MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NONG LAM UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND FOOD SCIENCE

Course: Physics 2

Module 3: Mechanical Oscillations and Waves

Instructor: Dr. Nguyen Thanh Son

Academic year: 2023-2024

 Module 3: Mechanical Oscillations and Waves
3.1. Mechanical oscillations
3.1.1 Harmonization
3.1.2 Decreasing oscillations
3.1.3 Compulsory oscillations
3.1.4 Resonance
3.2. Mechanical waves
3.2.1 Wave function
3.2.2 Sound waves
3.2.3 Wave interference

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3.1. Mechanical oscillations

• Oscillation is the repetitive motion about a central point (often an equilibrium position).

• A very special kind of motion occurs when the force acting on a body is proportional to the
displacement of the body from some equilibrium position. If this force is always directed toward the
equilibrium position, repetitive back and-forth motion occurs about this position. Such motion is
called periodic motion, harmonic motion, oscillation, or
vibration.

• We are most likely familiar with several examples of

periodic motion, such as the oscillation of a block attached to a
spring, the swinging of a child on a playground swing, the
motion of a pendulum, and the vibrations of a stringed musical
instrument. In addition to these, numerous other systems
exhibit periodic motion. For example, molecules in a solid
oscillate about their equilibrium positions; electromagnetic
waves, such as light waves, radar and radio waves, are
characterized by oscillating electric and magnetic field vectors;
and in alternating-current (AC) electrical circuits, voltage,
current, and electrical charge vary periodically with time.
Figure 21. A block attached to
3.1.1 Harmonization a spring moving on a frictionless
surface. (a) When the block is displaced
♦ Simple harmonic motion to the right of equilibrium
• Most of the material in this module deals with simple (x > 0), the force exerted by the
harmonic motion (SHM), in which an object oscillates such spring acts to the left. (b) When
that its position is specified by a sinusoidal function of time the block is at its equilibrium position
with no loss in mechanical energy. In real mechanical systems, (x = 0), the force exerted by
damping (frictional) forces are often present. the spring is zero. (c) When the
block is displaced to the left of
• Consider a physical system that consists of a block of mass equilibrium (x < 0), the force exerted
m attached to the end of a spring, with the block free to move by the spring acts to the
on a horizontal, frictionless surface (Fig. 21). right.

• When the spring is neither stretched nor compressed, the

block is at the position called the equilibrium position of the system.

• We know from experience that such a system oscillates back and forth if disturbed from its
equilibrium position.

• Recall that when the block is displaced a small distance x from equilibrium, the spring exerts on the
block a force that is proportional to the displacement and given by Hooke’s law,

Fx = –kx (85)

• It is a restoring force because it is always directed toward the equilibrium position and therefore
opposite the displacement. That is, when the block is displaced to the right of equilibrium (Figure
21a), the restoring force is directed to the left. When the block is displaced to the left, the restoring
force is directed to the right (Figure 21c).
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• Applying Newton’s second law to the motion of the block,
we have

F = ma (86)

• Combining equations (85) and (86) leads to

a = –(k/m)x (87)

• From Equation (87) we see that the acceleration is

proportional to the displacement of the block, and its
direction is opposite the direction of the displacement.
Systems that behave in this way are said to exhibit simple
harmonic motion. An object moves with simple harmonic
motion whenever its acceleration is proportional to its
displacement from some equilibrium position and is
oppositely directed.

• In general, a particle moving along the x axis exhibits Figure 22. (a) An x - t curve for a
simple harmonic motion when x, the particle’s displacement particle undergoing simple
from equilibrium, varies in time according to the relationship harmonic motion. The amplitude
of the motion is A, the period is T,
and the phase constant is φ.
x = Acos(ωt + φ) (88) (b) The x - t curve in the special
case in which x = A at t = 0 and
where A, ω and φ are constants. hence φ = 0.

• Figure 22a shows a plot of x as a function of t, giving physical significance to these constants.

• The amplitude A of the motion is the maximum displacement of the particle in either the positive or
negative x direction. The constant ω is called the angular frequency of the motion and has units of
radians per second. The constant φ, called the phase constant (or phase angle), is determined by the
initial displacement and velocity of the particle.

• If the particle is at its maximum position x = A at t = 0 then φ = 0, and the curve of x versus t is a
sinusoidal curve, as shown in Figure 22b. If the particle is at some other position at t = 0, the
constants φ and A tell us what the position was at time t = 0.

• The quantity ωt + φ is called the phase of the motion and is useful in comparing the motions of two
oscillators.

• Note from Equation (88) that the trigonometric function x is periodic and repeats itself every time
ωt increases by 2π rad. The period T of the motion is the time it takes for the particle to go through
one full cycle. We say that the particle has made one oscillation. This definition of T says that the
value of x at time t equals the value of x at time t + T.

• By observation we know that the phase increases by 2π rad in a time T:

ω(t + T) + φ = ωt + φ + 2π
Hence,

4
 T = 2π/ω (89)

• The inverse of the period is called the frequency f of the motion. The frequency represents the
number of oscillations that the particle makes per unit time,

f = 1/T = ω/2π (90)

• The SI units of f are cycles per second (1/s), or hertz (Hz).

• By rearranging Equation (90), we have:

ω = 2πf (91)

♦ Velocity and acceleration

• We can obtain the linear velocity of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion by
differentiating Equation (88) with respect to time:

v = dx/dt = –ωAsin(ωt + φ) (92)

• The acceleration of the particle is

a = dv/dt = –ω2Acos(ωt + φ) (93)

• From equations (88) and (93), we can obtain

a = – ω2x (94)

• Because a = d 2x/dt2, from Equation (94) we can show that for an SMH, the following differential
equation is satisfied

d2x
2
+ ω2x = 0 (95)
dt

• We can show that the solution to Equation (95) is given by Equation (88).

• From equations (87) and (94) we have for a block - string system

k
ω= (96)
m

and
m
T = 2π (97)
k

5
where k is the spring’s constant (stiffness) and m the mass of the block.

• We see that the frequency and period depend only on the mass of the block and on the spring’s
constant. Furthermore, the frequency and period are independent of the amplitude of the motion. As
we might expect, the frequency is greater for a stiffer spring (the stiffer the spring, the greater the
value of k) and decreases with increasing mass.

• From Equation (92) we see that because the sine function oscillates between ±1, the extreme values
of v are ±ωA. Because the cosine function also oscillates between ±1, Equation (94) shows that the
extreme values of a are ±ω2A. Therefore, the maximum speed and the magnitude of the maximum
acceleration of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion are

vmax = ωA (98)

and
a max = ω2A (99)

• The following properties of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion are important:
- The acceleration of the particle is proportional to its displacement but is in the opposite
direction. This is the necessary and sufficient condition for simple harmonic motion as opposed to all
other kinds of vibration.

- The displacement from the equilibrium position, velocity, and acceleration all
vary sinusoidally with time but are not in phase.

- The frequency and the period of the motion are independent of the amplitude.

Example

A block with a mass of 200 g is connected to a light spring for which the force constant is 5.00
N/m and is free to oscillate on a horizontal, frictionless surface. The block is displaced 5.00 cm from
equilibrium and released from rest.
(a) Find the period of its motion.
(b) Determine the maximum speed of the block.
(c) What is the maximum acceleration of the block?
(d) Express the displacement, velocity, and acceleration as functions of time.
Ans.: (a) T = 1.26 s; (b) vmax = 0.250 m/s; (c) amax = 1.25 m/s2
Solution

(a) Using (97) leads to T = 1.26 s.

(b) From (98) vmax = ωA = 0.250 m/s.
(c) From (99) amax = ω2A = 1.25 m/s2.

(d) From x = Acos(ωt + φ) (88) when t = 0, x = 5 cm = A; substituting A = Acosφ = 1 cosφ

=1 φ = 0; from T = 2π/ω (89 ω = 5 rad/s and from (88) x = 5cos(5t) (cm).
From v = –ωAsin(ωt + φ) (92) v = −0.25sin(5t) (m/s).
From a = –ω2Acos(ωt + φ) (93) a = −1.25cos(5t) (m/s2).

