Received: 22 August 2018 Revised: 4 December 2018 Accepted: 11 December 2018

DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22149

ARTICLE

The impact of volunteer experience at sport

mega-events on intention to continue
volunteering: Multigroup path analysis
Hyejin Bang1 Gonzalo A. Bravo2 Katiuscia Mello Figuerôa3
Fernando Marinho Mezzadri3

1 Florida International University

2 West Virginia University

Abstract
3 Universidade Federal do Paraná
This study examined the impacts of volunteers’ motivation and sat-
isfaction through Olympic/Paralympic volunteering experiences on
Correspondence
Email: bangh@fiu.edu their intention to volunteer for future community events and the
moderating role of previous volunteering experience in the relation-
ships among motivations, satisfaction, and intention to continue vol-
unteering. A sample of volunteers (N = 4,824) was drawn from the
data collected by Nielsen during the Rio 2016 Olympic and Par-
alympic Games. Responses from a total of 25 items of volunteer
motivations, satisfaction, future intention to volunteer, and previ-
ous experience status were used for the study's analyses. Path anal-
ysis revealed that among the total sample, motivations had direct
and indirect (through satisfaction) effects on intention to volunteer.
Results of multigroup path analysis showed that the relationships
among motivations, satisfaction, and intention vary by returning and
first-time volunteers, supporting the moderating role of prior volun-
teering experience in the path model. This study provides a system-
atic examination of how volunteer motivations and satisfaction may
operate differently or similarly between returning and first-time vol-
unteers.

1 INTRODUCTION

Volunteers play a crucial role in the success of sporting events. In the case of sport mega-events (SMEs) such as the
Olympic and Paralympic Games and the FIFA World Cup, over thousands of volunteers make a significant working con-
tribution to various functional areas to sustain event operations (Bang, Alexandris, & Ross, 2009; Bang & Chelladurai,
2009; Bang & Ross, 2009). Considering the nature of SMEs, which are high-profile international events held periodi-
cally in different host countries, most of the volunteers at these events provide temporary help for a short period of
time. Thus, most volunteering at SMEs is rather episodic than continuous.

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2 BANG ET AL . B

Individuals’ motivation to volunteer at SMEs can be more specialized than those of conventional volunteer motiva-
tions. Most, but not all, individuals would consider volunteering at a SME as a once-in-a-lifetime experience or opportu- s
nity (Preuss & Kebernik, 2000). They are inspired to be involved in a high profile sporting event that attracts worldwide m
attention, enjoying unique experiences that they could not have experienced anywhere else. To gain such unique expe- o
riences, many individuals who volunteer for the first time are willing to contribute their time and effort for the success f
of the SME. Besides, first-time volunteers involved during the event tend to have a higher level of future intentions to in
volunteer in the community than those with previous volunteering experience (Doherty, 2009). Hence, SMEs play an b
important role in building community engagement that leaves a legacy of volunteerism in the community.
The volunteer legacy may be specified by enhanced volunteer support for other special events in the community
2
and improved volunteerism in the community in general (e.g., increased attitudes toward volunteering, increased rate
of volunteering, and increased level of involvement; Doherty, 2009). As an integral part of efforts to maximize the M
increase of community engagement through SME volunteering experiences, it is important to understand how vol- v
unteers’ motivation and satisfaction influence their future intention to volunteer in other settings of the community. ie
According to social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959), individuals intend to engage in or continue their volun- t
tary work when their perceived benefits outweigh their perceived costs. That is, when individuals’ personal motives p
are satisfied through their volunteer work, their future intention to volunteer increases as a return on the exchange in
relationship. t
Moreover, studies have found positive relationships between volunteer motivation and satisfaction (Bang & Ross, e
2009; Giannoulakis, Wang, & Felver, 2015; Love, Hardin, Koo, & Morse, 2011). However, there has been little empir-
ical research on the effect of volunteer experience at SMEs on subsequent volunteering in other contexts. Previous r
volunteering experience is an important factor that contributes to volunteer participation (e.g., Hall, Lasby, Gumulka, c
& Tryon, 2006) because there is variation in volunteer satisfaction and future intention between individuals who have d
previous volunteering experience and those who volunteer for the first time (Doherty, 2009; Pauline, 2011). Therefore, u
this study examines whether prior volunteer experience influences the relationships among volunteer motivation, sat- a
isfaction, and future intention to volunteer in the community.
u
O
e
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
w

This study uses social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) to understand the underlying process that engenders G

individuals’ future intentions to volunteer in other settings. Social exchange theory posits that interpersonal behavior
or relationships are based on the considerations of exchange between rewards and costs (Homans, 1961). Individuals O

attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs and make decisions on developing social relationships with some- b

one or an entity based on the perceived possible outcomes (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). Thus, individuals would not be e

involved in volunteer work (Sergent & Sedlacek, 1990) if the exchange of rewards is less than what they expected to t

receive. Conversely, when individuals perceive these rewards exceed costs, they would be more likely to be connected v

and develop a closer relationship with the person or the entity (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). Applying social exchange the- le

ory to an individual's future volunteer intention, whether a given intention occurs may be a function of the perceived S

contributions of volunteering and the rewards that the individual expects to receive as a result of volunteer experi- V

ence (Bang, Won, & Kim, 2009). If individuals perceive that their motivational needs and desires are satisfied through
•
their volunteer experience, then future volunteer intention and/or engaging in volunteer work can be an exchange
commodity. •
Drawing on social exchange theory, Pauline (2011) found that volunteers at an elite men's golf event on the Profes- •
sional Golf Association circuit were likely to be satisfied with their volunteer experience and willing to volunteer for
•
future events. Similarly, Kim, Hong, and Andrew's (2013) study at the 13th International Association of Athletics Fed-
•
erations Championship indicated that volunteers with high levels of perceived event prestige were more likely to feel
satisfied with their voluntary work and strongly committed toward the event. In turn, their satisfaction and commit- •

ment resulted in a higher intention to continue voluntary work for future events. •
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L. BANG ET AL .

