Fluid

properties
Density
 The density of a fluid, ρ, is
defined as its mass per unit low
volume, which is a measure of
a fluid’s mass concentration
𝒎𝒎
𝝆𝝆 = high
𝑽𝑽
 Density is influenced by both
pressure and temperature.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z50jEi1igNQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MzsORE0ae10 @60℃, 𝜌𝜌 = 983 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
Specific weight
 The specific weight of a fluid, γ, is defined as its
weight per unit volume (with unit N/m3).
𝜸𝜸 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
 Under conditions of standard gravity
9.807𝑚𝑚
𝑔𝑔 =
𝑠𝑠 2
 The density of water at 4ºC
1000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 =
𝑚𝑚3
1000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 9.807𝑚𝑚 3
𝛾𝛾𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 = 𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 × 𝑔𝑔 = × = 9.8𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚3 𝑠𝑠 2
Specific gravity
 The specific gravity of a fluid, SG, is defined
as the ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of some standard substance at
a specified temperature (usually water at
4°C).
𝝆𝝆
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 =
𝝆𝝆𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶

1000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 =
𝑚𝑚3
1000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 13.55
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 × 𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 = 13.55 ×
𝑚𝑚3
TABLE 2–1
The specific gravity of some substances at
20°C and 1 atm unless stated otherwise

Substance SG
Water 1.0
Blood (at 37°C) 1.06
Seawater 1.025
Gasoline 0.68
Ethyl alcohol 0.790
Mercury 13.6
Balsa wood 0.17
Dense oak wood 0.93
Gold 19.3
Bones 1.7–2.0
Ice (at 0°C) 0.916
Air 0.001204
Ideal gas law
 Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids, with
changes in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and
temperature through the equation
𝑷𝑷𝒗𝒗 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 or 𝑷𝑷 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
𝑃𝑃 is the absolute pressure
𝑣𝑣 is the specific volume
𝑇𝑇 is the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature
𝜌𝜌 is the density
𝑹𝑹 is the gas constant
 Temperature Scales
Kelvin scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI system.
Rankine scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in English system.

T (K) = T (°C) + 273.15 = T (R)/1.8

T (R) = T (°F) + 459.67 = 1.8 T (K)

Measures of fluid mass and weight

𝑚𝑚
 Density 𝜌𝜌 =
𝑉𝑉
 Specific weight 𝛾𝛾 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌
 Specific gravity 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = =
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 1000𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
Compressibility
 The density (volume) of fluid changes with a change of
temperature or pressure
 Bulk modulus of compressibility, 𝜅𝜅
 The Bulk modulus of compressibility represents the change
in pressure corresponding to a fractional change in volume
or density of the fluid while the temperature remains
constant.
 ∂P   ∂P 
κ=
−v   =
 ∂v  T
ρ  ( Pa )
 ∂ρ  T
∆P ∆P
κ ≅− ≅ (T =constant)
∆v /v ∆ρ /ρ
 What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly
incompressible substance (v = constant)?
 A large value of κ indicates that a large change in pressure
is needed to cause a small fractional change in volume,
and thus a fluid with a large κ is essentially incompressible.
 This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are
usually considered to be incompressible.
Water hammer
 Characterized by a sound that resembles the sound produced when a pipe is
“hammered.” This occurs when a liquid in a piping network encounters an
abrupt flow restriction (such as a closing valve) and is locally compressed.
 The acoustic waves that are produced strike the pipe surfaces, bends, and
valves as they propagate and reflect along the pipe, causing the pipe to
vibrate and produce the familiar sound.
 Water hammering can be quite destructive, leading to leaks or even
structural damage. The effect can be suppressed with a water hammer
arrestor.
Water hammer Arrestors

Photo provided courtesy of Oatey Company

Water hammer arrestors:

(a) A large surge tower built to
protect the pipeline against water
hammer damage.
Photo by Arris S. Tijsseling, visitor of the University of Adelaide, (b) Much smaller arrestors used
Australia. Used by permission
for supplying water to a
household washing machine.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gONUBkwfHb8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMd7bQ8kkj8
Compressibility
 Coefficient of volume expansion, 𝛽𝛽
 The variation of the density of a fluid
with temperature at constant pressure.

1  ∂v  1  ∂ρ 
β=   = − (1/K )
v  ∂T  P ρ  ∂T  P
∆v /v ∆ρ /ρ
β≈ =
− ( at constant P)
∆T ∆T
 A large value of 𝛽𝛽 for a fluid means a
large change in density with
temperature
 Speed of sound and Mach number
 Speed of sound (sonic speed): The speed at which an infinitesimally small
pressure wave travels through a medium.