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♦ Simple pendulum

• The simple pendulum is another mechanical system that exhibits periodic motion.
• It consists of a particle-like blob of mass m suspended by
a light string of length L that is fixed at the upper end, as
shown in Figure 23. The motion occurs in the vertical plane
and is driven by the force of gravity. We shall show that
provided the angle θ is small (less than about 10°), the
motion is that of a simple harmonic oscillator.

• The forces acting on the blob are the force T exerted by

the string and the gravitational force m g . The tangential
component of the gravitational force, mgsinθ, always acts
toward θ = 0, opposite the displacement. Therefore, the
tangential force is a restoring force, and we can apply
Newton’s second law for motion in the tangential direction:
d2s Figure 23. When θ is small, a
∑ tF = − mgsin θ = m
dt 2
(100) simple pendulum oscillates in simple
harmonic motion about the
equilibrium position θ = 0. The
where s is the blob’s displacement measured along the arc restoring force is mgsinθ, the
and the minus sign indicates that the tangential force acts component of the gravitational
toward the equilibrium (vertical) position. Because s = Lθ force tangential to the arc.
and L is constant, this equation reduces to
d2θ g
2
= − sin θ (101)
dt L

• The right side is proportional to sinθ rather than to θ; hence, with sinθ presence, we would not
expect simple harmonic motion because this expression is not of the form of Equation (95). However,
for small values of θ, we can use the approximation sinθ ≅ θ; thus the equation of motion for the
simple pendulum becomes

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 d2θ g
2
= − θ = − ω2θ (102)
dt L

• Now we have an expression of the same form as Equation (95), and we conclude that the motion for
small angular amplitudes of oscillation is a simple harmonic motion. Therefore, θ can be written as

θ = θmaxcos(ωt + φ) (103)

where θmax is the maximum angular displacement or angular amplitude and the angular frequency ω
is
g
ω= (104)
L

and the period of the motion is

2π L
T= = 2π (105)
ω g

• We also see that the period and frequency of a simple pendulum depend only on the length of the
string and the acceleration due to gravity. Because the period is independent of the mass, we conclude
that all simple pendulums that are of equal length and are at the same location (so that g is constant)
oscillate with the same period provided that θmax is small.

• The simple pendulum can be used as a timekeeper because its period depends only on its length and
the local value of g. It is also a convenient device for making precise measurements of the free-fall
acceleration. Such measurements are important because variations in local values of g can provide
information on the location of oil and of other valuable underground resources.

Example

♦ Physical pendulum
• The analysis of pendulum motion in terms of angular
displacement works for any rigid body swinging back and forth
about a horizontal axis under gravity.

• A rigid body - instead of point mass - is pivoted to oscillate as

shown in Figure 24. There is no requirement of string. As a result,
there is no tension involved in this case. A physical pendulum Figure 24. A physical
pendulum.
8
consists of an actual object allowed to rotate freely around a horizontal axis

• Consider a rigid body pivoted at a point O that is at distance d from its center of mass (Fig. 24). The
force of gravity provides a torque about an axis through O, and the magnitude of that torque is
mgdsinθ, where θ is shown in Figure 24. Using the equation τ = Iα where I is the moment of inertia
about the axis through O, we obtain

d 2θ
− mgdsin θ = I (106)
dt 2

• The minus sign indicates that the torque about O tends to decrease |θ|. That is, the force of gravity
produces a restoring torque. If we again assume that θ is small, the approximation sinθ ≅ θ is valid,
and Equation (106) reduces to

d2θ mgd
2
= − θ = − ω2θ (107)
dt I

• Because Equation (107) is of the same form as Equation (95), the object’s motion is a simple
harmonic motion. That is, the solution of Equation (107) is

θ = θmax cos(ωt + φ) (108)

where θmax is the maximum angular displacement or angular amplitude and

mgd
ω= (109)
I

and the period is

2π I
T= = 2π (110)
ω mgd

• One can use this result to measure the moment of inertia of a flat rigid body. If the location of the
center of mass - and hence the value of d - are known, the moment of inertia can be obtained by
measuring the period. Finally, note that Equation (110) reduces to the period of a simple pendulum
(Equation 105) when I = md 2 - that is, when all the mass of the rigid body is concentrated at its center
of mass.

Example

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Solution
2π I
T= = 2π
For physical pendulum, ω mgd

T = 2 π(2L/3g)1/2; substituting leads to T = 1.64 s.

♦ Comparing simple harmonic motion with uniform circular motion

• We can better understand and visualize many aspects of simple harmonic motion by studying its
relationship to uniform circular motion, as shown in Figure 25.

• Consider a particle located at point P on the circumference of a circle of radius A, as shown in

Figure 25a, with the line OP making an angle φ with the x axis at t = 0. We call this circle a reference
circle for comparing simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion, and we take the position
of P at as our reference position.

• If the particle moves in the circle with constant angular speed ω, as illustrated by Figure 25b, then at
some time t > 0, the angle between OP and the x axis is θ = (ωt + φ).

• As the particle moves in the circle, the projection of P on the x axis, labeled point Q, moves back
and forth along the x axis, between the limits. Note that points P and Q always have the same x
coordinate. From the right triangle OPQ, we see that this x coordinate is

x = Acos(ωt + φ) (111)

• This expression shows that point Q moves in simple harmonic motion along the x axis. Therefore,
we conclude that simple harmonic motion along a straight line can be represented by the
projection of uniform circular motion along a diameter of a reference circle.

• We can make a similar argument by noting from Figure 25b that the projection of P along the y axis
also exhibits simple harmonic motion. Therefore, uniform circular motion can be considered a
10
combination of two simple harmonic motions, one along the x axis and one along the y axis, with the
two differing in phase by 90°.

Figure 25. Relationship between the uniform circular motion of point P and the simple
harmonic motion of point Q. A particle at P moves in a circle of radius A with constant angular
speed ω. (a) A reference circle showing the position of P at t = 0. (b) The x coordinates of
points P and Q are equal and vary in time as cos(ωt + φ). (c) The x component of the velocity
of P equals the velocity of Q. (d) The x component of the acceleration of P equals the acceleration
of Q.

• This geometric interpretation shows that the time for one complete revolution of point P around the
reference circle is equal to the period of motion T for simple harmonic motion between x = ±A. That
is, the angular speed ω of P is the same as the angular frequency ω of simple harmonic motion along
the x axis (this is why we use the same symbol). The phase constant φ for simple harmonic motion
corresponds to the initial angle that OP makes with the x axis. The radius A of the reference
circle equals the amplitude of the simple harmonic motion.

• Because the relationship between linear and angular speeds for circular motion is v = rω, the
particle moving in the reference circle of radius A has a velocity of magnitude ωA. From the
geometry in Figure 25c, we see that the x component of this velocity is –ωAsin(ωt + φ). By
definition, point Q has a velocity given by dx/dt. Differentiating Equation (111) with respect to time,
we find that the velocity of Q is the same as the x component of the velocity of P (Equation 92).

• The acceleration of P in the reference circle is directed radially inward toward O and has a
magnitude v2/A. From the geometry in Figure 25d, we see that the x component of this acceleration
is –ω2Acos(ωt + φ). This value is also the acceleration of the projected point Q along the x axis, as
you can verify by taking the second time derivative of Equation (111).

♦ Energy for simple harmonic motion

• Let us examine the mechanical energy of the block-spring system shown in Figure 21. Because the
surface is frictionless, we expect the total mechanical energy to be constant. We can use Equation
(92) to express the kinetic energy as

1 2 1
K = mv = mω2 A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ) (112)
2 2

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 1 2
• The elastic potential energy stored in the spring for any elongation x is given by kx . Using
2
Equation (83), we obtain

1 2 1 2
U= kx = kA cos2 (ωt + φ) (113)
2 2

• We see that K and U are always positive quantities. Because ω2 = k/m we can express the total
mechanical energy E of the simple harmonic oscillator as

1 2
E = K +U = kA [sin2 (ωt + φ) + cos2 (ωt + φ)] (114)
2

• From the identity sin2 α + cos2α = 1, we see that the quantity in square brackets is unity. Therefore,
Equation (114) reduces to

1 2
E= kA (115)
2

• That is, the total mechanical energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a constant of motion and
is proportional to the square of the amplitude. Note that U is small when K is large, and vice
versa, because the sum must be constant.

