Although the slight edge in terms of study count goes to 10.1038/ijo.2017.199. [Epub ahead of print] [PubMed]
consuming more calories earlier in the day, the differences 10. Schlundt DG, Hill JO, Sbrocco T, Pope-Cordle J, Sharp
are still small, and in exercising conditions, they‘d be even T. The role of breakfast in the treatment of obesity: a
less meaningful – and this would apply to potential randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992
differences in glycemic control and intrahepatic lipid Mar;55(3):645-51. [PubMed]
reduction as well. The practical take-away would be to 11. Keim NL, Van Loan MD, Horn WF, Barbieri TF,
individualize calorie or meal distribution according to Mayclin PL. Weight loss is greater with consumption of
individual preference and goal, and basically ignore any idea large morning meals and fat-free mass is preserved with
of a universal ―best‖ distribution. large evening meals in women on a controlled weight
reduction regimen. J Nutr. 1997 Jan;127(1):75-82.
References [PubMed]
1. Gába A, Kapuš O, Cuberek R, Botek M. Comparison of
multi- and single-frequency bioelectrical impedance
analysis with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for
assessment of body composition in post-menopausal
women: effects of body mass index and accelerometer-
determined physical activity. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2015
Aug;28(4):390-400. [PubMed]
2. Verney J, Schwartz C, Amiche S, Pereira B, Thivel D.
Comparisons of a Multi-Frequency Bioelectrical
Impedance Analysis to the Dual-Energy X-Ray
Absorptiometry Scan in Healthy Young Adults
Depending on their Physical Activity Level. J Hum
Kinet. 2015 Oct 14;47:73-80. [PubMed]
3. Lombardo M, et al. Morning meal more efficient for fat
loss in a 3-month lifestyle intervention. J Am Coll Nutr.
2014;33(3):198-205. [PubMed]
4. Jakubowicz D, Barnea M, Wainstein J, Froy O. High
caloric intake at breakfast vs. dinner differentially
influences weight loss of overweight and obese women.
Obesity (Silver Spring). 2013 Dec;21(12):2504-12.
[PubMed]
5. Garaulet M, Gómez-Abellán P, Alburquerque-Béjar JJ,
Lee YC, Ordovás JM, Scheer FA. Timing of food intake
predicts weight loss effectiveness. Int J Obes (Lond).
2013 Apr;37(4):604-11. [PubMed]
6. Jakubowicz D, Froy O, Wainstein J, Boaz M. Meal
timing and composition influence ghrelin levels, appetite
scores and weight loss maintenance in overweight and

