TROPHIC LEVEL: A trophic level is the number of links by which food energy is transferred from

producers to final consumers in the food chain and food web.

E.g. In the food chain
Maize → → → Goat → → → Man
Maize is the first trophic level, Goat is the second and Man is the third. There are three Trophic
Levels.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Green plants manufacture its food by photosynthesis by using energy derived from the sunlight
(radiant energy). This radiant energy is built into the molecules of carbohydrate. Starting with
simple carbohydrates, the plants make more complex food substances e.g. fat (Lipids) and
protein.

The energy in plants is transferred to animals from the plant when they feed on them and the
energy is used for various activities, such as, Movement, Growth, Reproduction, etc. Human
being obtains the energy from the food they eat,

PRIMARY PRODUCTION
The energy built into plants during photosynthesis, is the source of energy for consumers and
decomposers. The conversion of the radiant energy of sunlight into energy in carbohydrate is
known as Primary Production. The rate at which radiant energy is converted into energy in
carbohydrates, through Photosynthesis is called the rate of Primary Productivity.

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

This refers to the number of individual organisms at each trophic level, which decreases
progressively from producers to the last consumer.

It can be represented in a diagram as shown below:

Pyramid Of Energy

This is defined as the amount of energy present in the living organisms at the different trophic
levels of a food chain.

It can be represented in a diagram as shown below:

Pyramid of Biomass

This shows total dry mass or wet mass of organisms at each trophic level of a food chain.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE

Energy is defined as the ability to do work and it is measured in joule ( J ) . This energy exists in
various forms.

One form of energy can be transformed into another. The sun is the ultimate source of energy
in any ecosystem.

Energy transformation is governed by the laws of Thermodynamics.

Laws of Thermodynamics

First Law: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed or changed
from one form to another

Second Law: In the transformation of energy from one form to another there is always a
decrease in amount of useful energy.

In other words, no transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100% efficient.

Energy Loss in the Ecosystem

The ultimate source of energy is the sun light. This energy passes through food chain. The
energy decreases progressively from producers to consumer. The rest is lost as heat apart from
heat, energy is lost through the following

I. Vegetation.
II. Soil
III. Evaporation of water

IV. Air

V. Effect of wind

BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

1. Symbiosis: This is an association between two organisms in which two of them benefit
from each other. Examples are:

Alga and fungus in lichen.

Protozoa in the intestine of termites.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants.

 Bacteria in the rumen of ruminants.

Flowers and insects.

2. Commensalism: This is an association between two organisms living together in which

only one called the commensal benefits from the association while the other neither
benefited nor injured. Examples are:
a. Remora fish and shark.
b. Oysters and crabs.
c. Man and intestinal bacteria.
3. Parasitism: This is a close association between two organisms, in which one known as a
parasite lives in or on and feed at the expense of the other organism which is known as
the host. The parasite benefits from the association while the host usually suffers harm
or may die. Examples are:
a. Man and tapeworm.
b. Man and roundworm.
c. Mistletoe and flowering plant.
d. Cattle and tick.
4. Predation: This is a type of association between two organisms in which the predator
kills the other called the prey and directly feeds on it .The predator which is larger and
stronger benefits and kills the prey for food. Examples are:
a. The hawk and chicks of domestic fowl.
b. The lion and the antelope.
5. Competition. This involves the interaction among organisms of the same species or of
different species in which one outgrows the other and survives while the other can
neither grow nor survive.
There is competition when there is limited environmental resources e g. nutrients,
water, sunlight etc.
Examples are:
a. Crops and weeds.
b. Domestic fowls and the young chicks.

Population Growth And Food Supply

In 1982, the world population was about 4.5 billion. Year 2000, it was about 6.25 billion.
For man to be well fed the population should grow at Arithmetic progression i.e. 1,2,3,4
etc. While food production should increase at Geometric progression.