• In fact, the total mechanical energy is equal to the maximum potential energy stored in the spring
when x = ±A because at these points v = 0 and thus there is no kinetic energy. At the equilibrium
position, where U = 0 because x = 0, the total energy, all in the form of kinetic energy, is
1 2
kA again. That is,
2
1 1 1
E = mv2max = mω2A 2 = kA 2 (116)
2 2 2

• Plots of the kinetic and potential energies versus time appear in Figure 26a, where we have taken
φ = 0. As mentioned earlier, both K and U are always positive, and at all times their sum is a constant
equal to the total energy of the system. The variations of K and U with the displacement x of the
block are also plotted.

12
 Figure 26. (a) Plots of kinetic energy and potential energy versus time for a simple
harmonic oscillator with φ = 0. (b) Plots of kinetic energy and potential energy
versus displacement for a simple harmonic oscillator. In either plot, note that
K + U = constant.

3.1.2 Decreasing (damped) oscillations

• The oscillatory motions we have considered so far have been for ideal systems - that is, systems that
oscillate indefinitely under the action of a linear restoring force. In many real systems, dissipative
forces, such as friction, retard the motion. Consequently, the mechanical energy of the system
diminishes in time, and the motion is said to be damped (decreasing).
13
• One common type of retarding force is the one that is proportional to the speed of the moving object
and acts in the direction opposite the motion. This retarding force is often observed when an object
moves through air, for instance. Because this retarding force can be expressed as

R = − bv (117)

where b is a constant called the damping coefficient and the

restoring force of the system is −kx, from Newton’s second
law, we have

∑F x
= − kx − bv = max

dx d2 x
or − kx − b =m 2 (118)
dt dt

• The solution of this equation requires mathematics that

may not be familiar to you yet; we simply state it here
without proof. When the retarding force is much small
compared with the maximum restoring force - that is, when
b is small - the solution of Equation (118) is

x = Ae-(b/2m)tcos(ωt + φ) (119)

where the angular frequency of oscillation is given by

k b 2
ω= −( ) (120)
m 2m
Figure 27. (a) Graph of
• This result can be verified by substituting Equation (119) displacement versus time for a
into Equation (118). Figure 27a shows the displacement as a damped oscillator. Note the
function of time for an object oscillating in the presence of a decrease in amplitude with time.
retarding force, and Figure 27b depicts one such system: a (b) One example of a damped
block attached to a spring and submersed in a viscous liquid. oscillator is a mass attached to a
spring and submersed in a viscous
• We see that when the retarding force is much smaller than liquid.
the restoring force in magnitude, the oscillatory character of
the motion is preserved but the amplitude decreases in time, with the result that the motion
ultimately ceases. Any system that behaves in this way is known as a damped oscillator. The dashed
blue lines in Figure 27a, which define the envelope of the oscillatory curve, represent the exponential
factor in Equation (119). This envelope shows that the amplitude decays exponentially with time.

• For motion with given spring constant and block mass, the oscillations dampen more rapidly as the
maximum value of the retarding force approaches the maximum value of the restoring force.

• It is convenient to express the angular frequency of a damped oscillator in the form

b 2
ω = ω2o − ( ) (121)
2m

14
where ωo = (k/m)1/2 represents the angular frequency in the absence of a retarding force (the
undamped oscillator) and is called the natural angular frequency of the system.

• When the magnitude of the maximum retarding force Rmax = bvmax < kA, the system is said to be
underdamped. As the value of R approaches kA, the amplitude of the oscillation decreases more and
more rapidly. When b reaches a critical value b c such that bc/2m = ωo, the system does not oscillate
and is said to be critically damped. In this case the system, once released from rest at some non-
equilibrium position, returns to equilibrium position and then stays there.

• If the medium is so viscous that the retarding force is greater than the restoring force in magnitude -
that is, if Rmax = bvmax > kA and bc/2m > ωo - the system is overdamped. Again, the displaced
system, when free to move, does not oscillate but simply returns to its equilibrium position. As the
damping increases, the time it takes the system to approach equilibrium position also increases.

• In any case in which friction is present, whether the system is overdamped or underdamped, the
energy of the oscillator eventually falls to zero. The lost mechanical energy dissipates into internal
energy in the retarding medium.

3.1.3 Compulsory (forced) oscillations

• It is possible to compensate for energy loss in a damped system by applying an external force that
does positive work on the system. At any instant, energy can be put into the system by an applied
source that acts in the direction of motion of the oscillator. For example, a child on a swing can be
kept in motion by appropriately timed pushes. The amplitude of motion remains constant if the energy
input per cycle exactly equals the energy lost as a result of damping. Any motion of this type
is called forced oscillation.

• A common example of a forced oscillator is a damped oscillator driven by an external force that
varies periodically such as,

Fext = F0cos(ωt) (122)

where ω is the angular frequency of the periodic force (the driving force or excitation force) and F0 is
the amplitude of the driving force (or excitation force). Adding this driving force to the left side of
Equation (118) gives

dx d2 x
Fo cos(ωt) − kx − b =m 2 (123)
dt dt

• As earlier, we present the solution of this equation without proof. After a sufficiently long period of
time, when the energy input per cycle equals the energy lost per cycle, a steady-state condition is
reached in which the oscillations proceed with constant amplitude. At this time, when the system is in
a steady state, the solution of Equation (123) is

x = Acos(ωt + φ) (124)

where
Fo / m
A= (125)
bω
(ω − ω ) + ( )2
2 2 2
o
m

15
and ωo = (k/m)1/2 is the natural angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.

• One could argue that in steady state the

oscillator must physically have the same
frequency as the driving force, and thus the
solution given by Equation (124) is expected. In
fact, when this solution is substituted into
Equation (123), one finds that it is indeed a
solution, provided the amplitude is given by
Equation (125).

3.1.4 Resonance

• Equation (124) shows that because an external

force is driving it, the motion of the forced
oscillator is not damped. The external agent
provides the necessary energy to overcome the
losses due to the retarding force. Note that the
system oscillates at the angular frequency ω of the
driving force.

• For small damping, the amplitude becomes very
large when the angular frequency of the driving
force is near the natural angular frequency of the
oscillator. The dramatic increase in amplitude
near the natural angular frequency ωo is called
resonance, and for this reason ωo is sometimes
called the resonance angular frequency of the
system.
Figure 27. Graph of amplitude versus
angular frequency for a damped oscillator
when a periodic driving force is present.
When the angular frequency of the driving
force equals the natural angular frequency
ωo, resonance occurs. Note that the shape of
the resonance curve depends on the size of
the damping coefficient b.

• The reason for large-amplitude oscillations at

the resonance frequency is that energy is being
transferred to the system under the most favorable conditions. We can better understand this by
taking the first time derivative of x in Equation (124), which gives an expression for the velocity of
the oscillator. We find that v is proportional to sin(ωt + φ). The rate at which work is done on the
oscillator by Fext equals the dot product Fext .v of Fext and the velocity v . Remember that “rate at
which work is done” is the definition of power. Because the product Fext .v is a maximum when
Fext and v are in phase, we conclude that at resonance the applied force is in phase with the
velocity and the power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum.

• Figure 27 is a graph of amplitude as a function of angular frequency for a forced oscillator with and
without damping. Note that the amplitude increases with decreasing damping (b => 0) and that the
resonance curve broadens as the damping increases.

• Under steady-state conditions and at any driving frequency, the energy transferred into the system
equals the energy lost because of the damping force; hence, the average total energy of the oscillator
remains constant. In the absence of a damping force (b = 0), we see from Equation (125) that the
steady-state amplitude approaches infinity as ω => ωo. In other words, if there are no losses in the

16
system and if we continue to drive an initially motionless oscillator with a periodic force that is in
phase with the velocity, the amplitude of motion builds without limit (see the brown curve in Fig. 27).
This limitless building does not occur in practice because some damping is always present.
• Resonance actually appears in other areas of physics. For example, certain electrical circuits have
natural frequencies. A bridge has natural frequencies that can be set into resonance by an appropriate
driving force. A dramatic example of such resonance occurred in 1940, when the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge in the state of Washington, the United States of America was destroyed by resonant vibrations.
Although the winds were not particularly strong on that occasion, the bridge ultimately collapsed
because the bridge design had no built-in safety features.