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 20


The effects of beef, chicken, or whey protein post-
workout on body composition and muscle
performance.
Sharp MH, Lowery RP, Shields KA, Lane JR, Gray JL, Partl
JM, Hayes DW, Wilson GJ, Hollmer CA, Minivich JR,
Wilson JM. J Strength Cond Res. 2017 Apr 7. doi:
10.1519/JSC.0000000000001936. [Epub ahead of
print][PubMed]
PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the
effects of post-workout consumption of beef protein isolate
(Beef), hydrolyzed chicken protein (Chx) or whey protein
concentrate (WPC), compared to a control on lean mass and
strength during 8 weeks of resistance training. DESIGN:
Forty-one males and females were randomized into four
groups: WPC (m=5, f=5; Age (yrs)=19 ± 2, Height (cm)=171
± 10, Mass (kg)= 74.60 ± 14.19), Beef (m=5, f=5; Age
(yrs)=22 ± 4, Height (cm)=170 ± 7, Mass (kg)=70.13 ± 8.16),
ChxC(m=5, f=6; Age (yrs)=21 ± 2, Height (cm)=169 ± 9,
Mass (kg)=74.52 ± 13.83) and Maltodextrin (control) (m=4,
f=6; Age (yrs)= 21 ± 2, Height (cm)=170 ± 9, Mass (kg)=
73.18 ± 10.96). Subjects partook in an 8-week periodized
resistance-training program. Forty-six grams of protein or a
control were consumed immediately following training or at
similar times on off-days. Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry
(DXA) was used to determine changes in body composition.
Maximum strength were assessed by one repetition maximum
(1RM) for bench press (upper body) and deadlift (lower
body). Power output was measured using cycle ergometer.
RESULTS: WPC (52.48 ± 11.15 to 54.96 ± 11.85), Beef
(51.68 ± 7.61kg to 54.65 ± 8.67kg) and Chx (52.97 ± 12.12kg
to 54.89 ± 13.43kg) each led to a significant increase in lean
body mass compared with baseline (p<0.0001) while the
control condition did not (53.14 ± 11.35kg to 54.19 ±
10.74kg). Fat loss was also significantly decreased at 8 weeks
compared to baseline for all protein sources (WPC: 18.70 ±
7.38kg to 17.16 ± 7.18kg; Beef: 16.43 ± 5.71kg to 14.65 ±
5.41kg; Chx: 17.58 ± 5.57kg to 15.87 ± 6.07kg), but not the
control condition (16.29 ± 7.14kg to 14.95 ± 7.72)
(p<0.0001). One repetition maximum for both deadlift and
bench-press were significantly increased for all treatment
groups when compared to baseline. No differences in strength
were noted between conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Overall,
the results of this study demonstrate that consuming quality
sources of protein from meat or WPC lead to significant
benefits in body composition compared to control.
SPONSORSHIP: Essentia Metabolic Proteins provided
funding for this trial and all funding went to The University
of Tampa.
Study strengths
This study is conceptually strong in the sense that this is a
question that everyone‘s been wondering since seemingly the
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
dark ages, yet no one until now has formally made the
comparison between meat proteins and the much more
commonly consumed powdered protein – whey. All subjects
were resistance-trained, with at least 2 years of prior lifting
experience. This reduces the confounding potential of
‗newbie gains‘ which tend to happen more dramatically and
less discriminately. Meetings with a dietitian occurred
weekly, and subjects used online software to track their
intake daily. No significant between-group differences were
found in energy and macronutrient intake. All shakes were
consumed under blinded supervision (the observing personnel
were ‗blinded‘ as to which treatment was being consumed). A
carbohydrate placebo was useful for ascertaining any
treatment effects of the protein supplements. The dosing of
the treatments (46 g) was sufficient for maxing-out muscle
protein synthetic response. Body composition was assessed
via DXA. All training sessions were supervised, and the
progressive resistance training program was periodized.
Study limitations
The results were seen in college-aged, resistance-trained
subjects, so the applicability of the findings to other
populations is open to investigation. Another limitation was
the use of chicken and beef protein hydrolysate powders
instead of these proteins in solid-food form. This comparison