- In a charity sport event setting, Hyde, Dunn, Wust, Bax, and Chambers (2016) examined determinants of volunteers’
- satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intended future actions. Their findings suggest that multiple volunteer
e motivation factors such as socializing/enjoyment and financial support were positively associated with satisfaction and
- organizational commitment, which led to greater intention to volunteer not only for the charity event in future but also
s for other events. As the empirical research revealed, it is expected that volunteers at SMEs will be more likely to engage
o in future volunteering behavior to the extent that they are satisfied with their volunteer experience as a result of that
n behavior in the past (Doherty, 2009).

y
2.1 Motivations of sporting event volunteers
e
e Motivation to volunteer can vary by types of events and organizations (Bang & Chelladurai, 2009). There are several
- volunteer studies that identified multiple volunteer motivational factors in sport event settings. One of the early stud-
y. ies, Farrell, Johnston, and Twynam (1998) developed a measure specific for volunteers in a sport event setting, called
- the Special Event Volunteer Motivation Scale (SEVMS). They identified four categories of volunteer motivation: pur-
s posive (a desire to do something useful and contribute to the community and the event), solidary (relating to social
e interaction, group identification, and networking), external traditions (relating to family traditions and the use of free
time that can be seen as external influences on an individual's volunteer career), and commitments (linking external
s, expectations and personal skills with commitment to volunteering).
- Extending the SEVMS, Strigas and Jackson (2003) found a five-factor model in a regional level distance
s running event: purposive (a desire to benefit with volunteer actions and contribute to the sport events and the
a, community), leisure (a need for leisure choices), external influences (relating to outside factor such as family tra-
e ditions and significant others), material (relating to rewards of material goods or services in exchange for vol-
e, unteer service), and egoistic (a need for social interaction and networking, self-actualization, self-esteem, and
- achievement).
Later, Giannoulakis, Wang, and Gray (2008) modified Strigas and Jackson's scale by developing the Olympic Vol-
unteer Motivation Scale (OVMS) specifically oriented toward Olympic volunteers. The OVMS includes three factors:
Olympic related (a desire to become part of the Olympic movement, the Olympics, or meet with Olympic athletes);
egoistic (a need for social interaction, interpersonal relationships, and networking); and purposive (a desire to benefit
with their actions such as fulfilling the “behind the scene” experience and meeting with Olympic athletes during the

s Games).

r Giannoulakis et al. (2008) indicated that contrary to Farrell et al.’s (1998) and Strigas and Jackson's (2003) studies,

s Olympic volunteers were more likely to be motivated by the Olympic related dimension and least likely to be motivated

- by the purposive attribute. All the motivational dimensions proposed by the aforementioned studies were unique to

e each sport event setting (e.g., national level special events and Olympic Games). In other words, the sporting events

o they focused on were limited to national level sporting events or Olympic Games, which would not elicit unique moti-

d vational dimensions in international sporting event settings (Bang & Chelladurai, 2009). To fill the gap, Bang and col-

- leagues (Bang & Chelladurai, 2009; Bang et al., 2009) developed the Volunteer Motivations Scale for International

d Sporting Events (VMS-ISE; e.g., the 2002 FIFA World Cup, 2002 Asian Games, and 2004 Athens Olympic Games). The

- VMS-ISE proposed the following seven factors (Kim & Bang, 2012):

h
• Expression of Values: concern for others, the success of the event, and society
e
• Patriotism: pride in and love of the country, and allegiance to the country
- • Interpersonal Contacts: meeting and interacting with people and forming friendships
r
• Personal Growth: gaining new perspectives, as well as feeling important and needed
-
• Career Orientation: career development such as gaining experience and career contacts
el
- • Extrinsic Rewards: getting tangible rewards such as free uniforms, food, and admission
• Love of Sport: loving sport and any event related to sport
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2 BANG ET AL . B

