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Mechanical and durability properties of

self-compacting concrete containing fly
ash and bottom ash
a b b
Rafat Siddique , Paratibha Aggarwal & Yogesh Aggarwal
a
Civil Engineering Department , Thapar University , Patiala , India
b
Civil Engineering Department , National Institute of Technology ,
Kurukshetra , India
Published online: 27 Nov 2012.

To cite this article: Rafat Siddique , Paratibha Aggarwal & Yogesh Aggarwal (2012) Mechanical and
durability properties of self-compacting concrete containing fly ash and bottom ash, Journal of
Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 1:3, 67-82, DOI: 10.1080/21650373.2012.726820

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 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
Vol. 1, No. 3, September 2012, 67–82

Mechanical and durability properties of self-compacting concrete

containing fly ash and bottom ash
Rafat Siddiquea*, Paratibha Aggarwalb and Yogesh Aggarwalb
a
Civil Engineering Department, Thapar University, Patiala, India; bCivil Engineering
Department, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India

The paper investigates the production of self-compacting concrete (SCC) more

affordable for construction industry with various percentages of fly ash as part of the
Downloaded by [New York University] at 10:02 06 July 2015

total powder content and bottom ash as replacement of fine aggregates. Various
properties studied included strength (compressive and split tensile strength) and dura-
bility properties (carbonation and deicing salt surface scaling). Based on the materi-
als used in this study, the SCC was observed to be flowable, cohesive, and
developed 28-day compressive strength, approximately in the range of 18–35 MPa.
Besides the environmental benefits, there could be some technical and economical
advantages as well. As a general result, presence of fly ash and bottom ash affected
the durability properties of concrete positively.
Keywords: fly and bottom ash; compressive strength; split tensile strength; carbon-
ation; deicing salt surface scaling

1. Introduction material structure. The elimination of the

ACI Committee 371 defines self-com-
pacting concrete (SCC) as “Highly flow-
able, non segregating concrete that can
spread into place, fill the formwork, and
encapsulate the reinforcement without
any mechanical consolidation.” The SCC
has evolved into an innovative technol-
ogy capable of achieving the status of
being an outstanding advancement in the
sphere of concrete technology.
The use of SCC can remarkably
lower the complexity of construction by
reducing the demand for a significant
amount of consolidation practice and
skillful workmanship. Therefore, it allows
a much easier construction schedule and
results in a more reliable quality of con-
crete placement and a more homogeneous
compaction work results in reduced cost
of placement, shortening of the construc-
tion time, and, therefore, improved pro-
ductivity. It also leads to a reduction of
noise during casting, better working con-
ditions, and the possibility of expanding
the placing time in inner city areas. Com-
pared to ordinary vibrated concrete, SCC
can be used to solve special casting prob-
lems (congested reinforcement, slender
structures, etc.).
The main requirements of SCC are its
properties in fresh state. The mix design
is focused on the ability to flow under its
own weight without vibration. The work-
ability of SCC is higher than “very high”
degree of workability as mentioned in IS:
456-2000. A concrete mix can only be