 ∂P 
Speed of Sound for any fluid: c 2 = k 
 ∂ρ  T 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
For ideal gas: 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑐𝑐 is the speed of sound
 Mach number Ma: The ratio of the actual
𝑃𝑃 is the absolute pressure
speed of the fluid (or an object in still fluid) to 𝑇𝑇 is the absolute temperature
the speed of sound in the same fluid at the 𝜌𝜌 is the density
same state. 𝑅𝑅 is the gas constant
V 𝑘𝑘 is the specific heat ratio of the
Ma = fluid 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 /𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
c
 The Mach number depends on the speed of
sound, which depends on the state of the fluid.
EXAMPLE 1.4
 No slip condition
All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a
complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero-velocity relative to the
surface. That is, a fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the surface, and
there is no slip. This is known as the no-slip condition

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPahJBojSIs
Fluidity of fluid
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction.
The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

Honey is
harder to stir A fluid moving relative to a body
with the rod exerts a drag force on the body, partly
because of friction caused by
viscosity.
Fluidity of fluid
V = 4 m/s
 If a fluid, such as water, were placed 4m 4 m/s
between the two plates. The top plate 3m 3 m/s
moves continuously with a velocity V l=4m 2m 2 m/s
 Assume the fluid velocity between the 1m 1 m/s
plates varies linearly between 0 and V, and 0m 0 m/s
thus the velocity profile and the velocity V = 0 m/s
gradient are 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 4𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 = = = 1/𝑠𝑠
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙 4𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝛽𝛽 ≈ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝛽𝛽 = = = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑭𝑭
 Shear stress: 𝝉𝝉 =
𝑨𝑨
𝒅𝒅𝜷𝜷 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
 Rate of deformation: =
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
 Fluids the rate of deformation is linearly
proportional to the shear stress are called
Newtonian fluids

dβ du
τ∝ or τ∝
dt dy
Viscosity
 Coefficient of viscosity,𝜇𝜇, (dynamic viscosity) to measure a fluid’s
resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress.
 Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian
fluids. Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇 = 𝜏𝜏 𝑁𝑁 � 𝑠𝑠/𝑚𝑚2 or Pa � s
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
centipoise (1000 cp = 1 Pa ∙ s)

The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer is

du
F = τΑ = µΑ ( N)
dy
Viscosity
 Kinematic viscosity, 𝜈𝜈 (nu), is the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to density
µ
ν= m2/s
ρ
stoke (1 St = 0.0001 m2/s)

 Dynamic viscosity is to measure a fluid’s resistance to

flow when an external force is applied.
 kinematic viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s
inherent resistance to flow when no external force,
except gravity, is acting on it.
Viscosity
The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of a Newtonian fluid is proportional
to shear stress, and the constant of proportionality is the viscosity.
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to the pumping power needed to transport a fluid in
a pipe or to move a body through a fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by the
molecular collisions in gases, and it varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more energy at higher temperatures, and they can
oppose the large cohesive intermolecular forces more strongly. As a result, the energized
liquid molecules can move more freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are negligible, and the gas molecules at high
temperatures move randomly at higher velocities. This results in more molecular collisions
per unit volume per unit time and therefore in greater resistance to flow.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BJxsTuqwec
The viscosity of liquids decreases https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7yuDJUcJ74
and the viscosity of gases increases with
temperature.
TABLE 2–3
Dynamic viscosity of some fluids at 1 atm
and 20°C (unless otherwise stated)

Dynamic Viscosity
Fluid 𝜇𝜇, kg/m⋅s
Glycerin:
-20°C 134.0
0°C 10.5
20°C 1.52
40°C 0.31
Engine oil:
SAE 10W 0.10
SAE 10W30 0.17
SAE 30 0.29
SAE 50 0.86
Mercury 0.0015
Ethyl alcohol 0.0012
Water:
0°C 0.0018
20°C 0.0010
100°C (liquid) 0.00028
100°C (vapor) 0.000012
Blood, 37°C 0.00040
Gasoline 0.00029
Ammonia 0.00015
Air 0.000018
Hydrogen, 0°C 0.0000088
A solid cylinder is concentric with a straight pipe. The cylinder is 0.5 m long and
has an outside diameter of 8 cm. The pipe has an inside diameter of 8.5 cm. The
annulus between the cylinder and the pipe contains stationary oil. The oil has a
specific gravity of 0.92 and a kinematic viscosity of 5.57×10-4 m2/s. Calculate the
force needed to move the cylinder along the pipe at a constant velocity of 1 m/s.
Surface tension
Steel paper clip floats on water
Small droplets of water forms into
spheres on a smooth surface
Water strider walks on water
Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the liquid
on a solid surface, and the surface of the liquid acts like a
stretched elastic membrane under tension.
The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the
surface and is due to the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface
tension (or coefficient of surface tension) and is usually
expressed in the unit N/m.
This effect is also called surface energy [per unit area] and is
expressed in the equivalent unit of N⋅m/m2.
Surface tension