The validation of the VMS-ISE has been verified by several studies in different sporting event settings (e.g., Bang & v
Ross, 2009; Bang, Won, et al., 2009; Hallmann & Harms, 2012; Schlesinger & Gubler, 2016; VanSickle, Pierce, & Diacin, m
2015). Therefore, adopting the VMS-ISE, the present study employed motivational items corresponding to its seven q
motivation factors using a volunteer sample at the Rio 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games to examine their relation-
•
ships with satisfaction and future intention to volunteer.
•
•
2.2 The effects of motivations on future volunteer intention
The volunteer literature has presented that motivation factors influencing volunteerism are susceptible to change over
t
time regardless of the organization where one is volunteering because of satisfaction and socialization during volun-
t
teer work (Kenyatta, & Zani, 2014). In other words, motivation factors for the initial decision of volunteering can be
different from those that influence volunteer continuation (Winniford, Carpenter, & Stanley, 1995). This indicates that
even if an individual was initially motivated by multiple functional factors to volunteer at a SME, not all those moti-
3
vational factors serve as predictors of future volunteer intention. There may be certain motivation factors fulfilled by
volunteer satisfaction, causing positive intention to continue volunteering at future community events. But then there
may be certain motivation factors lasting to be effective for future volunteer intention even without volunteer satis-
3
faction; however, it is unnecessary for those motivation factors to be the same. In light of the different effects of moti- P
vation factors, the present study sought to examine both direct and indirect effects of volunteer motivation factors on 2
volunteer intention using path analysis. A
in
o
2.3 Previous volunteering experiences
t
Previous volunteer experience affects the volunteers in different ways in their motivation, satisfaction, and future a
intention to continue volunteering in other settings. One of the very few studies that examined the differences
between first-time and returning volunteers in their intention to continue volunteering found that volunteers with p
previous sport volunteer experience had a higher level of work assignment satisfaction than nonprevious sport event a
volunteers who reported higher on the intention to volunteer for both future sporting and community events (Pauline, in
2011).
Similarly, Doherty (2009) revealed that onsite volunteers with no previous experience were likely to have higher c
community volunteering intention in the future than those with previous experience. These studies provided evidence t
for variations between first-timers and returners in satisfaction and future volunteer intention. Exploring this further, s
the present study considers previous volunteer experience as the moderating variable in the relationships between g
volunteer motivations and satisfaction and between satisfaction and future volunteer intention. Previous experience d
would give volunteers more practical views about volunteering work conditions in an actual event setting and a R
greater ability to adjust their expectations of volunteering, having different motivations relating to satisfaction, which d
leads to continuation intention. That is, because of the different levels of knowledge of volunteer activities in general,
returning and first-time volunteers might be refined differently in their reaction to future intention to volunteer in 3
their community.
3
T
2.4 Purpose of the study
T
One of the significant impacts of hosting SMEs can be a positive legacy of volunteerism in a community. Understand- &
ing how volunteers’ experience might influence their future volunteering is thus important. Yet prior research on the L
impact of volunteer satisfaction on future volunteer intention has largely focused on comparing mean scores of first- s
time and returning volunteers on volunteer satisfaction and future intention. There is a need to better articulate what
contributes to volunteer continuation in the community and if the contributing factors in forming an intention to vol- t
unteer are more or less significant based on whether volunteers had previous volunteering experience. Therefore, the la
purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to investigate the impacts of motivations and satisfaction on future intention of u
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L. BANG ET AL .

& volunteering and (b) to examine the moderating role of previous volunteering experience in the relationships among
n, motivations, overall satisfaction, and intention to continue volunteering. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following
n questions:
-
• Do volunteers’ motivations directly affect future intention to volunteer?
• Do volunteers’ motivations indirectly affect future intention to volunteer through satisfaction?
• How do the effects vary by returning volunteers and first-time volunteers?

The current study improves our knowledge base of the effects of volunteer motivations and satisfaction on inten-
r
tion to continue volunteering for other community settings by examining differences between returners and first-
-
timers in the path model.
e
t
-
3 METHOD
y
e
-
3.1 Participants and procedures
- Participants in this study included individuals who volunteered during the Rio 2016 Olympic Games (August 5–21,
n 2016), during the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games (September 7–18, 2016), and those who volunteered at both Games.
All volunteers that were part of the database (n = 35,937) of the Local Organizing Committee (LOC) Rio 2016 were
invited to complete a 37-item questionnaire that was administered online from September 26–30, 2016. By the end
of the 5-day period, a total of 4,824 volunteers completed the survey, for a response rate of 13.4%, which was within
the expected rate of return for web surveys (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2005). Nonresponse bias was not tested. Thus, any
e attempt to generalize the findings of this study must consider demographic profiles.
s Of the 4,824 responses, 44.90% (n = 2166) were male and 55.10% (n = 2658) were female. The mean age of the
h participants was 39.87 years (standard deviation [SD] = 14.33). About 60.51% were White and 23.98% were White
t and Black African. In terms of country of residence, 85.03% of the participants reported that they were primarily living
e, in Brazil. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the demographic variables.
Several months prior to institutional review board approval and the data collection, one of the authors of this study
r contacted the director of volunteers’ services of the LOC for the 2016 Rio Olympic Games and requested permission
e to conduct this study during the course of the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games. After LOC approval,
r, selected items of this study were incorporated as a part of a larger volunteer survey that was administered by Nielsen, a
n global measurement and data analytics company that was trusted with the task to administer the survey on volunteers
e during the Rio 2016 summer Olympic and Paralympic Games. Because one of the legacies of the volunteer program in
a Rio 2016 was the transfer of knowledge to improve volunteer experience, the LOC Rio 2016, as sole proprietary of this
h data, granted researchers of this study the use of the data that were collected by Nielsen.
l,
n 3.2 Measures

3.2.1 Motivation
To measure volunteers’ motivations, 22 items were selected from the 37-item survey that was administered by Nielsen.
These motivation items were all part of the seven-factor model of the VMS-ISE developed by Bang and associates (Bang
- & Chelladurai, 2009; Bang, Alexandris, et al., 2009). Motivation factors included Expression of Values (three items),
e Love of Sport (four items), Patriotism/Community Involvement (four items), Career Orientation (four items), Interper-
- sonal Contacts (two items), Personal Growth (three items), and Extrinsic Rewards (two items).
t This study combined items that reflect patriotism and community involvement into one factor named patrio-
- tism/community involvement. According to Bang and Ross (2009), the patriotism factor identified by Bang and Chel-
e ladurai (2009) can correspond to the community involvement factor through adaptations in item wording to reflect vol-
f unteers’ motivation of helping the event as being part of the local community. Because in some items Nielsen's survey
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2 BANG ET AL . B