*Corresponding author. Email: siddique_66@yahoo.com

ISSN 2165-0373 print/ISSN 2165-0381 online

Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2012.726820
http://www.tandfonline.com
 68 R. Siddique et al.
classified as self-compacting if it has the
characteristics of filling ability, passing
ability, and segregation resistance.
Such concrete requires a high slump
that can easily be achieved by superplast-
icizer addition to a concrete mix and
special attention has to be paid to mix
proportioning. The SCC often contains a
large quantity of powder materials which
is required to maintain sufficient yield
value and viscosity of the fresh mix,
hence reducing bleeding, segregation, and
settlement. As the use of a large quantity
of cement increases cost, mineral admix-
tures such as fly ash, blast furnace slag,
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or limestone filler could increase the
slump of the concrete mixture without
increasing its cost.
Previous studies have shown that the
use of mineral admixtures such as fly ash
and blast furnace slag could increase the
slump of the concrete mixture without
increasing its cost, whereas reducing dos-
age of superplasticizer is needed to obtain
similar slump flow compared to concrete
made with Portland cement only [1].
Also, the use of fly ash improves the rhe-
ological properties and reduces the crack-
ing potential of concrete as it lowers the
heat of hydration of the cement [2]. Stud-
ies have shown that fly ash replacement
up to 30% results in a significant
improvement of the rheological properties
of flowing concretes [3,4]. Kim et al. [3]
studied the properties of super flowing
concrete containing fly ash and reported
that the replacement of cement by 30%
(40% for only one mixture) fly ash
resulted in excellent workability and
flowability. Other researcher [4] evaluated
the influence of supplementary cementi-
tious materials on workability and con-
cluded that the replacement of cement by
30% of fly ash can significantly improve
the rheological properties. The use of fly
ash reduces the demand for cement, fine
fillers, and sand [5], which are required
in high quantities in SCC. Moreover, the
incorporation of fly ash also reduces the
need for viscosity-enhancing chemical
admixtures. A study by Khatib [6]
exploring the effect of different fly ash
contents on the performance of SCC. The
results show that, generally, there is
strength reduction for concretes contain-
ing fly ash compared with that of the
control concrete. Similar conclusion has
been reported by other researchers for
SCC containing fly ash [7,8]. Compres-
sive strength reduction was reported by
Boukendakdji et al. [9] for SCC mixtures
with increasing slag content up to 15% at
all ages. Khatib and Hibbert [10] studied
the strength development of concrete with
slag and showed there is a systematic
decrease in compressive strength as the
slag content increases during the early
stages of hydration. Uysal and Sumer
[11] measured the effect of different min-
eral admixtures such as granulated blast
furnace slag, fly ash, limestone powder,
marble powder, and basalt powder on the
properties of SCC. From the results, it
can be concluded that all mixtures had
the lower compressive strength at 7 days
when compared to control mixture. The
lower compressive strength of self-com-
pacting mortar containing marble powder
was also reported by Guneyisi et al. [12].
The paper investigates the making of
SCC more affordable for the construction
industry with various percentages of fly
ash as part of the total powder content
and bottom ash as replacement of fine
aggregates. Such concrete was observed
to be flowable, cohesive, and developed
28-day compressive strength, approxi-
mately in the range of 18–35 MPa.
2. Materials used
Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 43)
with normal consistency of 28% and ini-
tial and final setting times as 75 and 215
minutes were used. It had specific gravity
as 3.15 and 7-day compressive strength
as 37 MPa and conformed to BIS: 8112-
1989 specifications. Class F fly ash
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
obtained from “Panipat Thermal Power
Station, Panipat,” Haryana with specific
gravity 2.13 was used. In addition to fly
ash, there are vast amounts of substan-
dard (coarse) bottom ash that can be
utilized in the concrete industry. Coal
bottom ash was also obtained from Pan-
ipat Thermal Power Station, Panipat, Har-
yana. Specific gravity of bottom ash was
1.93 and fineness modulus was observed
to be 1.6, with bulk density loose and
compacted as 776 and 948 kg/m3, respec-
tively. The chemical properties of fly ash
and bottom ash are presented in Table 1.
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A polycarboxylic ether-based superplasti-
cizer complying with ASTM C-494 type
F, having density of approximately 1.10
and pH of approximately 5.0, was used.
Locally available natural sand with
4.75 mm maximum size was used as fine
aggregate and crushed stone with 16 mm
maximum size was used as coarse aggre-
gate. Both fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate conformed to Indian Standard
Specifications BIS: 383-1970. The coarse
and fine aggregates had a specific gravity
of 2.67, water absorptions of 0.95 and
0.90%, and fineness modulus of 6.86 and
2.32, respectively. Grading curves for fine
aggregates (sand and bottom ash) are
shown in Figure 1. The bulk density