 Surface tension,𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 , is the intensity of the

molecular attraction per unit length along any
line in the surface. This effect is also called
surface energy. Attractive forces acting on a
liquid molecule at the surface
and deep inside the liquid.
𝐹𝐹
𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 =
2b

W = Force × Distance = F ∆ x = 2bσ s ∆ x = σ s ∆A

Surface tension 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 also can be defined as the work done

per unit increase in the surface area of the liquid.

Stretching a liquid film with a U-shaped

wire, and the forces acting on the
movable wire of length b.
TABLE 2–4 The free-body
Surface tension of some fluids in air at 1 diagram of
atm and 20°C (unless otherwise stated)
half a droplet
Surface Tension or air bubble
Fluid 𝜎𝜎s, N/m*
and half a
†Water:
soap bubble.
0°C 0.076
20°C 0.073
1000C 0.059
3000C 0.014
Glycerin 0.063
SAE 30 oil 0.035
Mercury 0.440
Ethyl alcohol 0.023
Blood, 37°C 0.058
Gasoline 0.022
Ammonia 0.021
Soap solution 0.025
Kerosene 0.028
2σ s
Droplet or air bubble: ( 2π R) σ s= (π R 2 ) ∆Pdroplet → ∆Pdroplet= Pi − Po= R
4σ s
Soap bubble: 2 ( 2π R ) σ s= (π R 2 ) ∆Pbubble → ∆Pbubble= Pi − Po= R
Capillary action
Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into
the liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall
trees.

Plants use capillary action to

bring water up the roots and
stems to the rest of the plant
Capillary action
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or wetting)
angle, defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with
the solid surface at the point of contact.
A liquid is said to wet the surface when ϕ < 90° and not to wet the surface
when ϕ > 90°.

ϕ > 90° ϕ < 90° Φ = 90°

Capillary action

Vertical force due to surface tension = weight

𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔

Rise of column for a liquid

that wets the tube 2𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

Note that the capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the
tube. Therefore, the thinner the tube is, the greater the rise (or fall) of
the liquid in the tube. In practice, the capillary effect for water is usually
negligible in tubes whose diameter is greater than 1 cm.
Fluid classification
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Liquid flows are incompressible to a high level of accuracy, but the level of variation of density in gas
flows and the consequent level of approximation made when modeling gas flows as incompressible
depends on the Mach number. Gas flows can often be approximated as incompressible if the density
changes are under about 5 percent, which is usually the case when Ma < 0.3.
Fluid classification
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
Fluid classification
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is bounded by
solid surfaces.

Pipe Flow

Open-Channel Flow
Fluid classification
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Fluid classification
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
The term steady implies no
change at a point with time.

Photos by Eric G. Paterson. Used by permission.

Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow
devices.

Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an

unsteady flow, and (b) long exposure picture of the same
flow.
Fluid classification
Uniform versus Nonuniform Flow
Uniform flow implies that all fluid properties, such as velocity, pressure,
temperature, etc., do not vary with position.
A wind tunnel test section, for example, is designed such that the air
flow is as uniform as possible.
In engineering practice, it is common to approximate the flow in ducts
and pipes and at inlets and outlets as uniform, even when it is not, for
simplicity in calculations.
Fluid classification

Natural (or Unforced)

versus Forced Flow

Forced flow: A fluid is forced

to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
Fluid classification
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small
relative to the variation in other directions and can be ignored.

Flow over a car antenna is approximately

two-dimensional except near the top and
bottom of the antenna.
Chapter summary
Measure of mass and weight
 Density
 Specific weight
 Specific gravity
 Density of Ideal Gases
Compressibility and Speed of Sound
 Coefficient of Compressibility
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Viscosity
 Dynamic viscosity
 Kinematic viscosity
Surface Tension
 Capillary Effect
Classification of Fluid Flows