would be much more logistically challenging, but potentially
more relevant to the questions people would ask in real-world
programming. Such a comparison could be interesting since
the rate of digestion has been shown to be an independent
regulating factor in the anabolic response.1 Furthermore,
comparing intact proteins to their hydrolyzed forms has also
yielded different but equivocal effects.2-4
Comment/application
Quoting the discussion: ―Our present findings underscore
the importance of consuming protein post-workout, but
also indicate similar improvements in body composition
profiles (i.e. increase LBM and decrease FM) should be
expected if an athlete consumes beef protein, chicken protein,
or whey protein in spite of limited research comparing
different animal protein sources on body composition.‖ I
bolded the opening sentence since it‘s inaccurate. This was
not a timing study per se, but a protein supplementation study
– the authors made a leap of faith in shining a special light on
the post-exercise period, when indeed this idea of a narrow
anabolic window of opportunity has been refuted by several
lines of research.5-7
Aside from the lack of significantly different effects between
protein supplements (they all increased LBM and reduced
[Back to Contents] Page 21
FM, while the carbohydrate placebo also resulted in LBM
gain & FM loss, but not enough to reach statistical
significance), I found the significant LBM gains in the
protein groups particularly interesting, since their dietary
protein intakes were reported to range 2.1-2.2 g/kg while the
placebo group‘s protein intake was 2.0 g/kg. This amount
would seemingly be sufficient to optimize muscle growth,
since the largest meta-analysis of its kind recently reported a
(relative) ceiling of effectiveness, under protein-
supplemented conditions, when total protein intakes
amounted to ~1.6 g/kg.8 However, it was noted that the upper
95% confidence interval (think of this as an upper-outlying
effective amount) was 2.2 g/kg, but the vast majority of the
data indicated no further enhancement of resistance training
adaptations beyond roughly 1.6 g/kg, which is substantially
less than 2.2 g/kg. In any case, the present study offers further
evidence in support of cranking protein up, in this case
beyond double the RDA (nearly triple).
Another finding that might be relevant to some individuals
was a lack of between-group differences in results for the
Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale (GSRS). It‘s also
interesting that whey protein significantly increased power
output on the cycle ergometer, while the other treatments did
not. The latter was not mentioned in the abstract. All protein
supplements, as well as the carb placebo resulted in similar
maximal strength gains. This isn‘t surprising knowing that
the placebo condition involved a protein intake of 2.0 g/kg
and a carb intake of 4.3 g/kg (macronutrition was similar
across all conditions).
4. Farnfield MM, Trenerry C, Carey KA, Cameron-Smith
D. Plasma amino acid response after ingestion of
different whey protein fractions. Int J Food Sci Nutr.
2009 Sep;60(6):476-86. [PubMed]
5. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon A2, Wilborn C3, Urbina SL3,
Hayward SE3, Krieger J4. Pre- versus post-exercise
protein intake has similar effects on muscular
adaptations. PeerJ. 2017 Jan 3;5:e2825. doi:
10.7717/peerj.2825. eCollection 2017. [PubMed]
6. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA, Krieger JW. The effect of
protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: a
meta-analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013 Dec
3;10(1):53. [PubMed]
7. Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ. Nutrient timing revisited: is
there a post-exercise anabolic window? J Int Soc Sports
Nutr. 2013 Jan 29;10(1):5. [PubMed]
8. Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, Schoenfeld BJ,
Henselmans M, Helms E, Aragon AA, Devries MC,
Banfield L, Krieger JW, Phillips SM. A systematic
review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect
of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced
gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J
Sports Med. 2017 Jul 11. pii: bjsports-2017-097608.
[PubMed]