(loose and compacted) was observed to
be 1460 and 1540 kg/m3 for coarse
aggregates and 1590 and 1780 kg/m3 for
fine aggregates, respectively.
3. Experimental program
The proportions of the concrete mixtures
are summarized in Table 2. Twelve con-
crete mixtures were tested, with four
mixes for each percentage of fly ash (15,
25, and 35% by weight of total powder
content) having replacement of fine aggre-
gates with bottom ash at 0, 10, 20, and
30%. The mixes had total powder content
of 550 kg/m3 (cement + fly ash). Coarse
aggregate content was maintained at 39%
by volume (590 kg/m3) of concrete and
69
fine aggregate content at 45% by volume
of mortar in concrete (910 kg/m3), the w/p
ratio was 0.41–0.62 by weight, with air
content being assumed to be 2%. Mix
proportions and fresh properties for the
various SCC mixes are given in detail in
Tables 2 and 3.
For these mix proportions, required
quantities of materials were weighed and
cement and fly ash in dry state were
mixed and coarse and fine aggregates
were mixed in dry state separately. Half
of the mixing water was added to coarse
and fine aggregates and mixed for 3 min.
Mixer was stopped and left covered for
15 min, then cement and fly ash were
added evenly over the aggregate and
again mixed for 30 s. Remaining water
over next 30 sec was added and then
mixing continued for 3 min after adding
all the materials together in a mixer to
obtain homogeneous mix. The casting
immediately followed mixing, after carry-
ing out the tests for fresh properties. The
specimens were removed from molds
after 24 h and cured in water till testing.
All test measurements were taken as the
average of three readings for strength
tests.
4. Testing of the specimens
For determining the self-compactibility
properties, such as slump flow, T50 cm
time, V-funnel flow times, L-box block-
ing ratio, and U-box difference in height,
tests were performed. All fresh test mea-
surements were duplicated and the aver-
age of measurements was given. In order
to reduce the effect of workability loss
on variability of test results, fresh state
properties of mixes were determined
within a period of 30 minutes after mix-
ing. The order of testing was as given
below, respectively:
(1) Slump flow test and measurement
of T50 cm time;
 70 R. Siddique et al.
Table 1. Chemical properties of fly ash and bottom ash.
Sr. No. Constituents
1 Loss on ignition
2 Silica (SiO2)
3 Iron oxide (Fe2O3)
4 Alumina (Al2O3)
5 Calcium oxide (CaO)
6 Magnesium oxide (MgO)
7 Total sulfur (SO3)
8 Alkalies (a) sodium oxide (Na2O)
and (b) potassium oxide (K2O)
The properties of fly ash and bottom ash conform to IS: 3812-2003.
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(2) V-funnel flow tests at 10 s (T10 s)
and 5 min (T5 min);
(3) L-box test; and
(4) U-box test for numbered lists.
For each mixture, the compressive
strength was determined on three cubes at
7, 28, 90, and 365 days and the split ten-
sile strength test on three cylinders at 28,
90, and 365 days was determined as per
IS 516:1959. Carbonation of SCC mixes
according to RILEM Committee CPC-18
[13] was carried out by casting cylinders
(150 mm
300 mm). Carbonation test of
depth of colorless region using phenol-
phthalein indicator was determined using
the cylinders (150 mm
300 mm) as per
RILEM CPC-18. After casting, test speci-
mens were covered with plastic sheets
and left in casting room for 24 h at room
temperature and demolded and cured in
water for 28 days. After that, specimens
were air cured (open environment) for the
required age, say till 90 days or 365 days,
and were then split. The freshly split sur-
face was cleaned and sprayed with a phe-
nolphthalein pH indicator. The indicator
was a phenolphthalein 1% ethanol solu-
tion (1 g phenolphthalein and 90 ml etha-
nol (95.0 V/V%) diluted in water to
100 ml). The average depth ‘Xp’ of the
colorless phenolphthalein region was
measured from three points, perpendicular
Fly ash % Bottom ash %
(by Weight) (by Weight)
4.17 5.80
58.55 57.76
3.44 8.56
28.20 21.58
2.23 1.58
0.32 1.19
0.07 0.02
0.58 0.14
1.26 1.08
to the two edges of the split face, immedi-
ately after spraying the indicator.
Scaling resistance of concrete surfaces
exposed to deicing chemicals according to
ASTM C 672 was carried out at 90 and
365 days. The test method (according to
ASTM C 672) covers the determination of
the resistance to scaling of a horizontal
concrete surface exposed to freezing and
thawing cycles in the presence of deicing
chemicals. It is intended for the use in
evaluating surface resistance qualitatively
by visual examination. Specimens of size
225 mm
225 mm
25 mm were pre-
pared for all mixes. A dike of 25 mm wide
and 20 mm high was placed along the
perimeter of the top surface of the speci-
mens. The specimens were removed from
the molds after 24 h and then cured. Since
the concretes with strength at different
ages are to be compared, the specimen
was cured till that age. At the desired age,
the specimens were removed from moist
storage and stored in air for 14 days. After
completion of moist and air curing, the flat
surface of the specimen was covered with
6 mm thick layer solution of calcium chlo-
ride solution and water. A 100 mL of solu-
tion contains 4 g of anhydrous calcium
chloride. The specimens were placed in
freezing environment for 16–18 h. The
specimens were removed from freezer and
placed in air for 6–8 h. Water was added at
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 71

