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Giza Pyramid Mystery Solved?
Memphis and its Necropolis –– the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur
Key Images
People, boats, and animals, p. 51, 3.1
Palette of King Narmer, p. 51, 3.2
• From ca. 5000 BCE until ca. 3150 BCE, Egypt was divided into two independent
regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, becoming unified under King Narmer during
the predynastic period.
• The Palette of King Narmer, dating to ca. 3000 BCE, commemorates Narmer’s victory
over Lower Egypt and is the earliest surviving image of an historic personage
identified by name.
• The signs and symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt are unified on the Palette of King
Narmer, and stylistic conventions for portraying the figure are used, including legs
and head being in profile, and the torso being frontal. King Narmer is represented as a
divinity, being much larger than the other figures in the Palette.
Key Images
Step pyramid and funerary complex of King Djoser, Saqqara, p. 53, 3.4
Papyrus-shaped half-columns, funerary complex of King Djoser, p. 54, 3.6
The pyramids of Menkaure, Khafra, and Khufu, Giza, p. 55, 3.7
Model of the Great Pyramids at Giza, p. 57, 3.8
The Great Sphinx, p. 58, 3.9
Khafra, p. 59, 3.10
Prince Rahotep and His Wife, Nofret, p. 60, 3.12
Relief Panel of Hesy-ra, from Saqqara, p. 60, 3.13
Seated Scribe, from Saqqara, p. 61, 3.15
Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt, p. 61, 3.16
• The Egyptians believed that the ka, or the individual’s life force, lived on after death,
traveling between this world and the next. Egyptian tombs were equipped with ka
doors so that the ka could go through the door into the next world, as well as ka
statues in which the ka could sleep at night if the mummified body of the deceased
were not available.
• The earliest funerary complex was that of the Third Dynasty King Djoser
(Netjerikhet) at Saqqara designed by the priest Imhotep, the first named architect in
history. The funerary complex at Saqqara included a funerary temple built in the form
of a mastaba, a South and North Palace, and a serdab that contained the ka statue of
Djoser inscribed with the name of Imhotep. The entire complex was oriented north-
south, allowing the king’s ka statue to look toward the circumpolar stars in the
North sky.
• During the Fourth Dynasty there was a dramatic change in funerary architecture with
the adaptation of the step pyramid into a smooth-sided one. The earliest of these
pyramids is attributed to Sneferu, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty.
• The most well-known of the pyramids, considered wonders of the ancient world, were
built at Giza by Sneferu’s son Khufu (who built the first and largest of the pyramids),
Khafra, and Menkaure. Each pyramid was covered with a white limestone and a gold
capstone.
• Also a part of this necropolis is the Great Sphinx, whose head is thought to resemble
the features of Khafra, in front of whose pyramid he stands. The Sphinx is almost
certainly inspired by Near Eastern lamassus, serving the same protective function for
the funerary temple of the deceased pharaoh.
• Beginning in the Fifth Dynasty, a canon of proportions was used in which the body of
members of royalty and courtiers were portrayed in an idealized manner. Examples of
this can be seen in the ka statues of Khafra, Prince Rahotep and His Wife, Nofret, and
the Relief Panel of Hesy-ra. These works are all abstracted to conform to a standard
of perfection dictated by Egyptian cultural preferences. The canon of proportions was
not used for people of lower status.
• Following the death of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh King Pepy II in ca. 2152 BCE, there
was a turbulent First Intermediate Period which lasted over a century. Much of the art
of the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties relied on Old Kingdom forms, especially in
funerary art.
• Sculptures of members of the royal family show a breaking away from earlier
sculptural conventions. This can be seen in the Sculpture of Senwosret III which
showed less idealism and more naturalism than earlier periods. This reflected a shift
in the perception of the pharaoh during this period, where he was seen not simply as a
god, but as an individual with responsibilities to his subjects.
• The Middle Kingdom ended when a group of immigrants known as the Hyksos
moved into the Nile Delta, forcing the pharaoh to retreat to Thebes. The period of the
Hyksos control is known as the Second Intermediate Period.
The New Kingdom: Restored Glory
Key Images
Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri, p. 66, 3.24
Kneeling Figure of King Hatshepsut, p. 67, 3.26
Hypostyle Hall of Temple of Amun-Ra, Karnak, p. 68, 3.28
Seti I’s Campaigns, Temple of Amun at Karnak, p. 69, 3.29
Temple of Ramesses II, Abu Simbel, p. 69, 3.30
Interior of Temple of Ramses II, Abu Simbel, p. 70, 3.31
Senenmut with Nefrua, Thebes, p. 70, 3.32
Musicians and Dancers, from the Tomb of Nebamun, p. 71, 3.33
Mai and His Wife, Urel, p. 72, 3.34
Akhenaten, from Karnak, p. 73, 3.35
Akhenaten and His Family, p. 73, 3.36
Queen Tiy, p. 74, 3.37
Queen Nefertiti, p. 74, 3.38
Tomb of Tutankhamun, p. 75, 3.39
Cover of the coffin of Tutankhamun, p. 76, 3.40
The Weighing of the Heart and Judgment by Osiris, p. 78, 3.41
• Within a century, the Hyksos were expelled by Ahmose, the first pharaoh of the
Eighteenth Dynasty, and Egypt entered a final period of cultural and economic
prosperity known as the New Kingdom.