TA B L E 1 Descriptive statistics of the demographic variables used in this study between returners and first-timers 3
Full sample Returners First-timers I
(N = 4,824) (N = 3,069) (N = 1,755) n
Mean (SD) or % Mean (SD) or % Mean (SD) or % G
Sex
Male 44.90% 44.80% 45.07% 3
Female 55.10% 55.20% 54.93% P
Age 39.87 (14.33) 40.76 (14.01) 38.32 (14.76) in
17–24 17.31% 13.85% 23.36% a
25–34 25.35% 26.33% 23.65%
35–44 19.05% 19.65% 18.01% 3
45–59 27.38% 29.00% 24.56% T
60 or older 10.90% 11.18% 10.43% d
Ethnicity
White 60.51% 60.96% 59.72% 3
White and Black African 23.98% 23.17% 25.41%
C
Black 8.23% 8.15% 8.38%
f
Asian 2.57% 2.83% 2.11%
C
Indian .79% .81% .74%
e
Other ethnic group 1.70% 1.66% 1.77% r
Prefer not to say 2.22% 2.41% 1.88% a
Income
Up to R$ 1,760 per month 24.31% 23.02% 26.34% m
Between R$ 1.760 to R$ 3.520 21.31% 22.66% 19.17% a
Between R$ 3.520 to R$ 8.880 24.28% 25.25% 22.75% p

Between R$ 8,880 to R$ 17,600 11.43% 11.75% 10.94% m

g
More than R$ 17,600 4.63% 4.66% 4.59%
t
Prefer not to say 14.04% 12.66% 16.22%
a
Country of residence
1
Brazil 85.03% 81.82% 90.66%
1
Non-Brazil 14.97% 18.18% 9.34%

Note. SD = standard deviation.

4
included both the host community (i.e., Rio) and the country (i.e., Brazil), we labeled the factor as patriotism/community
involvement.
4
While many survey items used by Nielsen were identical to the VMS-ISE items (e.g., I want to do something worth-
while, I wanted to help make the Games a success), all other motivation items had similar sounds in two or more dif- 4
ferent words (e.g., the Nielsen item “I wanted to gain experience which might lead to employment” was similar to the T
VMS-ISE item, "I want to gain experience that would be beneficial in any job). Participants rated the responses on a [d
5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). t
T
3.2.2 Satisfaction T
Overall satisfaction with volunteer experience was measured by a single item, “Reflecting upon your Rio 2016 Games u
volunteer experience please indicate your level of satisfaction.” Participants rated the responses on a 5-point Likert- R
type scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). f
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L. BANG ET AL .

3.2.3 Intention to continue volunteering

Intention to continue volunteering was measured by a single item, “Having volunteered at the Rio 2016 Games, in the
next 12 months, do you think you will do more or less volunteering than you did in the 12 months prior to the Rio 2016
Games?” Participants rated the responses on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (much less) to 5 (much more).

3.2.4 Previous volunteering experience status

Participants’ previous volunteering experience status was measured by a single item that asked, “Before volunteer-
ing for the Rio 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games, had you ever done any voluntary work?” Participants rated the
answers yes or no.

3.2.5 Demographic questions

This study also used five demographic variables from the data, such as sex, age, ethnicity, income, and country of resi-
dence, to provide a general social profile of the sample.

3.3 Data analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to verify the factor structure of a set of motivation variables selected
from the instrument conducted by Nielsen (Guarino, 2004), using the statistics program LISREL (version 8.54). The
CFA allowed for an investigation of construct validity for the motivation items. Then composite reliability values for
each motivation construct were computed to ensure the reliability of the data. Descriptive statistics (t tests) and cor-
relation analyses were performed using SPSS (version 20) to understand the background information of all variables
and differences between the two volunteer groups (prior experience vs. no prior experience).
As an important step before testing multigroup differences, we evaluated measurement invariance: configural,
metric, and scalar invariance, using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA). The measurement invariance
addresses the appropriateness of CFA models across the two volunteer groups. Then, to verify the path model pro-
posed in this study, structural equation modeling (SEM) for the total sample was employed using LISREL. Finally, using
multigroup path analysis we examined whether differences in the structural parameters across the two volunteer
groups, returners and first-timers, were statistically significant. This study assessed the model fit by chi-square statis-
tics, comparative fit index (CFI), nonnormed fit index (NNFI), incremental fit index (IFI), root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA), and root mean square residual (RMR). CFI, NNFI, and IFI values greater than 0.90 (Kelloway,
1998; Kline, 1998) and RMSEA and RMR values less than 0.08 would indicate acceptable model fit (Browne & Cudeck,
1993; Steiger, 1998).

4 RESULTS
y

4.1 Preliminary analysis

-
- 4.1.1 Measurement model and composite reliability
e The CFA results indicated that the chi-square test was statistically significant (𝜒 2 = 4809.33, degree of freedom
a [df] = 188, p < .01), which would indicate an unacceptable fit. However, the chi-square test of absolute model fit tends
to be sensitive to large sample sizes and nonnormality in the underlying distribution of the input variables (Kline, 1998).
Thus, other fit statistics were computed to assess the overall fit of the seven-factor model with 22 items to the data.
The alternative fit indices indicated that the measurement model provided a reasonable fit of the data because the val-
s ues showed that they exceeded the minimum cutoff point of 0.90: NFI (0.93), NNFI (0.92), CFI (0.94), and IFI (0.94). The
- RMSEA (0.071) and RMR values (0.056) also met the recommended criteria of .08 or less for a reasonable fit. The item
factor loadings were all acceptable as they were greater than 0.4 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).
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2 BANG ET AL . B

TA B L E 2 Items, standardized loadings, and t values of the measurement model T

v
Full model Returners First-timers
Items 𝝀x t 𝝀x t 𝝀x t
Expression of Values
I wanted to do something worthwhile 0.63 34.26 0.63 27.58 0.63 20.30
I wanted to help make the Games a success 0.74 41.34 0.73 32.72 0.75 25.48
The Games needed lots of volunteers 0.60 32.32 0.59 25.04 0.64 20.78
Love of Sport
I am interested in the Games 0.54 35.55 0.54 28.86 0.52 20.95
I have an interest in sport 0.69 47.13 0.70 38.02 0.68 28.02 N