Example A block of mass m attached to a spring of stiffness (constant) k is subjected to a

harmonic force F(t) = 100cos(100t) (N) as shown in the above figure. The system then undergoes a
forced (compulsory) oscillation.
(a) What is the angular frequency of this oscillation?
(b) If the resonance occurs, find the value of mass m in kg.

Solution
(a) ω = 100 rad/s
(equaling the angular frequency of the driving force or excitation force ).

(b) When the resonance occurs we have ω = ω0 = (k/m)1/2 (for the spring – block system) with
k = 3000 N/m m = 0.3 kg.

♦ The quality factor Q

• The behavior of a driven oscillating system after the driving force is removed depends on b and on
how close ω is to ωo. This behavior is sometimes quantified by a parameter called the quality factor
Q. The closer to being undamped a system is, the greater its Q.

• The Q factor is actually a measure of the “quality” of an oscillator (such as a bell): how long will it
keep ringing once you hit it? Essentially, it is a measure of how many oscillations taking place during
the time the energy decays by the factor of 1/e. Q is defined by

Q = ωoτ (126)

where τ is the decay time. This means that in time τ, the energy of the system is down by a factor 1/e
with e = 2.71828. . . .
.
• So, strictly speaking, Q measures how many radians the oscillator goes around in time τ. For a
typical bell, τ would be a few seconds; if the note is middle C, 256 Hz, that is ωo = 256x2π (rad/s);
therefore, Q would be of order of a few thousand radians.

17
3.2. Mechanical waves

3.2.1 Wave function

a. Description of a propagating wave

• A wave is a disturbance from an equilibrium state that moves or propagates from one region of
space to another. Wave phenomena are found in all areas of physics. The wave concept plays a
central and overwhelmingly important role in all of physical theories and is a key unifying element in
the most diverse branches of physics.

• A wave is a distortion in a material or medium, where the individual parts of the material only show
periodic motion, but the waveform itself moves through the material.

• Familiar examples include mechanical waves on the surface of a liquid, sound waves (a periodic
disturbance from a state of uniform pressure), and electromagnetic waves (the passage of time-
varying electromagnetic field patterns through otherwise empty space).

• All waves have similar characteristics, and since all forms of wave motion follow the same laws and
principles, knowing the fundamentals of wave motion is important in understanding sound, light, and
other types of wave.

Figure 28. Representation of a typical wave, showing its

direction of motion, wavelength, and amplitude.

• Simply stated, a wave is a way in which energy is transferred from place to place without physical
movement of material from one location to another. In wave motion, the energy is carried by a
disturbance of some sort. This disturbance, whatever its nature, occurs in a distinctive repeating
pattern. Ripples on the surface of a pond, sound waves in air, and electromagnetic waves in space,
despite their many obvious differences, all share this basic defining property.

• In other words, wave is a periodic disturbance that travels from one place to another without
actually transporting any matter. The source of all waves is something that is vibrating, moving back
and forth at a regular, and usually fast rate.

• We must distinguish between the motion of particles of the medium through which the wave is
propagating and the motion of the wave pattern through the medium, or wave motion. The particles
of the medium vibrate at fixed positions; the wave progresses through the medium.

18
• Mechanical waves are not capable of transmitting its energy through a vacuum and thus require a
medium in order to transport their energy from one location to another. A sound wave is an example
of mechanical waves. Sound waves are incapable of traveling through a vacuum. Slinky waves, water
waves are other examples of mechanical waves. As a result, mechanical waves always are associated
with a wave medium, such as air, a solid material, or a liquid surface.

• Familiar examples of waves are waves on a surface of water, or waves on a stretched string; sound
waves; light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

• While a mechanical wave such as a sound wave exists in a medium, waves of electromagnetic
radiation including light can travel through vacuum, that is, without any medium.

• Periodic waves are characterized by crests (highs) and troughs (lows), as shown in Figure 28.

• Within a wave, the phase of a vibration of the medium’s particle (that is, its position within the
vibration cycle) is different for adjacent points in space because the wave reaches these points at
different times.

• Waves travel and transfer energy from one point to another, often with little or no permanent
displacement of the particles of the medium (that is, with little or no associated mass transport);
instead there are oscillations (vibrations) around almost fixed locations.

• For example, one can shake a rope, causing a transverse wave motion. The parts of the rope only
move upward-and-downward, but the wave moves from one end of the rope to the other. A guitar
string also has this type of motion.

• Back and forth motion can create longitudinal waves, e.g. sound waves in the air, as shown in the
figure below.

• Waves come in many shapes and forms. While all waves share some basic characteristic properties
and behaviors, some waves can be distinguished from others based on some observable (and some
non-observable) characteristics.

b. Transverse and longitudinal waves

• In terms of the direction of particles’ vibrations and that of the wave propagation, there are two
major kinds of waves: transverse waves and longitudinal waves.

19
♦ Transverse waves

• Transverse waves are those with particles’ vibrations perpendicular to the wave's direction of
travel; examples include waves on a stretched string and electromagnetic waves.

• In a transverse wave, the molecules of the medium oscillate on a line perpendicular to the wave's
direction of travel during wave propagation. More carefully, we would say that the direction of the
velocity of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of the velocity of the wave.

• A transverse wave can be created in a rope if the rope is stretched out horizontally and the end is
vibrated up-and-down in a vertical direction. If a snapshot of such a transverse wave could be taken
so as to freeze the shape of the rope in time, then it would look like the following diagram.

• The dashed line drawn through the center of the diagram represents the equilibrium or rest position
of the string. This is the position that the string would assume if there were no disturbance moving
through it. Once a disturbance is introduced into the string, the particles of the string begin to vibrate
upward and downward. At any given moment in time, a particle on the medium could be above or
below the rest position. Points A, E and H on the diagram represent the crests of this wave. The crest
of a wave is the point on the medium which exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upward
displacement from the rest position. Points C and J on the diagram represent the troughs of this wave.
The trough of a wave is the point on the medium which exhibits the maximum amount of negative or
downward displacement from the rest position.

♦ Longitudinal waves

• Longitudinal waves are those with particles’ vibrations along the wave's direction of travel.

• In a longitudinal wave, the molecules of the medium move back and forth parallel to the direction of
the wave’s travel during wave propagation. More carefully, we would say that the direction of the
velocity of the medium is parallel to the direction of the velocity of the wave. Examples include
sound waves in the air.

• A sound wave traveling through air is a classic example of a longitudinal wave. As a sound wave
moves from the lips of a speaker to the ear of a listener, particles of air vibrate back and forth in the
same direction and the opposite direction of energy transport. Each individual particle pushes on its
neighboring particle so as to push it forward. The collision of particle #1 with its neighbor serves to
restore particle #1 to its original position and displace particle #2 in a forward direction. This back
and forth motion of particles in the direction of energy transport creates regions within the medium
where the particles are pressed together and other regions where the particles are spread apart.

• A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in a direction
parallel to the direction of energy transport. A longitudinal wave can be created in a slinky if the
slinky is stretched out horizontally and the end coil is vibrated back-and-forth in a horizontal
direction. If a snapshot of such a longitudinal wave could be taken so as to freeze the shape of the
slinky in time, then it would look like the following diagram.
20
• Because the coils of the slinky are vibrating longitudinally, there are regions where they become
pressed together and other regions where they are spread apart. A region where the coils are pressed
together in a small amount of space is known as a compression. A compression is a point on a
medium through which a longitudinal wave is traveling which has the maximum density. A region
where the coils are spread apart, thus maximizing the distance between coils, is known as a
rarefaction. A rarefaction is a point on a medium through which a longitudinal wave is traveling
which has the minimum density. Points A, C and E on the diagram above represent compressions and
points B, D, and F represent rarefactions. While a transverse wave has an alternating pattern of crests
and troughs, a longitudinal wave has an alternating pattern of compressions and rarefactions.