• One of the key differences between the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom can be
seen in their burial practices. Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs did not build pyramids,
but instead chose to dig their tombs out of rock in the Valley of the Kings.
• The best preserved of these tombs is the funerary temple of the female pharaoh
Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri, built by her architect Senenmut. Hatshepsut’s funerary
temple demonstrates a radical departure from previous temple and tomb building,
with an axial plan that takes into account the stark landscape in which it is placed.
• Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs constructed temples of the Theban divine triad, Amun,
his consort Mut, and their son Khons at Karnak and Luxor, creating two temple
complexes to honor the triad.
• During the New Kingdom the block statue, where the seated figure with knees drawn
up to his chest and wrapped in a cloak, regained popularity. An example of this is the
Senenmut with Nefrua.
• During the reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) a new style of art called the Amarna
Style was launched. The sculptures from this period break with the established canon
of proportions, showing an expressive naturalism. Some scholars suggest that the
exaggerated features shown in the portraits of Akhenaten suggest an underlying
medical condition that the pharaoh passed on to his children, but the feminized
appearance of the sculptures could also reflect an identification of the pharaoh with
the fertile Aten as life-giver.
• The Amarna style can be seen in the naturalism of the Queen Tiy, Akhenaten’s
mother, and Queen Nefertiti. In the incised relief of Akhenaten and His Family the
pharaoh and his consort sit with their children under the life-giving rays of Aten. This
family grouping emphasizes the close familial relationship and is a radical departure
from previous images of pharaohs with their consorts and offspring.
• Akhenaten’s innovations angered the priests and the political elite, who were able to
restore the conventions of older ways both in religion and art after his successor,
Tutankhamun, took the throne.
• The Ramesses dynasty was the last significant dynastic family of the New Kingdom.
• The New Kingdom pharaoh, Ramesses II, completed a massive temple at Luxor
whose two walls, with sloping sides, form a gateway or pylon entrance.
• Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria before his
death in 323 BCE, and his general Ptolemy established the Ptolemaic Dynasty which
lasted for almost 300 years, until Egypt was conquered by the Roman Emperor
Augustus in 30 BCE following the Battle of Actium. The Ptolemaic Dynasty ended
with the death of Ptolemy XIV, the pharaoh Cleopatra VII’s son by Julius Caesar.
Key Terms/Places/Names
sarcophagus
hieroglyphs mummification
pictographs Djoser (Netjerikhet)
Narmer Saqqara
mastaba Imhotep
serdab necropolis
sed-festival Sneferu
ka pyramid
ka statue Khafra
Khufu
sphinx
ben-ben
canon
hierarchical scale
faience
cloisonné
nemes headdress
Hatshepsut
Senenmut
pylons
hypostyle hall
obelisks
sunken relief
Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)
Amarna style
Aten
monotheism
Nefertiti
Tutankhamen
Alexander the Great
Ptolemy
Ptolemaic Dynasty
Cleopatra VII
Ptolemy XIV
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“Let us not forget that it is not the want of generous sentiment, but of sufficient
information, that prevents the American people from being united in action
against the aggressive policy of the slave power. Were these simple questions
submitted to-day to the people of the United States:—Are you in favor of the
extension of slavery? Are you in favor of such extension by the aid or connivance of
the federal government? And could they be permitted to record their votes in
response, without embarrassment, without constraint of any kind, nineteen-
twentieths of the people of the free States, and perhaps more than half of the
people of the slave States, would return a decided negative to both.
“Let us have faith in the people. Let us believe, that at heart they are hostile to
the extension of slavery, desirous that the territories of the Union be consecrated
to free labor and free institutions; and that they require only enlightenment as to
the most effectual means of securing this end, to convert their cherished sentiment
into a fixed principle of action.
“The times are pregnant with warning. That a disunion party exists in the South,
no longer admits of a doubt. It accepts the election of Mr. Buchanan as affording
time and means to consolidate its strength and mature its plans, which
comprehend not only the enslavement of Kansas, and the recognition of slavery in
all territory of the United States, but the conversion of the lower half of California
into a slave State, the organization of a new slavery territory in the Gadsden
purchase, the future annexation of Nicaragua and subjugation of Central America,
and the acquisition of Cuba; and, as the free States are not expected to submit to all
this, ultimate dismemberment of the Union, and the formation of a great
slaveholding confederacy, with foreign alliances with Brazil and Russia. It may
assume at first a moderate tone, to prevent the sudden alienation of its Northern
allies; it may delay the development of its plot, as it did under the Pierce
administration; but the repeal of the Missouri compromise came at last, and so will
come upon the country inevitably the final acts of the dark conspiracy. When that
hour shall come, then will the honest Democrats of the free States be driven into
our ranks, and the men of the slave States who prefer the republic of Washington,
Adams and Jefferson—a republic of law, order and liberty—to an oligarchy of
slaveholders and slavery propagandists, governed by Wise, Atchison, Soulé, and
Walker, founded in fraud and violence and seeking aggrandizement by the
spoliation of nations, will bid God speed to the labors of the Republican party to
preserve liberty and the Union, one and inseparable, perpetual and all powerful.