I have a passion for the Games 0.81 55.97 0.80 44.15 0.83 34.62
T
I wanted to be associated with the Games 0.48 31.34 0.49 25.81 0.46 18.16
Patriotism/Community Involvement
I wanted to give something back to Rio and to Brazil 0.79 58.95 0.80 47.87 0.77 34.45
I am proud of Rio and Brazil 0.59 40.93 0.59 33.09 0.58 25.10
I wanted to put something back into the community 0.77 57.58 0.77 45.82 0.78 34.97
I wanted to feel part of the community 0.55 38.11 0.56 30.91 0.54 22.33
Career Orientation
I wanted to gain skills that I can use in future employment 0.77 59.88 0.75 46.31 0.80 37.85
I wanted to make job contacts 0.70 52.85 0.73 44.68 0.66 29.12
I wanted to gain experience which might lead to employment 0.89 73.39 0.90 59.24 0.89 43.68 N
*
I wanted to establish contacts with experts from the same field 0.67 49.99 0.70 41.96 0.64 28.04
Goodness-of-fit measures
CFI NFI NNFI IFI RMSEA RMR 4
Full model S-B 𝜒 2 (df = 84) = 2412.77, (p = .00) 0.94 0.94 0.92 0.94 0.076 0.054 T
Returners S-B 𝜒 2 (df = 84) = 1529.53, (p = .00) 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.94 0.075 0.053 t
First-timers S-B 𝜒 2 (df = 84) = 909.63, (p = .00) 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.94 0.075 0.055 e
Note. df = degree of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = nonnormed fit index; IFI = incremental fit index; p
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; RMR = root mean square residual. M

4
The reliability analysis indicated that the Expression of Values (𝛼 = 0.70), Love of Sport (𝛼 = 0.73), Patriotism
(𝛼 = 0.76), and Career Orientation (𝛼 = 0.85) indicators found good composite reliability values, meeting the acceptable A
level (0.70) recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). The results confirm that the four motivation variables t
have a reasonable internal consistency. However, Interpersonal Contacts (𝛼 = 0.65), Personal Growth (𝛼 = 0.47), and p
Extrinsic Rewards (𝛼 = 0.56) fell below 0.70. Because of the low reliability values, the Interpersonal Contacts, Personal in
Growth, and Extrinsic Rewards subscales were removed from the further analysis. Then the CFA was conducted again t
to determine the good fit indices of the four-factor model with 15 items. The results showed that the model achieved p
acceptable values for the goodness of fit indices, suggesting a good model fit (𝜒 2 = 2412.77, df = 84, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.94, o
NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.92, IFI = 0.94, RMSEA = .076, RMR = .054). c
Then, we ran the CFA separately for each volunteer group. The results revealed that the two measurement mod-
els had good fit to the data as well, confirming the construct validity of the motivation items for the returners g
(𝜒 2 = 1529.53, df = 84, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.93, IFI = 0.94, RMSEA = .075, RMR = .053) and the R
first-timers (𝜒 2 = 909.63, df = 84, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.93, NNFI = 0.92, IFI = 0.94, RMSEA = .075, RMR = .055). c
Table 2 presents the items, their loadings, and t values of the four motivation factors. Reliability values, means, standard T
deviations, and zero-order correlations of the study variables are presented in Table 3. t
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L. BANG ET AL .

TA B L E 3 Composite reliability, descriptive statistics, and correlations for motivation, satisfaction, and intention
variables

Composite reliability Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Expression of Values 0.70 4.50 0.61 —
2. Love of Sport 0.73 4.44 0.67 0.37** —
3. Patriotism 0.76 3.98 0.88 0.56** 0.22** —
4. Career Orientation 0.85 2.92 1.17 0.14** 0.19** 0.15** —
5. Overall Satisfaction (1 item) 4.53 0.78 0.25** 0.13** 0.23** 0.10** —
** ** ** **
6. Future Intention (1 item) 3.88 0.89 0.27 0.07 0.32 0.14 0.37** —

Note. SD = standard deviation.

TA B L E 4 Descriptive statistics, t test, and mann-whitney test of prior experience groups

Returners First-timers
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t/Mann-Whitney U
Expression of Values 4.49 (0.61) 4.53 (0.62) t = −1.92
Love of Sport 4.43 (0.67) 4.45 (0.66) t = −1.13
Patriotism 3.99 (0.88) 3.97 (0.88) t = 0.50
Career Orientation 2.90 (1.17) 2.94 (1.17) t = −1.15
Overall Satisfaction 4.47 (2323.74) 4.63 (2558.01) U = 2424374.50**
Future Intention 3.82 (2054.04) 3.98 (2314.04) U = 1803941.50**

Note. SD = standard deviation.

**p ≤ .01.

4.1.2 T-test
The results revealed that there were no significant differences in volunteer motivations between returners and first-
timers. However, compared with returners, first-timers were likely to have higher satisfaction with overall volunteer
experiences during the Olympic and Paralympic Games (Levene's F = 88.07, p < .01, Mann-Whitney U = 2424374.50,
x; p < .01) and higher intention to continue their volunteering work in the next 12 months (Levene's F = 43.05, p < .01,
Mann-Whitney U = 1803941.50, p < .01). (See Table 4)