• In air, sound waves are longitudinal; in solids and liquids they can be either longitudinal or
transverse. Electromagnetic waves have no mechanical medium, but in regions far from the source
the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; thus
electromagnetic waves are classified as transverse.

• Apart from transverse waves and longitudinal waves, ripples on the surface of a pond are actually a
combination of transverse and longitudinal waves; therefore, the points on the water surface follow
elliptical paths, as shown in Figure 29.

c. Mathematical description of a traveling

(propagating) wave with constant amplitude

• To mathematically describe wave motion, we

refer to the concept of a wave function, which
describes the displacement of a particle in the
medium at any time. The most basic of wave
functions is that of sinusoidal wave, as shown in
Figure 28, which is a periodic wave (i.e. a wave
with repetitive motion).
Figure 29. When an object bobs up and down on a
ripple in a pond, it experiences an elliptical
trajectory because ripples are not simple
transverse sinusoidal waves.

• It is important to note that the wave function

does not depict the physical wave, but rather it gives a graph of the displacement about the
equilibrium position. This can be a confusing concept, but the useful thing is that we can use a
sinusoidal wave to depict most periodic motions.

• Transverse waves are probably the most important waves to understand in this module; light is also
a transverse wave. We will therefore start by studying transverse waves in a simple context: waves on
a stretched string.

• As mentioned earlier, a transverse, propagating wave is a wave that consists of oscillations of the
medium’s particles perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation or energy transfer. If a
transverse wave is propagating in the positive x-direction, the oscillations are in up and down
directions that lie in the yz-plane.

• From a mathematical point of view, the most primitive or fundamental wave is harmonic
(sinusoidal) wave which is described by the wave function
21
 u(x, t) = Asin(kx − ωt) (127)

where u is the displacement of a particular particle of the medium from its midpoint (equilibrium), A
the amplitude of the wave, k the wave number, ω the angular frequency, and t the time. We see that
the displacement u of the particular particle of the medium is a function of x (spatial variable) and t
(temporal variable).

• In the illustration given by Figure 28, the amplitude is the maximum vertical distance from the
baseline or the maximum departure of the wave from the undisturbed state. The units of the amplitude
depend on the type of wave - waves on a string have an amplitude expressed as a distance (meters),
sound waves as pressure (pascals) and electromagnetic waves as the magnitude of the electric field
(volts/meter). The amplitude may be constant or may vary with time and/or position. The form of the
variation of amplitude is called the envelope of the wave.

• The period T is the time for one complete cycle for an oscillation. The frequency f (also frequently
denoted as ν) is the number of periods per unit time (one second) and is measured in hertz. T and f are
related by
1
f = (128)
T

In other words, the frequency and period of a wave are reciprocals of each other. The
frequency is equal to the number of crests passing any given point per unit time (a second).

• The angular frequency ω represents the frequency in terms of radians per second. It is related to the
frequency f by

ω = 2 πf (129)

• There are two velocities that are associated with waves. The first is the phase velocity, vp or v,
which gives the rate at which the wave propagates, is given by

ω
v= (130)
k

The second is the group velocity, vg, which gives the velocity at which variations in the shape
of the wave's amplitude propagate through space. This is the rate at which information can be
transmitted by the wave. It is given by

∂ω
vg = (131)
∂k

• The wavelength (denoted as λ) is the distance between two successive crests (or troughs) of a wave,
as shown in Figure 28. This is generally measured in meters; it is also commonly measured in
nanometers for the optical part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength is related to the
period (or frequency) and speed of a wave (phase velocity) by the equation

λ = vT = v/f (132)

• The wavenumber k is associated with the wavelength by the relation

22
 2π
k= (133)
λ
The SI unit of k is 1/m or m-1.

Example From Halliday’s book

3.2.2 Sound waves

a. Sound is a pressure wave

• Sound is a mechanical wave which results from the back and forth vibration of the particles of the
medium through which the sound wave is moving. If a sound wave is moving from left to right
through air, then particles of air will be displaced both rightward and leftward as the energy of the
sound wave passes through it. The motion of the particles is parallel (and anti-parallel) to the
direction of the energy transport. This is what characterizes sound waves in air as longitudinal waves.

23
• Sound waves are the most important example of longitudinal waves. They can travel through any
material medium with a speed that depends on the properties of the medium. As the waves travel, the
particles in the medium vibrate to produce changes in density and pressure along the direction of
motion of the wave. These changes result in a series of high-pressure (compression) and low-pressure
(rarefaction) regions.

• If the source of the sound waves vibrates sinusoidally, the pressure variations are also sinusoidal.
We shall find that the mathematical description of sinusoidal sound waves is identical to that of
sinusoidal string waves, which was discussed earlier.

Variations in air pressure and corresponding waveform

• Note that air molecules do not actually travel from the loudspeaker to the ear. Each individual
molecule only moves a small distance as it vibrates, but it causes the adjacent molecules to vibrate in
a rippling effect all the way to the ear.

• Because of the longitudinal motion of the air particles, there are regions in the air where the air
particles are compressed together and other regions where the air particles are spread apart. These
regions are known as compressions and rarefactions, respectively. The compressions are regions of
high air pressure while the rarefactions are regions of low air pressure. The diagram below depicts a
sound wave created by a tuning fork and propagating through the air in an open tube. The
compressions and rarefactions are labeled.

• Sound waves are divided into three categories that cover different frequency ranges.

(1) Audible waves are sound waves that lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear.
They can be generated in a variety of ways, such as by musical instruments, human vocal cords, and
loudspeakers.

24
 Note that audio means "of sound" or "of the reproduction of sound". Specifically, it refers to
the range of frequencies detectable by the human ear - approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. It is not a bad
idea to memorize those numbers; 20 Hz is the lowest-pitched (bassiest) sound people can hear, 20
kHz is the highest pitch people can hear.

(2) Infrasonic waves are sound waves having frequencies below the audible range. Elephants
can use infrasonic waves to communicate with each other, even when separated by many kilometers.

(3) Ultrasonic waves are sound waves having frequencies above the audible range. You may
have used a “silent” whistle to retrieve your dog. The ultrasonic sound it emits is easily heard by
dogs, although humans cannot detect it at all. Ultrasonic waves are also used in medical imaging.

b. Speed of sound waves

• The speed of sound waves depends on the compressibility and inertia of the medium. If the medium
has bulk modulus B and mass density ρ, the speed of sound waves in that medium is

B
v= (134)
ρ

♦ Factors affecting sound wave speed

• In general, sound waves travel more slowly in liquids than in solids because liquids are more
compressible than solids.

• Changes in pressure at controlled mass density have virtually no effect on the speed of sound. The
velocity of sound in many other gases depends only on their mass density. If the molecules are heavy,
they move less readily, and sound progresses through such a medium more slowly. The velocity of
sound in most gases depends also on one other factor, the specific heat, which affects the propagation
of sound waves.

• Sound generally moves much faster in liquids and solids than in gases. In both liquids and solids,
mass density has the same effect as in gases; that is, velocity varies inversely as the square root of the
mass density. The velocity also varies directly as the square root of the elasticity. The speed of sound
in water, for example, is slightly less than 1525 m/s at ordinary temperatures but increases greatly
with an increase in temperature. The speed of sound in copper is about 3353 m/s at ordinary
temperatures and decreases as the temperature is increased (due to decreasing elasticity); in steel,
which is more elastic, sound moves at a speed of about 4877 m/s. Sound propagates very efficiently
in steel.

• The speed of any wave depends upon the properties of the medium through which the wave is
traveling. Typically there are two essential types of properties which affect wave speed - inertial
properties (relating to the mass density ρ) and elastic properties (relating to the bulk modulus B).

25
 - Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency of a material to
maintain its shape whenever a force or stress is applied to it. A material such as steel will
experience a very small deformation of shape (and dimension) when a stress is applied to it. Steel is a
rigid material with a high elasticity. On the other hand, a material such as a rubber band is highly
flexible; when a force is applied to stretch the rubber band, it deforms or changes its shape readily. A
small stress on the rubber band causes a large deformation. Steel is considered to be a stiff or rigid
material whereas a rubber band is considered a flexible material.