Problems Associated With Human Overpopulation

1. Pressure on natural resources/social amenities.

 2. Inadequate food supply, housing and health services.
3. Increase in crimes, unemployment, environmental pollution, traffic congestion etc.
Factors Affecting Availability Of Food
1. Overpopulation
2. Poor storage facility.
3. Natural disasters e g. flood and drought.
4. Pest and diseases.
5. Bush burning.
6. Poor harvest.
7. Soil infertility.
8. War.

Family Planning and Birth Control

Family planning is a way by which couples (husband & wife) determines the number
of children they want and when they want them.

Birth control refers to the methods used to prevent a woman from becoming pregnant for as
long as she wishes.

1. Withdrawal method: The man pulls his penis out of the woman’s vagina before
ejaculation
2. Rhythm method or safe period: The woman should avoid having sex during her fertile
period.
3. Use of condom ( protective sheath )

Spermicidal cream: The woman applies the cream 5 to 10 minutes before sexual
intercourse, the spermaticide will kill the spermatozoa during ejaculation.

4. Intra-uterine Device (I U D): This is a plastic coil or loop inserted into the uterus of the
woman by a Doctor to prevent fertilization and implantation of zygote in the uterus.
5. Contraceptive pill: This is a tablet to be taken daily by the woman to prevent ovulation.
It is prescribed by a qualified Doctor and contains hormones that prevent ovulation.
6. Injection: This is an injection that contain hormones to prevent ovulation. It is given to
the woman every 3 or 6 months.
7. Sterilization: This is a permanent birth control method for couples who do not want
more children. They are of two types: (a) Vasectomy-This is cutting the sperm duct in a
man.
(b) Tubal ligation: This is cutting the fallopian tube in a woman.

8. Abstinence: complete stay away from sex.

 Importance of Family Planning To the Nation

1. It promotes maternal health.

2. It promotes the health of the child
3. It prevents population explosion.
4. It reduces maternal or infant mortality rate
5. It makes child spacing possible.
6. It prevents indiscriminate abortion in women.
7. It promotes the standard of living of the people.

RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE

EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM.
The following agricultural activities or practices carried out by famers have some consequences
on the ecological system.
1. Bush burning: This is done to clear the vegetation.
Effects:
(i) . Bush burning destroys soil organic matter.
(i) Causes air pollution
(ii) Destroys soil micro organisms
(iii) Brings about succession.
(iv) Exposes soil to erosion.
(v) Releases K and P to the soil as ash.
(vi) The ash causes soil alkalinity.
(vii) Encourages sprouting
(viii) Disrupts natural food chain.
(ix) Causes extinction of some animals.
(x) Breaks dormancy of some seeds.
(xi) Reduces water holding capacity of the soil.
OVERGRAZING It is a way by which animals in a particular pasture exceeds the carrying
capacity of that land.
EFFECTS OF OVERGRAZING:
1. Removes the vegetative cover of the soil
Exposes the soil to erosion
2.
3. Causes poor growth of plants
4. Exposes the soil to heat
5. More faeces/dung are dropped which could improve soil fertility
6. Leads to eradication of weeds
7. Destroys soil structure
8. Causes soil compactness due to persistence trampling
FERTILIZER APPLICATION: This is addition of chemicals to improve soil fertility

Effects
1. It can affect the life of plants & animals.
2. Causes loss of humus (organic matter)
3. Destroys soil structure
4. Increase the porosity of the soil
5. Adds to soil nutrients
6. Increase productive capacity of the soil
7. Stimulates vegetative growth thereby reducing soil erosion
8. Causes soil acidity when apply in excess