4.2 Measurement invariance test

m
e As the first step to establish measurement invariance, configural invariance was tested in MGCFA to cross-validate
s the four-factor model across the two volunteer groups. The combined model had good fit (𝜒 2 = 2439.17, df = 168,
d p < 0.01, RMSEA = .075, 90% confidence interval [CI], [0.072, 0.078], CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.93, IFI = 0.94),
al indicating that there is configural invariance. Metric invariance was then tested by constraining the factor loadings
n to be equivalent across the two groups. The constraints resulted in no change in model fit (𝜒 2 = 2439.17, df = 168,
d p < 0.01, RMSEA = .075, 90% CI, [0.072, 0.078], CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.93, IFI = 0.94). The CFI values (0.94)
4, of both configural and meric invariance models were the same, and the RMSEA values (0.075) fell within one another's
confidence intervals, which indicates metric invariance (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002).
- To assess scalar invariance, the scalar model constrained factor loadings and intercepts to be equal across the
s groups and compared the fit with the fit of the metric model. The model fit (𝜒 2 = 2439.17, df = 179, p < 0.01,
e RMSEA = .072, 90% CI, [0.070, 0.075], CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.93, IFI = 0.94) showed that there was no
). change in the CFI value, and the RMSEA fell within one another's confidence intervals, supporting scalar invariance.
d The results of the three measurement invariance tests provided evidence that there was no measurement bias among
the returning and first-time volunteers.
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2 BANG ET AL . B

TA B L E 5 Path coefficient estimates from SEM

Unconstrained model
Full model Returners First-timers
Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE) Coefficient (SE)
Expression of Values → 0.44(0.08)*** 0.48(0.12)*** 0.40(0.09)**
Satisfaction
Expression of Values → 0.14(0.07)* 0.08(0.10) 0.21(0.09)*
Intention
Love of Sport → Satisfaction −0.08(0.03)* −0.10(0.06) −0.04(0.04)
Love of Sport → Intention −0.09(0.03)** −0.08(0.04) −0.10(0.04)*
Patriotism/Community −0.09(0.06) −0.12(0.09) −0.04(0.08)
Involvement → Satisfaction
Patriotism/Community 0.17(0.05)*** 0.24(0.07)* 0.08(0.07)
Involvement → Intention
Career Orientation → 0.06(0.02)*** 0.05(0.02)* 0.07(0.03)**
Satisfaction
Career Orientation → Intention 0.08(0.01)*** 0.09(0.02)*** 0.04(0.02)
Satisfaction → Intention 0.28(0.01) ***
0.28(0.02) ***
0.29(0.03)***

Note. SEM = structural equation modeling; SE = standard error.

***p ≤ .001. **p ≤ .01. *p ≤ .05.
F
4.3 Structural model test for total sample P
t
The SEM results indicated that the full model addressing direct and indirect paths from motivations to future volun-
N
teer intention had an acceptable fit to the data (𝜒 2 = 2560.26, df = 106, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.92,
IFI = 0.94, RMSEA = .069, RMR = .058). Expression of Values (𝛾 = 0.14; p < 0.05), Patriotism/Community Involvement
(𝛾 = 0.17; p < 0.001), and Career Orientation (𝛾 = 0.08; p < 0.001) were positively directly associated with intention,
whereas Love of Sport was negatively related to intention (𝛾 = −0.09; p < 0.01). The indirect paths from Expression
of Values (𝛾 = 0.44; p < 0.001), Love of Sport (𝛾 = −0.08; p < 0.05), and Career Orientation (𝛾 = 0.06; p < 0.001) to
future volunteer intention were significant, passing through overall satisfaction from which the path to future volun-
teer intention was significant (𝛽 = 0.28; p < 0.001). But the indirect path from Patriotism/Community Involvement to
future volunteer intention was not significant.

4.4 Multigroup path analysis

Multigroup path analysis was employed to examine and test whether there were significant differences in the struc-
tural parameters across groups. Two models were compared to test cross-group invariance: (a) a baseline model with
no equality constraints (i.e., the model structure was equal across the groups, but the coefficients were estimated
freely for each group) and (b) a constrained model where all parameters were constrained to be equal between the
two groups. Then the fits of the two models were compared using chi-square difference test. If the chi-square test for
difference is significant, then structural paths for the two groups are noninvariant.
The baseline model (unconstrained path model) provided an adequate fit to the data (𝜒 2 = 2610.52, df = 212,
p < 0.01, RMSEA = .069, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.93, IFI = 0.94). The constrained model provided a sufficient
fit for the data (𝜒 2 = 3515.54, df = 227, p < 0.01, RMSEA = .078, CFI = 0.92, NFI = 0.92, NNFI = 0.91, IFI = 0.92) as
well. However, constraining the parameters to be equal resulted in a decrease in model fit. The results of chi-square dif-
ference test revealed significant difference in the fit for the two models, 𝜒 2 difference (15) = 905.02, p < 0.001, indicating
F
that the relationships among motivations, satisfaction, and intention vary by returning volunteers and first-time volun- E
teers. Table 5 shows the estimates of the parameters from the SEM for total sample and the baseline (unconstrained) V
model. Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the direct and indirect effects of motivations on future volunteer intention for N
returners and first-timers, respectively.
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L. BANG ET AL .

F I G U R E 1 Standardized results from multigroup path analysis for returner. Returners' motivations of
Patriotism/Community Involvement and Career Orientation had direct effects on future volunteer intention while
their Expression of Values and Career Orientation had indirect effects on intention through satisfaction.
-
Note.*p < .05, ***p < .001. (2-tailed)
2,
t
n,
n
o
-
o

-
h
d
e
r

2,
t
s
-
g
F I G U R E 2 Standardized results from multigroup path analysis for first-timers. First-timers' motivations of
- Expression of Values and Love of Sport had direct effects on future volunteer intention while their Expression of
) Values and Career Orientation had indirect effects on intention through satisfaction.
r Note.*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. (2-tailed)
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2 BANG ET AL . B