The phase of matter has a tremendous impact upon the elastic properties of the medium. In
general, solids have the strongest interactions between particles, followed by liquids and then gases.
For this reason, longitudinal sound waves travel faster in solids than they do in liquids than they do in
gases. Even though the inertial factor may favor gases, the elastic factor has a greater influence on the
speed (v) of a wave, thus yielding this general pattern

vsolid > vliquid > vgas

- Inertial properties are those properties related to the material's tendency to be sluggish
to changes in its state of motion. The mass density of a medium is an example of an inertial
property. The greater the inertia (i.e., mass) of individual particles of the medium, the less responsive
they will be to the interactions between neighboring particles and the slower the wave will be. Thus, a
sound wave will travel nearly three times faster in helium gas as it will in air. This is mostly due to
the lower mass of helium particles as compared to air particles.

As stated above, sound waves travel faster in solids than they do in liquids than they do in
gases. However, within a single phase of matter, the inertial property of mass density tends to be the
property which has a greatest impact upon the speed of sound. A sound wave will travel faster in a
less dense material than a more dense material.

♦ The speed of a sound wave in air

• The speed of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties of the air, namely the temperature and
the pressure. The pressure of air (like any gas) will affect the mass density of the air (an inertial
property) and the temperature will affect the strength of the particle interactions (an elastic property).
At normal atmospheric pressure, the temperature dependence of the speed of a sound wave through
air is approximated by the following equation.

v = 331 + (0.6)toC (m/s) (135)

where toC is the temperature of the air in Celsius degrees. Using this equation to determine the speed
of a sound wave in air at a temperature of 20 Celsius degrees yields the following solution.

v = 331+ (0.6)toC (m/s) or v = 331 + (0.6)(20) (m/s)

=> v = 343 m/s.

• Equation (135) relating the speed of a sound wave in air to the temperature provides reasonably
accurate speed values for temperatures between 0 and 100 Celsius degree. The equation itself does
not have any theoretical basis; it is simply the result of inspecting temperature-speed data for this
temperature range. Other equations do exist which are based upon theoretical reasoning and provide
accurate data for all temperatures. Nonetheless, the equation above will be sufficient for our use as
introductory Physics students.

26
 Example

(a) Find the speed of sound in water, which has a bulk modulus of 2.1 x 109 N/m2 and a
density of 1.00 x 103 kg/m3. Ans.: v = 1.4 km/s
(b) Dolphins use sound waves to locate food. Experiments have shown that a dolphin can
detect a 7.5-cm target 110 m away, even in murky water. For a bit of “dinner” at that distance, how
much time passes between the moment the dolphin emits a sound pulse and the moment the dolphin
hears its reflection and thereby detects the distant target? Ans.: 0.16 s

Solution

B
(a) Applying (134) v = v = 1400 m/s = 1.4 km/s.
ρ

(b) ttotal = tforward + tbackward = (d/v) + (d/v) = 2d/v = 2x110/1400 (s) = 0.16 s.

c. Sound properties and their perception

• Sound has three basic characteristics: intensity, pitch, and quality. Each of these three
characteristics is associated with one of the properties of the source or the type of wave. The intensity
depends upon the amplitude of the waves; the pitch depends upon the frequency of the waves; and the
quality depends upon the wave form of the sound waves. With a proper combination of these
characteristics, the tone is pleasant to the ear; with a wrong combination, the sound quality turns into
noise.

27
♣ Intensity and the decibel scale

• Sound waves are introduced into a medium by the vibration of an object. For example, a vibrating
guitar string forces surrounding air molecules to be compressed and expanded, creating a pressure
disturbance consisting of an alternating pattern of compressions and rarefactions.

• The disturbance then travels from particle to particle through the medium, transporting energy as it
moves. The energy which is carried by the disturbance was originally imparted to the medium by the
vibrating string. The amount of energy which is transferred to the medium is dependent upon the
amplitude of vibration of the guitar string. If more energy is put into the plucking of the string (that is,
more work is done to displace the string a greater amount from its rest position), then the string
vibrates with a greater amplitude. The greater amplitude of vibration of the guitar string thus imparts
more energy to the medium, causing air particles to be displaced a greater distance from their rest
positions. Subsequently, the amplitude of vibration of the particles of the medium is increased,
corresponding to an increased amount of energy being carried by the particles.

• The intensity of sound, at a given distance, thus depends upon the amplitude of the waves.

• Note that for a sinusoidal sound wave, the amount of energy transported is proportional to the
square of the amplitude of the wave.

• The amount of energy which is transported past a unit area of the medium per unit of time is known
as the intensity of the sound wave. The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the particles of the
medium, the greater the rate at which energy is transported through it and the more intense the sound
wave is. Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time ratio is equivalent to power,
intensity is simply the power/area.

• We define the intensity I of a sound wave to be the average rate at which the energy being
transported by the wave flows through a unit area A perpendicular to the direction of travel of
the wave.

• The SI unit the intensity of a sound wave is watt/meter2 (W/m2).

• As a sound wave carries its energy through a two-dimensional or three-dimensional medium, the
intensity of the wave decreases with increasing distance from the source. The decrease in intensity
with increasing distance is explained by the fact that the wave is spreading out over a circular (2
dimensional or 2D) or spherical (3 dimensional or 3D) surface, and thus the energy of the sound wave
is being distributed over a greater surface area. Since energy is conserved and the area through which
this energy is transported is increasing, the power (being a quantity which is measured on a per area
basis) must decrease.

• In the case of spherical waves spreading from a point source, the intensity varies inversely
with the square of the distance, provided that no loss of energy is due to viscosity, heat conduction,
or other absorption effects. Thus, in a perfectly homogeneous medium, a sound will be nine times as
intense at a distance of 1 unit from its origin as at a distance of 3 units, etc.
• Therefore, for spherical sound waves that are emitted from a point source and propagate in a
perfectly homogeneous, three-dimensional medium, the mathematical relationship between intensity

28
and distance is sometimes referred to as the inverse-square law that states that the intensity
decreases in proportion to the square of the distance from the source.

Pav
I = (136)
4πr 2

where Pav is the average power output of the source and r the distance from the source.

• As mentioned above, the sound wave intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from
a point source. So if the distance from the source is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then the
intensity is quartered (decreased by a factor of 4). Similarly, if the distance from the source is
quadrupled, then the intensity is decreased by a factor of 16.

• Humans are equipped with very sensitive ears capable of detecting sound waves of extremely low
intensity. The faintest sound which the typical human ear can detect has an intensity of 1x10-12 W/m2.
This intensity corresponds to a pressure wave in which a compression of the particles of the medium
increases the air pressure in that compressional region by a mere 0.3 billionth of an atmosphere. A
sound with an intensity of 1x10-12 W/m2 corresponds to a sound which will displace particles of air by
a mere one-billionth of a centimeter. The human ear can detect such a sound. This faintest sound
which a human ear can detect is known as the threshold of hearing. The most intense sound which
the ear can safely detect without suffering any physical damage corresponds to an intensity Ip = 1
W/m2, which is termed the threshold of pain.

• Since the range of intensities which the human ear can detect is so large, it is convenient to use a
logarithmic scale, where the sound level β (Greek letter beta) is defined by the equation

I
β = 10log10 ( ) (dB) (137)
Io
• The constant Io is the reference intensity, taken to be at the threshold of hearing (Io = 1x10 -12 W/m2),
and I is the intensity, in watts per square meter (W/m2), at the sound level β, where β is measured in
decibels (dB). On this scale, the threshold of pain (Ip = 1 W/m2) corresponds to a sound level of 120
dB, and the threshold of hearing corresponds to 0 dB.

• Prolonged exposure to high sound levels may seriously damage the ear. Ear plugs are recommended
whenever sound levels exceed 90 dB. Recent evidence suggests that “noise pollution” may be a
contributing factor to high blood pressure, anxiety.

Example a Two identical machines are positioned the same distance from a worker. The
intensity of sound delivered by each machine at the location of the worker is 2.0 x 10-7 W/m2. Find
the sound level heard by the worker (a) when one machine is operating and (b) when both machines
are operating. ANS. (a) 53 dB and (b) 56 dB

29
 Solution

Example b

Show that if one sound is twice as intense as another, it has a sound level
about 3 dB higher.