PESTICIDES/HERBICIDES
Pesticides are chemical substances used for killing pest while herbicides kill or destroy
herbaceous plants.
EFFECTS:
Pesticides/ Herbicides
1. Cause pollution
2. Destroy other useful plants & animals
3. Destroy the crops planted when used excessively.
4. Reduce the population of the target insects or plants
5. They cause the death of aquatic life when washed into the rivers.
TILLAGE: Is the breaking up of the soil in preparation for planting of crops.
EFFECTS: Tillage
1. Encourages leaching
2. Helps in loosening the soil
3. Exposes soil to erosion
4. Enhances soil aeration
5. Lead to loss of soil fertility
6. Leads to poor vegetation
7. Leads to change in topography of the land.
8. Increase soil porosity
9. Exposes soil organisms & may kill them
DEFORESTATION: Is the continuous removal of forest trees indiscriminately without
replacing them.
EFFECTS: Deforestation
1. Encourages soil erosion
2. Reduces water percolation due to absence of humus and dead leaves on the soil surface
3. Results in loss of soil nutrients
4. Reduces the humus content of the soil
5. Reduces the amount of rainfall
6. Hinders activities of microorganism in the soil
7. Reduces wild life population
8. Leads to desertification
BUSH CLEARING OR CLEAN CLEARING Is the practice whereby the whole
vegetation is removed leaving the land clean.
EFFECT: Bush clearing
1. Results in the removal of the rich top soil
2. Leads to high evaporation from the soil
3. Increase the soil temperature
4. Enhances erosion and leaching
5. Reduction of soil organism
6. Get rid of weed in the land
7. Lead to reduction of organic matter

Assignment
Write short notes on the following
1. Bush fallowing
2. Peasant farming
3. Commercial agriculture
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FARMING METHODS ON ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
The following agricultural methods have some effects on ecological system. They include.
Monocropping: It is a system of farming in which one crop is cultivated every year.
EFFECTS:
1. It encourages pests in large number
2. It increase the menace of the pests
3. Such pests reduce food and population of other animals
4. Monocropping depletes the soil nutrients
Continuous cropping: This is the repeated cultivation of crops in one area of land
EFFECTS:
1. It reduces the fertility of the soil
2. It ensures the spread of germs
3. It ensures the multiplication of pests and parasites
4. It results into low yield of crops
SHIFTING CULTIVATION: It involves the cultivation of a piece of land for one or two
years after which it is abandoned for a new land.
EFFECTS
1. It leads to land wastage
2. It leads to destruction of plants & animals
3. The activities of useful micro-organisms decrease
4. It depletes the mineral nutrients of the soil
CROP ROTATION: This is the system of farming whereby different crops are grown on
the same pieces of land year after year in a definite manner so as to maintain the soil fertility
EFFECT:
1. More nutrients are added to the soil as a result of the incorporation of leguminous crop in
the rotation.
2. It controls the growth of weeds
3. It maximizes the use of available land
4. It helps control pests
5. It also helps to control disease
6. It controls erosion
MIXED FARMING: Is the type of farming in which the farmer cultivates his crops and rear
animals on the same piece of land.
EFFECTS
1. It increases soil fertility through dungs produced by animals
2. The odour of animals dungs pollute the environment
3. It maximize the use of available land.
4. Cultivated crops may be eaten up by the animals
5. Pests may be built up in the land
6. Diseases may also be built up in the land
PLANT CLASSIFICATION
There are 3 major ways of classifying plant
1. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION :This involves the use of binomial system.
2. CLASSIFICIATION BASED ON THE LIFE CYCLE
(a) Annual crops: These are plants that grow mature, produce fruits and die within one
year, e.g. maize, rice, cowpea, millet, vegetable, cotton, groundnut etc.
(b) Biennial crops: These are plants which develop their vegetative parts during the first
year and produce fruits and die during the second year. E.g. pepper, carrot, onion and
ginger.
(c) Perennial crops: Perennial plants grow mature and produce fruits for more than two
years e.g. cocoa, orange, palm tree, mango, banana etc.
3. AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION: This is the type of classification based on the
uses of plants.
a. Cereal plants: They belong to the grass family and they are rich in carbohydrates e.g.
maize, millet, guinea corn, rice, wheat, barley, oats etc.
b. Pulses (legumes): Pulses are crops which provide proteins for man and animals when
eaten e.g. cowpea, soya beans, groundnuts, lima bean, and pigeon pea.
 c. Roots and tuber crops: They produce tubers under the ground and they provide
carbohydrates to man and animals e.g. yam, cocoyam, cassava, sweet potatoes, Irish
potatoes, carrot etc.
d. Vegetable crops: provides vitamins and minerals salts to human and animals e.g.
okro, tomato, onion, amaranthus, bitter leaf, water leaf, etc.
e. Fruit plants:fruits plants also provide vitamins and minerals salts to man and animal
e.g. orange, guava, mango, pear, banana, pawpaw, pineapple etc.
f. Beverage plants: These plants provide food drinks when processed into finished
products like bournvita, milo, ovaltine, Nescafe, pronto etc. example of such plants
are cocoa, coffee, tea etc.
g. Spices:These crops provide vitamins and mineral salts to man and animals when
consumed e.g. ginger, pepper, onion etc.
h. Oil plants: They provide oil for both domestic and industrial uses when processed
e.g. Groundnut, palm tree, melon, coconut, soya-beans, cotton.
i. Fibre crops: They are used for making clothing materials ropes, and bags e.g. cotton,
sisal, hemp, kenaf, hibiscus etc.
j. Latex crops: These crops provide some white sticky liquid (latex) used in plastic
industries e.g. rubber plant.
k. Ornamental plants: They are plants grown to beautify our environment e.g. flowers
and carpet grasses.
ASSIGNMENT
State the meaning of the following and give examples
1. Forage crops
2. Cash crops
3. Catch crops
4. Food crops
FOOD PRODUCTION
Food production can be increased by some favourable environmental factors,
improvement in crops and animals yield and government effort in food production.