5 DISCUSSION s
c
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impacts of motivations and satisfaction on future intention of volun- in
teering and to examine the moderating role of previous volunteering experience in the relationships among motiva-
tions, overall satisfaction, and intention to continue volunteering. Although volunteers’ motivations measured for this o
study reflect the participants’ motivations to volunteer for the study's current context (e.g., Rio 2016 Olympic Games li
and/or Paralympic Games), the results drawn from the full sample demonstrated that all the motivations were likely to o
predict the participants’ future intention to volunteer for other settings of the community both directly and indirectly, a
excluding the indirect effect of Patriotism/Community Involvement on future volunteer intention. w
Basically, these findings align with previous studies on sporting event volunteer (e.g., Bang, Won, et al., 2009; f
Doherty, 2009; Pauline, 2011) that were also drawn on social exchange theory. If individuals believe their needs and m
goals are satisfied through volunteer services at a sporting event, then they are more likely to be engaged in the vol- o
unteer activities than those who do not have such belief. In addition, those motivations (i.e., Expression of Values, Love v
of Sport, Patriotism/Community, and Career Orientation) were found to be effective in forming their future intention
to volunteer in the community. Even if volunteers’ Patriotism/Community Involvement was not fulfilled by their vol- r
unteer satisfaction at SMEs, they were likely to continue volunteering for other future events because they wanted to o
give something back to the community. u
The most obvious finding that emerges from this study was the significant moderating effect of previous volunteer- a
ing experience in the relationships among motivations, overall satisfaction, and intention to continue volunteering. This r
study supports previous findings (e.g., Doherty, 2009; Pauline, 2011) on variations between first-time and returning
volunteers in satisfaction and future volunteer intention. In our study, returning volunteers’ motivation of Expression C
of Values was likely to be associated with their satisfaction with the volunteer experience, which led to the increased f
future intention to volunteer. However, the direct impact of Expression of Values on intention was not significant, indi- d
cating that returning volunteers’ Expression of Values motivation is important to be fulfilled to continue their future o
volunteer activities. p
Stukas, Snyder, and Clary (2016) noted that a feeling of being able to help others is one of the strongest rewards li
resulting from volunteering experience, which leads to feelings of personal fulfillment and satisfaction. In turn, the a
highly satisfied volunteers have higher enthusiasm for volunteering for future events (Bang & Ross, 2009). Different
from returning volunteers, first-time volunteers’ Expression of Values motivation had a direct effect on future intention t
in addition to its indirect effect through volunteer satisfaction. This implies that like the beginning of a new job, the t
novelty and excitement about volunteering to help and serve others, which is known as the most frequent reason given b
for volunteering (Chacón, Pérez, Flores, & Vecina, 2011), would be an enjoyable prelude to first-time volunteers called
‘novelty effect’. Yet as individuals have more experiences of volunteer work, they would eventually notice they are a
little reserved and start adjusting their expectations of volunteering. Therefore, the findings suggest that returning
5
volunteers’ Expression of Values motivation may not be a factor that always automatically leads to future intention to
volunteer regardless of the type of event. S
Returning volunteers’ Love of Sport motivation was unlikely to have an effect on neither their satisfaction nor their p
future volunteer intention. But first-time volunteers’ Love of Sport motivation had a direct negative influence on their t
intention to volunteer for other community settings. This finding suggests that the first-time volunteers might have n
chosen to volunteer for the SME just because their volunteering took place in a sporting event, especially the Olympic s
and Paralympic Games, which provided the opportunity for a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Thus, it is not surprising F
that their interest in volunteering for future events in the community might be lower. On the other hand, returning vol- t
unteers’ Love of Sport motivation would not be significant since their future intention to volunteer might be irrelevant
whether or not it is a sporting event. a
With regard to the Patriotism/Community Involvement motivation, returning volunteers’ motivation was likely to V
have a direct positive effect on intention to continue volunteering, whereas its indirect effect through satisfaction was in
not significant. This finding indicates that returning volunteers’ high levels of Patriotism/Community Involvement did c
not affect their satisfaction. Nevertheless, this motivation related to giving back to their country and the community s
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L. BANG ET AL .

seems to be the important force that drives the returning volunteers to continue volunteering in the community. In
contrast, first-time volunteers’ Patriotism/Community Involvement motivation was not a significant predictor of future
- intention at all.
- Returning volunteers’ motivation concerning Career Orientation was found to have both direct and indirect effects
s on their future intention to volunteer. Gaining hands-on experience and new contacts that might help their career is
s likely to be one of the most essential benefits that returning volunteers seek in return. Thus, their feeling of fulfillment
o on a career-related desire from volunteering at a SME would increase their returning intention for other future events
y, as volunteers. First-time volunteers with high Career Orientation motivation were also satisfied with their volunteer
work at the event, which positively influenced the future intention. But their motivation did not directly affect their
9; future intention to volunteer for other events. Probably, they were motivated to volunteer for their career develop-
d ment particularly through volunteering in the special context, the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Therefore, their
- original Career Orientation motivation for volunteering for the Olympic and Paralympic Games might not predict their
e volunteering intention for other events.
n Despite its exploratory nature, this study provides important insights into the role of previous volunteering expe-
- rience status in understanding motivational needs that directly influence volunteers’ future intention to volunteer for
o other events. Results of the full model did not confirm the idea that motivational needs for the initial decision of vol-
unteering can be different from those that are effective for volunteer continuation (Winniford et al., 1995) because
- all four motivations directly influenced future volunteer intention. However, the differences seem obvious between
s returning and first-time volunteers.
g One major difference in the returning volunteer group is that only the Patriotism/Community Involvement and
n Career Orientation motivations affected returning volunteers’ intention to volunteer for other future events. In the
d first-time volunteer group, the Expression of Values motivation was the only motivation factor that positively pre-
- dicted future volunteer intention, whereas their high levels of Love of Sport motivation was associated with low levels
e of future intention. But then there seemed to be certain motivation factors fulfilled by volunteering, which leads to
positive intention to continue volunteering at future community events. Both returning and first-time volunteers were
s likely to have high intention to continue volunteering because their motivational needs such as Expression of Values
e and Career Orientation were fulfilled by their volunteer experience at the SME.
t Taken together, the findings confirmed that when volunteers feel a sense of fulfillment on their motivational needs,
n they are willing to volunteer for future events. But volunteers’ certain motivations that were initiated to volunteer for
e the SME still seemed effective for future volunteer intention even at a different setting, and the motivations can vary
n based on whether volunteers had previous volunteering experience.
d
a
g
5.1 Practical implications
o
Some practical implications can be drawn from this study. First, our findings suggest that volunteers’ satisfaction can
r play an important role in influencing volunteers’ future intention to volunteer. Hence, event organizers should ensure
r that such knowledge can be used when developing a strategic plan for recruiting and engaging volunteers. Event orga-
e nizers should identify individuals’ primary motivations for volunteering for SMEs, thereby tailoring their recruitment
c strategies to highlight those motivations and matching individuals with their ideal tasks to satisfy their goals in the task.
g For example, our findings suggest that both returning and first-time volunteers’ future volunteer intention was related
- to the benefits of feeling satisfied by helping others and opportunities for career development.
t Event organizers can highlight in the recruitment message that volunteers’ service during the SME not only makes
a meaningful contribution to a better community but also is a type of experience that will enhance their résumé.
o Volunteers with high levels of Expression of Values motivation would be assigned to serve tasks that require direct
s interactions with athletes, visitors, or spectators and volunteers with a desire for career development would be given
d challenging tasks that provide opportunities to learn skills or require helping other professionals working behind the
y scenes.
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2 BANG ET AL . B