References

1. West DW, Burd NA, Coffey VG, Baker SK, Burke LM,
Hawley JA, Moore DR, Stellingwerff T, Phillips SM.
Rapid aminoacidemia enhances myofibrillar protein
synthesis and anabolic intramuscular signaling responses
after resistance exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011
Sep;94(3):795-803. [PubMed]
2. Deglaire A, Fromentin C, Fouillet H, Airinei G,
Gaudichon C, Boutry C, Benamouzig R, Moughan PJ,
Tomé D, Bos C. Hydrolyzed dietary casein as compared
with the intact protein reduces postprandial peripheral,
but not whole-body, uptake of nitrogen in humans. Am J
Clin Nutr. 2009 Oct;90(4):1011-22. [PubMed]
3. Koopman R, Crombach N, Gijsen AP, Walrand S,
Fauquant J, Kies AK, Lemosquet S, Saris WH, Boirie Y,
van Loon LJ. Ingestion of a protein hydrolysate is
accompanied by an accelerated in vivo digestion and
absorption rate when compared with its intact protein.
Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jul;90(1):106-15. [PubMed]

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 22


Periodization through the ages: an introduction.
By Brandon Roberts, PhD, CSCS
_________________________________________________________________
Periodization is a classic topic in the strength and
conditioning field. There are dozens of textbooks on the
subject, but the modern era beganwith Leo Matveyev in
Russia circa 1960.1 Histheory has been further adapted by
coaches and scientists who make modifications to fit their
types of athletes. Severaldebates on which type of
periodization is best have surfaced in the past few decades.
In the next few months we‘ll be delving into some of the
studies that are part of this rich history, and how they fit
within the scope of the literature. Furthermore, we‘ll focus on
2-3 studies per month - with details on strength/limitations as
well as the main findings, much like you would normally see
in the ―breaking research‖ section of AARR. The primary
goal is to give a comprehensive review, so that we can
understand how periodization models have evolved and how
they can be used appropriately in training. A secondary goal
is to identify those who support specific types of
periodization and when one type may be more beneficial than
another.
The question on training has always been: “How do we make
the most efficient training program that produces the best
results?”
One of the early books devoted to sport training was
published by Boris Kotov in 1916.2 His book introduced three
stages of training: general fitness preparation, specialized
training, and specific preparation for competition. These ideas
were further developed by Pikhala who divided the year into
four training cycles: preparatory, spring, summer and active
rest.3 Circling back to Matveyev in 1964, when he synopsized
all the available information on training periodization in a
textbook – culminating in what is now known as the classic
approach. Again, we‘ll get into more specifics as we move
through each study.
Fast forward several decades and we now have multiple types
of periodization.To provide a narrower scope we will focus
on training based outcomes rather than sport outcomes.
Ideally, we would use both but the interpretation and
extrapolation of data becomes more difficult. We‘ll also be
excluding textbooks because of availability and peer-review.
Early textbooks are a great resource for knowledge - I
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
recommend everyone invest in -but some may not be peer-
reviewed.
We could start at numerous different points, but let‘s begin
with a theoretical model of strength training by Dr. Mike
Stone in 1982.4 He presented training as four phases:
hypertrophy, basic strength, strength-power, and active rest.
The different phases are based around the General Adaptation
Syndrome as it relates to exercise and training.5 Even back
then they recognized there were stressors outside of training
(Figure 1, Stone 1982). They also understood the basic
principles of training were: frequency, duration, intensity,
variation, and specificity. They thought ―the potential for
overtraining is reduced by variation in volume and intensity
and in the amount of technique or other specialized work
performed.‖
The variation in volume and intensity were applied over the
large training periods (macrocycles) split to smaller periods
(mesocycles) and further into weeks (microcycles). The
summary of Stone et al noted that ―this model of training has
been compared to various methods of strength-power training
including 3 sets of 6RM, low repetitions and various sets to
exhaustion‖ they go on to write that their model is not the
final answer, but is based on sound concepts and principles
that will provide a superior training program. Little did they
know the can of worms they were about to open. To be
continued…...
References
1. Issurin Matveyev, L.P. (1964). Problem of periodization
the sport training. [In Russian.] Moscow: FiS Publisher.
[Back to Contents] Page 23
2. Kotov, B.A (1916). Olympic sport. Guidelines for track
and field. [In Russian.] Sankt Petersburg: Majtov
Publisher.
3. Pihkala, L. (1930). Allgemeine Richtlinienfür das
athletische Training. In G. Krümmel (Ed.), Athletik.
Handbuch der lebenswichtigen Leibesübungen (pp. 185-
90). München: Lehmann.
4. Stone, Michael H., et al. "A Theoretical Model of
Strength Training." Strength & Conditioning Journal 4.4
(1982): 36-39. [ResearchGate]
5. Garhammer, J. Periodization of Strength Training for
Athletes. Track Technique 73:2398-2399, 1979
_________________________________________________

Justin Brandon Roberts is a post-

powerlifters and bodybuilders.
thestrengthguys.com (coaching)
_________________________________________________
doctoral fellow at the University of
Alabama at Birmingham. He studies
the molecular and applied
adaptations to resistance training.
His work specifically focuses on the
inter-individual variability that
occurs due to the inflammatory
response. He is also a Coach and the
Director of Research & Education
for The Strength Guys where he
applies evidence-based practice to
Websites: SCI-FIT.net (writing) &