Factors Affecting Availability of Food

These are different factors affecting availability of food.

1. Soil fertility when the soil is fertile there will be healthy growth and high yield of
crops while poor yield is an outcome of infertile soil.
2. Pest: pest will reduce the yield of crops and animals products they can even cause
their death. Absence of pests improves the quality & quantity of farm produce and
animal production.
3. Diseases: disease will destroy plants and animals when diseases are prevented crop
and animals grow well.
4. Drought: Absence of rain may lead to the death of plants and animals on the farm.
This prevents availability of food.
 5. Storage facilities good harvest should be followed by proper storage. Poor storage
facilities will lead to food wastage.
6.Natality and Mortality: increase in birth rate means decrease in available food to meet
up with ever increasing population and increase in death rate makes food available for the
few population.
7.Natural disaster: There will be food shortage when there is natural disaster such as
flooding, earthquake etc.
6. War: Food will not be available during war, because farmers find it difficult to carry
out their farming operation.
7. Migration- Food production may be increased for the rest during emigration while
there may be food shortage during immigration.
ASSIGNMENT
State the climatic factors that affect food production
WAYS OF IMPROVING AGRICULTURAL YIELD.
1. Improving soil fertility: this can be done by application of fertilizers manure
2. High yield varieties of crops: seeds & grains that give better yield can be planted
3. Keeping crops free of pests: farmers can keep away pests to improve agricultural
yield, by the use of pesticides.
4. Planting resistant varieties: modern agriculturists and researches have discovered
some crops and animals that have high resistant to disease, such can be planted to
improve agricultural yield.
5. Raising good varieties of livestock’s: livestock’s with higher varieties number of
offspring’s are raised on the farm also animals which have higher resistant to disease
are preferred to non resistant ones.
6. Enriching animals with good diets and enriching plants with manures and fertilizers
will encourage high productivity of farm animals and bumper harvest of crops.
7. The use of sophisticated tools and equipment make farming easy, so that more work
is done within short time and more food is provided.
8. Control of weeds
9. Proper timing of planting to avoid high temperature, inadequate rainfall, pest and
disease.
10. Adoption of better cultivation methods e.g. crop rotation.
11. Control of pests and disease
12. Uses of good crop variety e.g. early maturity, high adaptability.
ROLES OF GOVT IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
Government plays important roles in agricultural development to improve food food
production in the following ways.
1. Provision of financial assistance either as loan credit or kinds.
2. Provision of high quality planting materials e.g. seeds and planting stock with high
yielding resistant type etc.
3. Provision of agrochemicals e.g. fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, vaccine and drugs.
4. Provision of tractor and other implements e.g. ploughs, planters harvesters etc.
5. Provision of extension services to local farmers to intimate them to modern agricultural
techniques.
6. Establishment of river basing authority to make water available for irrigation and other
farm user.
7. Provision of effective transportation network such as good roads and railways to prevent
food spoilage in rural areas.
8. Provision of storage and processing facilities like refrigeration to prevent food spoilage.
9. Efficient quarantine services to check and control in flow of crops and animals with
disease pathogens.
10. Provision of research institutes to make research with the aims of improving plants and
animals quality.
ASSIGNMENT PAGE
EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH INSTITUTES IN NIGERIA
1. Cocoa research institutes of Nigeria (CRIN) Ibadan
2. Nigerian institutes for oil palm research (NIFOR) Benin
3. National root crops research institutes (NCRI) Umudike
4. National institutes for oceanography and marine research (NIOMAR) Lagos
5. International Institutes of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan
6. National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) Vom, Jos
FOOD SPOILAGE OR WASTAGE
When available food is not properly managed or preserved to meet the need of man and
animals the food is said to be spoilt or wasted.
CAUSES OF FOOD WASTAGE/SPOILAGE
1. Poor storage facilities
2. Damages caused by pests both the field pest and storage pests and their larvae
3. Attack of disease on crops and animals
4. Inadequate transport facilities
5. Late harvesting which may give room for pest and diseases invasion.
6. Inadequate processing facilities that will process the food to finished product.
7. Natural disasters e.g. droughts and flood
8. Indiscriminate bush burning that can spread to destroy cultivated land.
METHOD OF PRESERVING AND STORING FOOD
Food can be preserved or stored by any of the following methods;
1. Salting: It is the addition of table salt to food. E.g. meat, fish.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED OR ADVANTAGES OF SALTING
I. Salting raises the osmotic concentration of the food.
II. It dehydrates the food.
III. It adds to the taste and flavor of the food
IV. It prevents the growth and activities of microorganisms
2. Freezing/Refrigeration: it involves the use of cold storage facilities like refrigerators
and deep freezers to preserve certain food. E.g. meat, fish, vegetable, fruits etc.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED OR ADVANTAGES