Second, event organizers should recognize returning volunteers’ patriotism and community concerns that keep O
those volunteers returning to serve their volunteer work in the community. Event organizers should ensure that H
returning volunteers are given an opportunity to feel part of the community and further help make their country better G
through their volunteer service at the SME. K
Finally, it is important for volunteers to understand the event organization's expectations. When volunteers under- F
stand how each of their positions is integrated with others and how important their roles are to make the event a suc-
cess, they would do a better job and feel more satisfied with their duties. Therefore, event organizers should develop
R
and provide meaningful position descriptions for volunteers. Volunteers who gained positive experiences with a feeling
B
that their contributions were well used at the event would have greater intention to return as volunteers in future.

B
5.2 Limitations and future research
The present study was not without limitations. First, the study used intention to continue volunteering as the depen-
dent variable. Intention is the immediate determinant of actual behavior, but volunteers’ future intention to volunteer B

for other community settings, in this case, may not perfectly predict their future volunteer behavior because of poten- B

tial changes in true intentions between the time of the survey and the time of the actual volunteering behavior at a com-
B
munity event. In addition, the single item of intention that Nielsen's survey included did not specify whether it asked
participants’ future intention to volunteer for other community settings or another SME. Such ambiguous question
C
could lead respondents to interpret the question item in a variety of ways. Therefore, future studies should consider
measuring both volunteers’ continuation intentions and tracking their actual volunteering activities at future events,
C
using a question item written in clear and precise language.
Second, although the present study provides evidence for previous volunteering experience as a moderator in the C
relationships among motivations, satisfaction, and intention, the pathway is not exhaustive. More research is needed
on mechanisms of causation to provide a better understanding of how volunteers at a SME would increase their inten- D
tion to continue volunteering for other community events.
Third, the study used two double-barreled question items for the Patriotism/Community Involvement factor. F
Because some single response question items of the survey introduced both the host community (i.e., Rio) and the
G
country (i.e., Brazil), we had to combine the two issues in one motivation factor and label it as Patriotism/Community
Involvement. Those double-barreled questions could lead to responses that are difficult to interpret. Future studies
G
should therefore avoid double-barreled questions when developing survey questions.
Finally, the online survey administered by Nielsen was cross-sectional and focused on the population in the Rio 2016
G
Olympic Games and the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games. The causality between motivations and satisfaction and future
volunteer intention should be understood as tentative, being cautious in generalizing the results of our study to give H
insight into other populations or areas.
H

5.3 Conclusion H
Due to the significant role of SME that can leave a legacy of volunteerism in the community, it becomes more impor-
tant for event organizations or volunteer managers to understand how volunteers' motivation and satisfaction at SME
H
influence their future intention to volunteer in other settings of the community. Our study found that the effects of
H
volunteer motivations at SME on volunteer intention for future community events vary based on whether volunteers
H
had previous volunteering experience. Returning volunteers' motivations regarding Patriotism/Community Involve-
ment and Career Orientation were directly associated with future volunteer intention while their Expression of Values
and Career Orientation motivations predicted intention indirectly through satisfaction. First-time volunteers' Expres-
K
sion of Values and Love of Sport had direct effects on future intention while their Expression of Values and Career
K
Orientation had indirect effects through satisfaction. These findings extend our knowledge of volunteering legacies,
thereby suggesting that event organizers utilize such information when developing volunteer recruitment and engage- K
ment strategies.
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L. BANG ET AL .

p ORCID
t Hyejin Bang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7518-3302
r Gonzalo A. Bravo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3273-0027
Katiuscia Mello Figuerôa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8724-0247
- Fernando Marinho Mezzadri https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8601-5227
-
p
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
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How to cite this article: Bang H, Bravo GA, Mello Figuerôa K, Mezzadri FM. The impact of volunteer experi-
ence at sport mega-events on intention to continue volunteering: Multigroup path analysis. J Community Psy-
2019;47:727–742.
chol. 2018;1–16. h ps://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22149
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