Solution
We have I2 = 2I1 (*)
I
From (131) β = 10log10 ( ) (dB)
Io

β2 − β1 = 10log10(I2/Io) − 10log10(I1/Io) = 10[log10(I2/Io) − log10(I1/Io)].

Using log10b − log10a = log10(b/a), we have β2 − β1 = 10log10(I2/I1 ) (**)
Combining (*) and (**) leads to β2 − β1 = 10log10(2) = 3.01 dB.

Example c

1. Find the intensity in watts per meter squared of 85.0-dB sound.

Solution
I
Using β = 10log10 ( ) (dB) with Io = 1x10-12 W/m2 and β = 85.0 dB
Io

I = 3.16 × 10−4 W/m2.

♣ Loudness

• While the intensity of a sound is a very objective quantity which can be measured with sensitive
instrumentation, the loudness of a sound is more of a subjective response which will vary with a
number of factors. The same sound will not be perceived to have the same loudness to all individuals.
Age is one factor which affects the human ear's response to a sound. The same intensity sound would
30
not be perceived to have the same loudness to all individuals. Furthermore, two sounds with the same
intensity but different frequencies will not be perceived to have the same loudness. Because of the
human ear's tendency to amplify sounds having frequencies in the range from 1000 Hz to 5000 Hz,
sounds with these frequencies seem louder to the human ear.

• Loudness of sound is the qualitative and subjective measure of intensity and generally corresponds
to intensity. A sound of a particular intensity with different frequencies can be perceived as having
different loudness by the same person; or two persons may perceive the loudness to be different even
if they both listen to the sound of the same intensity.

• Note that sound intensity and loudness are often

mistakenly interpreted as having the same
meaning. Although they are related, they are not
the same. Sound intensity is a measure of the
sound energy of a wave. Loudness, on the other
hand, is the sensation the sound wave produces
on the ear. Increasing the intensity causes an
increase in loudness but not in a direct proportion.
For instance, doubling the loudness of a sound
requires about a tenfold increase in the intensity
of the sound.

• Sounds are also different in how loud and how soft

they are.

• The more energy the sound wave has the louder the
sound seems. The intensity of a sound is the amount of
energy it has. You hear intensity as loudness.

• Remember that the amplitude is a measure of the

amount of energy in the wave. So the greater the
intensity of a sound, the greater the amplitude.

♣ Pitch

• The term pitch is used to describe the frequency of a sound . An object that vibrates many times per
second produces a sound with a high pitch, as with a police whistle. The slow vibrations of the
heavier strings of a violin cause a low-pitched sound. Thus, the frequency of the sound wave
determines pitch. A sound can be so high in frequency that the waves reaching the human ear cannot
be heard (ultrasound). Likewise, some frequencies are so low that the human eardrums do not convert
them into sound (infrasound).

• Pitch is a quantitative and subjective measure, and it corresponds to the objective measure called
frequency. Thus a high pitch or shriller sounds correspond to a high frequency, etc.

• Higher frequencies are interpreted as a higher pitch. For example, when you sing in a high-pitched
voice you are forcing your vocal chords to vibrate quickly.

31
Pitch

This is how high or low a sound seems. A

bird makes a high pitch (singing). A lion
makes a low pitch (roaring).

♣ Sound quality (timber)

• A tuning fork, when struck, produces a pure tone of a specific frequency. This pure tone is produced
by regular vibrations of the source (tines of the tuning fork). On the other hand, scraping your
fingernails across a blackboard only creates noise, because the vibrations are irregular.

• Each individual pipe of a pipe organ is similar to a tuning fork, and each pipe produces a tone of a
specific frequency. But sounding two or more pipes at the same time produces a complex waveform.

• Most sounds, including musical notes, are not pure tones. They are a mixture of different
frequencies (tones). Sounds can be produced by selecting the proper pipes and sounding them at the
same time.

• Almost all sounds (musical and vocal) have complicated (complex) waveforms. Tone A is a simple
wave of a specific frequency that can be produced by a tuning fork, piano, organ, or other musical
instrument. Tone B is also a simple wave but at a different frequency and with a smaller amplitude.
When the two tones are sounded together, the complex waveform in tone C is produced. Note that
tone C has the same frequency as tone A with an increase in amplitude. The human ear could easily
distinguish between tone A and tone C because of the quality. Therefore, we can say that sound
quality distinguishes tones of like pitch and loudness when sounded on different types of
musical instrument. It also distinguishes the voices of different persons.

• Sound quality depends upon the waveform of the sound waves.

• For example, consider a note of frequency of 440 Hz being played on a violin, then a piano, and
then a tuning fork; all at the same volume. These tones are identical in frequency and amplitude, but
different in quality. Of these three sources, the simplest tone is produced by the tuning fork; the sound
in this case consists almost entirely of vibrations having frequencies of 440 Hz. Because of the
acoustical properties of the ear and the resonance properties of the ear’s vibrating membrane,
however, it is doubtful that a pure tone reaches the inner hearing mechanism in an unmodified form.
The principal component of the note produced by the piano or violin also has a frequency of 440 Hz,
but these notes also contain components with frequencies that are exact multiples of 440, called
overtones, at 880, 1,320, and 1,760 Hz, for example. The exact amplitudes of these other
components, which are called harmonics, determine the quality, or timber, of the note.

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Pitch and loudness are two ways that sounds are
different. Another way is quality.

Some sounds are pleasant and some are a noise.

Compare the two waves on the right.

A pleasant sound has a regular wave pattern. The

pattern is repeated over and over. But the waves of
noise are irregular. They do not have a repeated
pattern.

3.2.3 Wave interference

a. Superposition principle and wave interference

• The effect of two or more waves, on the oscillations of particles of a medium at which these waves
arrive simultaneously, is given by the superposition
principle.

• This principle states that the resultant vibration

of any particle at which two or more waves
arrive simultaneously is given by the vector
addition of displacements given to the particle of
each wave independently of the other.

• The principle is illustrated in the diagram on the

left.

• Note that

i. The use of transverse waves is just for visual

effect.
ii. If the angle subtended at P by the lines of
propagation S1P and S2P of the waves is
negligible, i.e. the distance between sources
S1, S2 is much smaller than the distance of
either of the sources from point P, then PM
and PN are nearly either parallel to each
other or are anti - parallel to each other.
iii. When PM is parallel to PN then in magnitude PQ = PM + PN and PQ is in same direction as
PM or PN . This condition is called constructive interference.
iv. When PM is anti-parallel to PN then PQ = PM − PN or PQ = PN − PM whichever is positive
and PQ is in the direction of the greater of the two. This condition is called destructive
interference.

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• What happens when two waves meet
while they travel through the same
medium? What affect will the meeting of
the waves have upon the appearance of the
medium? These questions involving the
meeting of two or more waves in the same
medium pertain to the topic of wave
interference.
Figure 30. Depicting the snapshots of the medium for
• Wave interference is a phenomenon which
occurs when two waves of the same two pulses of the same amplitude (both upward) before
and during interference; the interference is constructive.
frequency and of the same type (both are
transverse or longitudinal) meet while
traveling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape
which results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium.

• In other words, interference is the ability of two or more waves to reinforce or partially cancel
each other.

• To begin our exploration of wave interference, consider two sine pulses of the same amplitude
traveling in opposite directions in the same medium.
Suppose that each is displaced upward 1 unit at its crest and has the shape of a sine wave. As
the sine pulses move toward each other, there will eventually be a moment in time when they are
completely overlapped. At that moment, the resulting shape of the medium would be an upward
displaced sine pulse with an amplitude of 2 units. The diagrams shown in Figure 30 depict the
snapshots of the medium for two such pulses before and during interference. The individual sine
pulses are drawn in red and blue, and the resulting displacement of the medium is drawn in green.
This type of interference is called constructive interference. Constructive interference is a
type of interference which occurs at any
location in the medium where the two
interfering waves have displacements in the
same direction and their crests or troughs
exactly coincide. The net effect is that the
two wave motions reinforce each other,
resulting in a wave of greater amplitude. In
the case mentioned above, both waves have
upward displacements; consequently, the
medium has an upward displacement which Figure 31. Depicting the snapshots of the medium for
is greater than the displacement of each of two pulses of the same amplitude (both downward)
the two interfering pulses. Constructive before and during interference; the interference is
interference is observed at any location constructive.
where the two interfering waves are
displaced upward. But it is also observed when both interfering waves are displaced downward. This
is shown in Figure 31 for two downward displaced pulses.
In this case, a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit (negative means a
downward displacement) interferes with a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit. These
two pulses are drawn in red and blue. The resulting shape of the medium is a sine pulse
with a maximum displacement of -2 units.