i. It provides lower temperature within the food.

ii. Refrigeration slows down biological process in spoilage organism in food or it renders
spoilage organism inactive.

iii. It can kill some of the microorganism in food.

3. Drying or Sun-drying: i.e applying heat or subjecting the food to direct sunlight e.g.
fish, meat, groundnut, yam chips, plantain chips etc.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED OR ADVANTAGE
I. Drying removes moisture
II. It prevents normal microbial activities which require water.

iv. It decreases the osmotic concentration of food which kill the spoilage organisms

4. Smoking: This involves drying over the smoke of a naked fire. E.g. meat, fish,
groundnut, tobacco, maize, okro etc.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED/ADVANTAGES
i. Smoking generates high heat or temp.
ii. The smoke kills microorganisms in food.
iii. It prevent the entry of new microorganisms
iv. Smoking causes dehydration
v. It increases the osmotic pressure which kill the microbes.
5. Chemicals: it involves the addition of harmless chemicals to some food e.g. cakes, soft
drinks, vegetable,
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED / ADVANTAGES
i. Chemicals choke or suffocate spoilage organisms in food.
ii. They toxicate or dehydrate spoilage organisms in food.
iii. They eventually kill the microorganisms
6. Heating/Boiling/Frying: This is the direct heating, boiling, frying or roasting of some
farm products e.g meat, fish, soup, yam, plantain, vegetable.
PrINCIPLES INVOLVED/ADVANTAGE OF HEATING
i. It generate high heat or temp.
ii. The heat produced kill the microorganism
iii. The heat generated prevent the entry of new microorganism.
iv. The heat causes dehydration
v. It increase the osmotic pressure which finally kills the microbes
7. Irradiation: This involves the subjection of some food to high energy radiation such as
ultra violet rays. E.g. meat, canned food, seeds, tubers, fruit juice etc.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED/ ADVANTAGES
i. It kills microorganism in the food
ii. It prevent the entry of microorganisms into food
8. Canning/Bottling: Canning involves the storage of processed and consumable food in
can or bottle under special conditions for future consumption. E.g. fruits, meat, fish,
beans etc.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED/ADVANTAGES
i. It kills microorganisms gradually in the food.
ii. It prevent the entry of new microorganisms.
iii. It ensures long storage.
 9. Pasteurization: Pasteurization involves the heating of some food products to about 72 OC
for about 15 minutes and it’s immediate cooling for the purpose of storage. E.g. milk,
cheese, beer etc.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED/ADVANTAGES
i. It generates high temperature
ii. The high temperature kill the spoilage organisms
iii. Additional method of storage e.g. Canning prevent the entrance of new
microorganism.
Assignment
1a. What are barns and silos
b. Mention food that can be stored in them
Barns: Tuber crops like yam can be stored in barns for some months.
Silos: Are aluminum containers used for storing dried grains