“Washington, D. C., Nov. 27, 1856.”
The Kansas Struggle.
The Senatorial term of Douglas was drawing near to its close, when
in July, 1858, he left Washington to enter upon the canvass for re-
election. The Republican State Convention of Illinois had in the
month previous met at Springfield, and nominated Abraham Lincoln
as a candidate for United States Senator, this with a view to pledge
all Republican members of the Legislature to vote for him—a practice
since gone into disuse in most of the States, because of the rivalries
which it engenders and the aggravation of the dangers of defeat sure
to follow in the selection of a candidate in advance. “First get your
goose, then cook it,” inelegantly describes the basic principles of
improved political tactics. But the Republicans, particularly of the
western part of Illinois, had a double purpose in the selection of
Lincoln. He was not as radical as they, but he well represented the
growing Republican sentiment, and he best of all men could cope
with Douglas on the stump in a canvass which they desired should
attract the attention of the Nation, and give shape to the sentiment of
the North on all questions pertaining to slavery. The doctrine of
“popular sovereignty” was not acceptable to the Republicans, the
recent repeal of the Missouri compromise having led them, or the
more radical portion of them, to despise all compromise measures.
The plan of the Illinois Republicans, if indeed it was a well-settled
plan, accomplished even more than was anticipated, though it did
not result in immediate success. It gave to the debate which followed
between Lincoln and Douglas a world-wide celebrity, and did more
to educate and train the anti-slavery sentiment, taken in connection
with the ever-growing excitement in Kansas, than anything that
could have happened.
Lincoln’s speech before the convention which nominated him,
gave the first clear expression to the idea that there was an
“irrepressible conflict” between freedom and slavery. Wm. H. Seward
on October 25th following, at Rochester, N. Y., expressed the same
idea in these words:
“It is an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring
forces, and it means that the United States will sooner or later
become either an entire slaveholding Nation, or an entirely free labor
Nation.”
Lincoln’s words at Springfield, in July, 1858, were:
“If we could first know where we are, and whither we are tending,
we could better judge what to do, and how to do it. We are now far
into the fifth year, since a policy was initiated with the avowed
object, and confident promise of putting an end to the slavery
agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation has not
only not ceased, but has constantly augmented. In my opinion it will
not cease, until a crisis shall have been reached and passed. ‘A house
divided against itself cannot stand.’ I believe this government cannot
endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the
Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do
expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all
the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further
spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief
that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will
push it forward, till it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old
as well as new—North as well as South.”
Douglas arrived in Chicago on the 9th of July, and was warmly
received by enthusiastic friends. His doctrine of “popular
sovereignty” had all the attractions of novelty and apparent fairness.
For months it divided many Republicans, and at one time the New
York Tribune showed indications of endorsing the position of
Douglas—a fact probably traceable to the attitude of jealousy and
hostility manifested toward him by the Buchanan administration.
Neither of the great debaters were to be wholly free in the coming
contest. Douglas was undermined by Buchanan, who feared him as a
rival, and by the more bitter friends of slavery, who could not see
that the new doctrine was safely in their interest; but these things
were dwarfed in the State conflict, and those who shared such
feelings had to make at least a show of friendship until they saw the
result. Lincoln was at first handicapped by the doubts of that class of
Republicans who thought “popular sovereignty” not bad Republican
doctrine.
On the arrival of Douglas he replied to Lincoln’s Springfield
speech; on the 16th he spoke at Bloomington, and on the 17th, in the
afternoon, at Springfield. Lincoln had heard all three speeches, and
replied to the last on the night of the day of its delivery. He next
addressed to Douglas the following challenge to debate:
Chicago, July 24th, 1858.
Article VII.—Slavery.
Free Negroes.
Bill of Rights, Sec. 23. Free negroes shall not be allowed to live in
this state under any circumstances.
Sec. 1. Every male citizen of the United States, above the age of
twenty-one years, having resided in this state one year, and in the
county, city, or town in which he may offer to vote, three months
next preceding any election, shall have the qualifications of an
elector, and be entitled to vote at all elections. And every male citizen
of the United States, above the age aforesaid, who may be a resident
of the state at the time this constitution shall be adopted, shall have
the right of voting as aforesaid; but no such citizen or inhabitant
shall be entitled to vote except in the county in which he shall
actually reside at the time of the election.
The Topeka Constitution.
Slavery.