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• Destructive interference is a type of
interference which occurs at any
location in the medium where the two
interfering waves have displacements
in opposite directions. For instance,
when a sine pulse with a maximum
displacement of +1 unit meets a sine
pulse with a maximum displacement Figure 32. Depicting the snapshots of the medium for
of -1 unit, destructive interference two pulses of the same amplitude (one upward and one
occurs. This is depicted in the diagram downward) before and during interference; the
shown in Figure 32. interference is destructive.

In Figure 32, the interfering pulses have the same maximum displacement but in opposite
directions. The result is that the two pulses completely destroy each other when they are completely
overlapped. At the instant of complete overlap, there is no resulting displacement of the particles of
the medium. When two pulses with opposite displacements (i.e., one pulse displaced up and the other
down) meet at a given location, the upward pull of one pulse is balanced (canceled or destroyed) by
the downward pull of the other pulse. Destructive interference leads to only a momentary condition in
which the medium's displacement is less than the displacement of the wave with larger amplitude.

The two interfering waves do not need to have equal amplitudes in opposite directions for
destructive interference to occur. For
example, a pulse with a maximum
displacement of +1 unit could meet a pulse
with a maximum displacement of -2 units.
The resulting displacement of the medium
during complete overlap is -1 unit, as shown
in Figure 33.

• The task of determining the shape of the

Figure 33. Depicting the before and during
resultant wave demands that the principle of interference snapshots of the medium for two pulses of
superposition is applied. The principle of
different amplitudes (one upward, +1 unit and one
superposition is stated here as follows: downward, -2 units); the interference is destructive.
When two transverse waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any
location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that location.

• In the cases mentioned above, the summing of the individual displacements for locations of
complete overlap was easy and given in the below table.

Maximum displacement of Maximum displacement of Maximum resulting

pulse 1 pulse 2 displacement
+1 +1 +2
−1 −1 −2
+1 −1 0
+1 −2 −1

b. Interference of sinusoidal waves – Coherent sources

♦ Mathematics of two-point source interference

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• We already found that the adding together of two mechanical waves can be constructive or
destructive. In constructive interference, the amplitude of the resultant wave is greater than that of
either individual wave, whereas in destructive interference, the resultant amplitude is less than that of
the larger amplitude wave. Light waves also interfere with each other. Fundamentally, the
interference associated with light waves arises when the electromagnetic fields that constitute the
individual waves combine.

♦ Conditions for interference

• For sustained interference in waves to be observed, the following conditions must be met:
- The sources should of a single wavelength (or frequency).
- The sources must maintain a constant phase with respect to each other.
Such the wave sources are termed coherent sources.

• We now describe the characteristics of coherent sources. As we saw when we studied mechanical
waves, two sources (producing two traveling waves) are needed to create interference. In order to
produce a stable interference pattern, the individual waves must maintain a constant phase
relationship with one another.
As an example, the sound waves emitted by two side-by-side loudspeakers driven by a single
amplifier can interfere with each other because the two speakers are coherent - that is, they respond to
the amplifier in the same way at the same time.
A common method for producing two coherent sources is to use one monochromatic source
(primary source) to generate two secondary sources. For example, a popular method for producing
two coherent light sources is to use one monochromatic source to illuminate a barrier containing two
small openings (usually in the shape of slits). The light emerging from the two slits is coherent
because a single source produces the original light beam and the two slits serve only to separate the
original beam into two parts (which, after all, is what was done to the sound signal from the side-by-
side loudspeakers).

• Consider two separate waves propagating from two coherent sources that are in phase and located at
O1 and O2. The waves meet at point P, and according to the principle of superposition, the resultant
vibration at P is given by

u P = u1 + u2 = Asin(kx1 − ωt) + Asin(kx2 − ωt) (138)

where x1 = O1P and x2 = O2P are the wave paths (distances traveled) from O1 and O2 to P,
respectively.
For the sake of simplicity, we have assumed A1 = A2 = A.

• Using the trigonometric identity: sinα + sinβ = 2sin{(α+ β)/2}cos{(α−β)/2}, from Equation (138)
we have

u P = 2Acos{k(x2 − x1)/2}sin{k(x1 + x2)/2 − ωt} (139)

• From Equation (139), we see that the amplitude AP (resultant amplitude) of the resultant vibration at
point P is given by
AP = |2Acos{k(x2 − x1)/2}| (140)

• According to Equation (140), AP is time independent and depends only on the path difference, ∆x,
of the two component waves
∆x = x2 − x1 (141)

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 From equations (140) and (141), we can easily see the following cases:

Case 1: ∆x = x2 − x1 = n2 π/k = nλ where n = 0, ±1, ±2, … or the path difference is zero or

some integer multiple of wavelength.
We have AP = 2A. The amplitude of
the resultant wave is 2A - twice the
amplitude of either individual wave. In this
case, the interfering waves are said to be in
phase and thus interfere constructively.
There is a constructive interference at P.

Case 2: ∆x = x2 − x1 = (2n + 1)π/k =

(2n + 1)λ/2 where n = 0, ±1, ±2, … or the
path difference is odd multiple of half
wavelength.
We have AP = 0. The resultant wave
has zero amplitude. In this case, the
interfering waves are exactly 180o out of phase and thus interfere destructively. There is a destructive
interference at P.

• The table on the right illustrates how waves interfere with each other depending on their phase
relationship.

Example a (from Halliday’s book)

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 Solution

Minimum (soft) sound Destructive interference

∆x = x2 − x1 = (2n + 1)λ/2

where n = 0, ±1, ±2, …

First minimum n=0 x2 − x1 = λ/2

Here x1 = r1 = 8.08 m, x2 = r2 = 8.21 m and λ = vf with v = 343 m/s.

Substituting leads to f = 1300 Hz = 1.3 kHz.

Example b Suppose two in-phase loudspeakers, A and B, are separated by 3.2 m. A listener
is stationed at point C, which is 2.4 m in front of speaker B. Both speakers are playing identical 214-
Hz tones, and the speed of sound is 343 m/s. Is the sound heard by the listener loud or faint? Ans.
loud sound

Solution

In this example, the path difference is an integer times the wavelength. Since the two speakers
are initially in phase, the net effect is constructive interference or loud.

From the figure we have ∆x = x2 − x1 = 1λ Constructive interference at the person’s position

The person receives a loud sound.

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 References

1) Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (1999), Fundamentals of Physics 7th ed. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2) Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989), Feynman, Lectures on Physics.
Addison-Wesley.
3) Serway, Raymond; Faughn, Jerry (2003), College Physics 7th ed. Thompson, Brooks/Cole.
4) Sears, Francis; Zemansky Mark; Young, Hugh (1991), College Physics 7th ed. Addison-Wesley.
5) Beiser, Arthur (1992), Physics 5th ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
6) Jones, Edwin; Childers, Richard (1992), Contemporary College Physics 7th ed. Addison-Wesley.
7) Alonso, Marcelo; Finn, Edward (1972), Physics 7th ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
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http://library.thinkquest.org/C001429/waves/wave_motion1.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/C001429/Fluids.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/C001429/introduction.htm
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http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14182/css/14182_32.htm
http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14182/css/14182_38.htm
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/sound/soucon.html
http://www.pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/physics/contents.asp
http://www.freestudy.co.uk/dynamics/damped%20vibrations.pdf
http://www.mediacollege.com/audio/01/wave-properties.html
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http://www.ddart.net/science/physics/physics_tutorial/Class/waves/u10l3c.html
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