IMPORTANT PESTS IN AGRICULTURE

A pest can be defined as any organism capable of causing damage to crops and animals
Types of Crop Pest
Important pests of crops are grouped into the following classes
i. Insect
ii. Bird
iii. Rodents
iv. Monkeys
v. Man
vi. Nematodes
Classification of insect pests
Insect pests are classified under the following based on their mode of feeding.
i. Biting and chewing insects
ii. Piercing and sucking insects
iii. Boring insect
 Biting and chewing insects: They possess strong mandible and maxillae (mouth parts) to
bite and chew plants parts e.g. termites, grasshoppers, leaf worms, army worms, mantids,
locusts, beetles.
Piercing and sucking insects: They possess proboscis which pierce through plants and suck
liquids materials e.g. Aphids, Cotton Stainers, mealy bugs, scale insects, capsids, white flies.
Boring insects: These insects with their larvae bore into plants parts and destroy the tissues,
fruit or seeds of plants e.g. bean beetles, stem borers, maize weevils, rice weevils, storage
pests e.g. weevils.

IMPORTANT PESTS OF ANIMALS

Most pests of farm animals are ecto- parasites like lice, flees bugs, tsetse flies, ticks & mites.
They have biting or piercing and sucking mouth parts. These allow them to feed mainly on
the blood of farm animals. Some pests are endo- parasites eg. trypanosomes, flukes,
roundworm, tapeworm etc.
CONTROL OF PESTS
The following methods can be use to control pests.
1. Physical method:This involves collecting pests using traps and then destroying them,
light and sticky traps can be used to catch adult insect. This method is good within small
area and low infestation.
2. Cultural Method: This involves early planting and harvesting and the use of crop
rotation in such a way that will not favour the development of the pest.
3. Biological Method: This involves the introduction of the natural enemies or predators of
a pest into the farm e.g. many wasps feed on stem bores; fowls feed on cotton stainers on
the farm.
4. Chemical Method: This involves the use of chemical pesticides can be used to kill pests
or reduce their population or protect the crops from attack by pests.
CROP DISEASES
A plant disease may be defined as a departure or deviation of the plant from the normal
state of health presenting marked symptoms or outward visible signs.
1. Viruses CAUSES OF CROP DISEASES
2. Bacteria
3. Fungi
4. Nutritional Deficiency

CROP DISEASES AGENT CONTROL

Maize Maize rust Fungus - Use resistant varieties
- Application of Fungicides before planting.

Groundnut Rosette Virus - Use healthy seeds

- Pull out infected plants and burn them
- Use insecticides to destroy aphids

Cassava Wilt Bacteria - Early planting

- Use of balanced fertilizers
- Use of resistant varieties
- Destroy infected plants.
- Use crop rotation that starve out bacteria.

Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus - Destroy infected plant and healthy plant
surrounding the infected ones.

Cocoa Black pod Fungi - Spray with fungicides

- Remove the infected pods.

DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS

FARM ANIMAL DISEASES AGENT CONTROL

1. Cattle, Sheep/ Goat Rinder pest Virus Vaccination for Slaughter ring infected
animals

2. Poultry Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccination affect destroying affected

fowls.

3.Poultry Coccidiosis Protozoa Keep healthy fowls from droppings of

infected ones.
Give coccidiostats. Chemical that prevent
an attack of diseases

MICRO-ORGANISMS
Micro-organism are tiny organisms which cannot be seen with the naked eye except with the
aid of microscopes.
They can be found everywhere e.g. soil, air, water, on our clothes, bodies, inside our bodies
etc. some are beneficial while others are pathogenic (cause diseases).
They can enter the body through the mouth, nose, skin, anus, animal bite, blood contact, ears,
birth, sexual contact etc.
Groups of micro-organisms
All micro-organisms are group into the following.
i. Viruses
ii. Bacteria
iii. Protozoa
iv. Fungi
v. Algae
1. Viruses: Viruses are Micro- organism that are too tiny to be seen with an ordinary
microscopes except with the use of electron microscopes. They are either rod like or
spherical protein (nucleus)which contain DNA and RNA. No cell structure. They can
only reproduce inside a living cell e.g Adenovirus, Picornavirus, Togavirus, Coronavirus.
STRUCTURE OF VIRUS
2. Bacteria: Bacteria are micro-organism that can easily be seen with light microscopes.
They occur in clusters or colonies.
Types of bacteria there are 2 major types.
a. Bacteria on the basis of the use of 02
i. Aerobic bacteria – require 02 for respiration
ii. Anaerobic bacteria – require no 02 for respiration.
iii. Facultative bacteria – they live under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
b. Bacteria on the basis of their shape
i. Cocci – circular in shape e.g. boil and pneumonia bacteria
ii. Bacilli – they are rod-like e.g. typhoid fever bacteria.
iii. Vibrio – they are curved e.g. cholera bacteria
iv. Spirillae – they are spiral and twisted e.g. syphilis bacteria.
Protozoa: These micro-organisms are microscopic, free living unicellular animals e.g. Amoeba
and paramecium, they are also called protists.
Fungi:fungi are plants that contain no chlorophyll. The saprophytic fungi are beneficial while
the parasitic fungi cause different types of disease
Algae: They are microscopic green plants found in aquatic environment e.g. spirogyra, diatom,
volvox chlamydomonas, oscitolaria and nostoc.
CULTURE MEDIUM
Culture media substances are extracted from algae or local food materials on which micro-
organisms can be grown for study purpose.
Culture can also be defined as the techniques of growing micro-organisms in special media in the
laboratory for study purpose
By this means micro-organism characteristics such as colour, pattern of growth and appearance
can be studied.
Culture of micro-organisms can be grown from water, air, animals, plants and various parts of
human body.
Preparation of Malt Agar Medium
1. Weigh 10g of maltose or malt extract in a sterile watch glass.
2. Dissolve it in 500cm3of distilled water in sterile beaker.
3. Weigh 10g of agar granules in a sterile watch glass and add these to the malt solution in
the beaker.
4. Heat and stir with a rod and with a thermometer standing in the solution. Continue
heating until the temperature is about 900C and the solution becomes viscous and
translucent. 5. Pour the hot agar into petri dishes as required and cover it up.
Preparation of food Powder Culture Medium
1. Boil 500cm3 of distilled water in a sterile beaker

2. Remove from the burner and allow the beaker to cool to about 70c

3.Add about 4 table spoonful of nutrient or farex to the water and stir it

4.With a spatula spread it on Petri dishes and smoothen their surfaces.

5.Cover the Petri dishes immediately and keep in a cupboard or oven.

Carriers of Micro-organisms
These are organisms that transfer micro-organisms from one place to another.
Animals that carry pathogenic micro-organisms are called vectors. Vectors carry microorganisms
with any of their legs, wings, mouth parts, hairy bodies etc.
Micro organisms can also be carried through the air, water and food.