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2 Elements of Life
Organisms, such as ourselves, are made up of matter, which takes up
space and has mass. Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms,
which are made up of even smaller particles called protons, neutrons,
and electrons. Atoms can be combined in various ways to form different
types of matter, such as solids, liquids, and gases, and to make up
different elements, which are substances that cannot be broken down
further by chemical reactions. Although there is an entire Periodic Table
of Elements, for AP Biology, the essential elements to know are oxygen
(O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), phosphorus
(P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), and
magnesium (Mg).

Compounds are substances that can be broken down further by

chemical reactions because they are made of two or more elements that
are in a xed ratio to each other. For example, we learned previously
that water, H2O, is made of two hydrogens and one oxygen. Because
there is a xed ratio of hydrogens and oxygen, water is a compound.

Living systems and the organisms in them require constant exchanges

of energy and macromolecules. Exchanging matter is what allows an
organism to grow and reproduce. By understanding atoms and
molecules, we can understand the basis of the elements of life!

Atoms

An element's properties are retained by the smallest unit of mass, called

an atom. The subatomic particles that compose atoms are protons
(positive charge), neutrons (neutral/no electrical charge), and electrons
(negative charge).

The atomic number of an element is determined by the number

of protons in the nucleus. In the gure below, the number six is the
atomic number of carbon. The atomic mass number is the sum of the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic mass number from the
gure is 12.011.
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 Isotopes

Isotopes are two atoms of an element that have a different number of

neutrons. Radioactive isotopes are used for processes that include
fossil dating and medical imaging. They decay spontaneously and
release energy. An example of a radioactive isotope that is used for
dating sites, fossils, and artifacts is Carbon-14, or radiocarbon, which
has an atomic nucleus containing six protons and eight neutrons.

Electron Shells

An electron's potential energy (location/structure) is called an energy

level or electron shell. When electrons absorb energy, they move up or
jump an energy level farther away from the nucleus. When electrons
release energy, they move closer to the nucleus.

Elemental Building Blocks

Carbon
Carbon is the building block of the major macromolecules/organic
molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It is a
major component of compounds and helps form cells in organisms.

Why is carbon such an important biological element? Carbon has the

unique ability to form four covalent bonds, which is known as tetra-
valence. The goal for all atoms is to be stable, and carbon is a stable
element that readily bonds with a variety of other elements. Carbon
must nd four more electrons to ll its outer shell, giving a total of eight
electrons to satisfy the octet rule. The octet rule states that atoms will
lose, gain or share electrons to achieve an electron con guration of
eight valence electrons. (e.g CH4 methane)
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Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a building block in proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids, and
enzymes. These molecules play crucial roles in many biological
processes, including metabolism, cell division, and DNA replication.
Nitrogen is even a component of many hormones, such as adrenaline
and insulin.

In addition to its role in the synthesis of biological molecules, nitrogen is

also important in the environment. Nitrogen is a key element in the
nitrogen cycle, which plays a crucial role in the balance of nutrients in
ecosystems. While nitrogen is primarily in the atmosphere as a gas,
plants and some microorganisms can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
a usable form for other organisms through nitrogen xation, which is
essential for the overall functioning of ecosystems.

Phosphorus
Phosphorus is also a useful element in biology because it is a key
component of nucleic acids, certain proteins, and lipids. Beyond its role
in DNA and RNA, which are essential components of the genetic
material in all living organisms, phosphorus is also involved in biological
processes like energy production. It also plays a crucial role in the
balance of nutrients in ecosystems.

Functional Groups

Functional Groups are accessory elements that give molecules a

different structure, therefore, a different function. They can be classi ed
as hydrophobic or hydrophilic based on their charge and polarity
characteristics.

• Hydroxyl Group: Hydrogen bonded to Oxygen (OH) attached to

the carbon skeleton. (alcohols such as methanol, polar)
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• Carbonyl Group: Double bond (sharing of two pairs of valence
electrons) between carbon and oxygen. If the carbonyl group is on
the end of the carbon skeleton, it is called an aldehyde. If not, then
it is a ketone. (polar)

• Carboxyl Group: a combination of carbonyl and hydroxyl where

carbon is double-bonded to an oxygen and a hydroxyl. (release H+
into solutions, acidic)

• Amino Group: Nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens and one carbon

atom. Amines are organic molecules that have an amino group.
(remove H+ from solutions; therefore, basic) Nitrogen is used to
build proteins and nucleic acids.
 • Phosphate Group: phosphate ion covalently attached to the
carbon skeleton. (Lots of energy is used to make nucleic acids and
phospholipids; acidic because they release H+ into solutions)

• Sulfhydryl Group: Sulfur bonded to a hydrogen atom. (Polar)

**(In the images above, the R represents an unknown part of the

molecule that the functional group is attached to)**