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 24


What’s wrong with news media headlines?
By Joshua Hockett
____________________________________________________
Today's headlines and news reels are often riddled with
statements about new research showing that eggs are bad,
coffee can kill, sugar is toxic and protein will blow up your
kidneys. The next week the opposite is true. Sound about
right? Yeah thought so. This article will shed light on how to
better absorb and analyze such statements, be they digital,
television, or in print. After looking over the example and its
implications, I hope you will have a better means to
understand and screen for real facts versus overhyped
headline grabbers. Take a quick glance at both of the line
graphs below…
Just to give you a general understanding of what‘s being
shown above: Boating accidents in 2015 from the U.S. coast
guard by month, as well as U.S. national ice cream
production (by the five leading retail manufactures) by month
for the same year.
Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017
Now, do you see a trend or correlation? I do too. It‘s pretty
obvious. It would seem that both have a closely-related or
correlated trend line with a mid-summer peak and otherwise
downward trending frequency all other times of year.
Looking at these two graphs it ―could be‖ said that when the
U.S. produces around 21 million gallons of ice cream we get
all crazy and cause upward of 600 boating accidents. I guess
that much ice cream production must be causing us all to get
ice cream-wasted on the open water and crash into crap,
right? WRONG!
This is a classic example of what the phrase correlation ≠
causation looks like. Just because the two data sets trend
closely together for the same time frame (2015) andlocation
(U.S.), this does not mean one causes the other. Well
then,‗what the heck?‘you ask. Good question. This is what is
called a confounding variable: that which is independent of
the two variables yet exerts impacts on both of them
separately. What might a few of these confounding variables
be? Let‘s take a look.
1. It‘s hot in the summer months. In most areas of the
U.S. north of Oklahoma City, you have a traditional
summer season from June to August when it‘s
hottest and a good time to get on the water and savor
some delicious sweet cream.
2. If you look at the peaks for both graphs, it just-so-
happens that those same three months of summer are
when boating accidents and ice cream production in
the U.S. hit their highest points. Sunny weather, hot
temperatures and convenient/appealing seasons to
get on the water (in your boat with or without ice
cream) converge.
But even with these confounding variables identified, it does
not imply that this is the case for every person in the U.S. in
all areas. So what‘s left out? I am so glad you asked. Let‘s
look deeper.
1. This data only accounts for those with boats and
those who live near a body of water (far higher in
coastal areas than inland, of course). And, it‘s only
for those boating accidents that were reported.
Likewise, not every brand of ice cream made and
sold in stores is considered in the data of overall
frozen desserts production for 2015 year — only the
top five brands.
2. Cities and populations that do not have drastic
changes in seasons — such as those with a more
year-round warmer climate— are likely see only a
modest increase in frozen dessert sales.
[Back to Contents] Page 25
 3. Desert areas and large metro cities away from the
coast and/or bodies of water also likely do not have
large spikes or drops in boating activity. This means
the very trend depicted in the graphs is an average of
the whole country, with most of the trend coming
from those geographic points with a true summer
season and large availability to open water where
boating is common.
Look at the graph below to see how this confounding variable
looks relative to the line graphs above…
or systematic reviews are the best options to truly discern the
collective state of the evidence — and I say ―state‖ because
research is always evolving, and our positions on certain
topics indeed can change.
Be the scientist yourself. When you read about or hear about
a new finding or study, be aware of holes. Ask yourself ―what
else may cause, help, or prevent this? Science is self-
correcting and capable of weeding out the truth from the
dogma. Sadly, far too many people indiscriminately bite
deeply into the findings early on, and by the time the truth
does come out, it‘s too late to save or sway those folks back
to reality and facts. However, armed with the knowledge of
how headlines ignore crucial confounders, this will not be
you.

____________________________________________________
Joshua is the former afloat fitness and nutrition
director for the USS Essex LHD2 class amphibious
assault ship and the 1200 members crew ported in
San Diego, CA. Joshua has deployed with the USS
Ronald Reagan in 2013 and the USS Essex in 2015.
Joshua has been working with the Navy afloat
fitness program (MWR) since June 2012. Prior to
that time Joshua was a strength and conditioning coordinator at the
University of Missouri for two years. Joshua is the co-founder and co-
host to the recently launched website and podcast
TrainFightRecover.com. His personal website is at joshuahockett.me
and he is an active fitness foodie on Twitter, Facebook ad Instagram.
Look familiar? The same three months with highest
temperatures in Jefferson City, WI are spot-on with the three
months that have the highest incident of boating accidents
and ice cream production.

The point in all this is simple: Whether you‘re a statistics

wizard or average Joe with a knack for using evidence and
research to guide your decisions and opinions with in fitness,
exercise, training, diet plans, and beyond — clearly see that
what research shows as a correlation does not always mean
that one factor causes another.

Popular headlines are currently thrown around almost weekly

about the proposed correlation of coconut oil with
cardiovascular disease (CVD); high red meat diets with
cancer and CVD; high salt intake with high blood pressure;
GMO‘s with cancer; wheat with Alzheimer‘s; egg
consumption with high cholesterol……and on and on. Could
there be SOME sort of relationship in some cases? Perhaps,
but it is often small and lacking meaningful significance. The
findings of a standalone study can never be considered be-all
truth. Repeated studies from multiple labs with various
populations is what strengthens our confidence that results
were not the ‗accidental‘ or false. High-quality meta-analyses

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 26

―I believe that one defines oneself by reinvention. To not be
like your parents. To not be like your friends. To be yourself.
To cut yourself out of stone.‖
– Henry Rollins

If you have any questions, comments, suggestions, bones of

contention, cheers, jeers, guest articles you‘d like to submit
for consideration, send it over to support@alanaragon.com.

Alan Aragon’s Research Review – July 2017 [Back to Contents] Page 27