Fine aggregate Bottom ash

100 99.45 100

94.25
Percentage Passing 84.85
80 76.5

60

40 40.8

20

6
0
100 1000 10000
Sieve Size(microns)
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Figure 1. Grading curves for fine aggregates (sand and bottom ash).

Table 2. Composition of various mixes.

Fly
Cement Fly ash ash C.A. F.A. Sand B.A. S.P.
Mix (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) w/p
F15BA0 465 85 15 590 910 910 0 1.95 0.41
F15BA10 465 85 15 590 910 819 91 1.85 0.47
F15BA20 465 85 15 590 910 728 182 1.90 0.51
F15BA30 465 85 15 590 910 640 270 1.80 0.55
F25BA0 415 135 25 590 910 910 0 1.80 0.42
F25BA10 415 135 25 590 910 819 91 1.50 0.48
F25BA20 415 135 25 590 910 728 182 1.40 0.54
F25BA30 415 135 25 590 910 640 270 2.00 0.56
F35BA0 355 195 35 590 910 910 0 1.80 0.44
F35BA10 355 195 35 590 910 819 91 1.70 0.50
F35BA20 355 195 35 590 910 728 182 1.60 0.58
F35BA30 355 195 35 590 910 640 270 1.30 0.62

each cycle as necessary to maintain the
proper depth of solution. Cycle was
repeated after every 24 h, flushing the sur-
face at the end of each five cycles. After
making the visual examination, the solu-
tion was replaced and the test continued
for 50 cycles.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Properties of fresh concrete
The results of various fresh properties
tested by slump flow test (slump flow
diameter and T50 cm); L-box test (ratio of
heights at the two edges of L-box (H2/
H1)); V-funnel test (time taken by con-
crete to flow through V-funnel after 10 s
T10 s and time taken by concrete to flow
through V-funnel after 5 min T5 min); and
U-box test (difference in height of
concrete in two chambers (H2–H1)) for
various mix compositions are given in
Table 3. The slump flow test judges the
capability of concrete to deform under its
own weight against the friction of the
surface with no restraint present. A slump
 72 R. Siddique et al.

Table 3. Fresh properties of various SCC mixes.

Slump flow V-funnel

L-box U-box
Dia. T50 cm T10 s T5 min (H2/ (H1-H2) Room Conc.
Mix (mm) (s) (s) (s) H1) mm temp. temp.
F15BA0 675 4.5 7.5 15.00 0.90 20 29 27
F15BA10 675 3.5 6.6 12.5 0.80 25 31 30
F15BA20 590 6.0 6.5 8.8 0.95 30 32 28
F15BA30 625 2.5 4.0 6.5 0.82 30 34 28
F25BA0 605 4.5 7 8.5 0.60 50 33 29.5
F25BA10 625 2.2 5.2 6.8 0.8 65 32 28
F25BA20 600 1.5 7 7.9 0.6 45 32 28
F25BA30 590 2.0 4.2 9.7 0.60 30 33 30
F35BA0 635 4.0 10.0 18 0.92 20 32 28.5
F35BA10 645 3.8 9.0 18 0.90 30 32 28
F35BA20 590 2.7 8.0 16.0 0.8 50 32 28
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F35BA30 590 4.0 6.1 10.5 0.86 40 32 28

flow value ranging from 500 to 700 mm
for a concrete to be self-compacting was
suggested [14]. All the mixes in the study
conform to the above range. The slump
flow time for the concrete to reach the
diameter of 500 mm for all the mixes was
less than 6 s. The V-funnel test was also
performed to assess the flowability and
stability of the SCC. As is observed from
the literature, V-funnel time, which is less
than 6 s, is recommended for concrete to
qualify as a SCC [15] and as per EFN-
ARC [16], time ranging from 6 to 12 s is
considered adequate for SCC. In the
absence of the Indian codes regarding
SCC, the V-funnel flow times in the
range of 4–10 s were considered as con-
forming to the requirements of allowable
flow time. Maximum size of coarse
aggregate was kept as 16 mm in order to
avoid blocking effect in the L-box. The
gap between rebars in L-box test was
35 mm. The L-box ratio H2/H1 of all the
mixes was above 0.6. The U-box differ-
ence in height of concrete in two com-
partments was in the range of 20–65 mm.
The mixes with 15% fly ash showed
maximum slump flow diameter for 10%
bottom ash which was same as for 0%
bottom ash content. Minimum slump
diameter was observed for 20% bottom
ash content. The mixes with 20 and 30%
bottom ash contents showed lower slump
flow values at all fly ash percentages
when compared to mixes with 0 and 10%
bottom ash replacements as given in
Table 4. Difference of V-funnel time
T10 sec and T5 min was minimum for
F15BA20 mix. The mixes with 15% fly
ash of the total powder content showed
the higher and consistent slump diameters
for 0, 10, and 30% replacements of fine
aggregates with bottom ash with mini-
mum slump flow at 20% bottom ash. The
T50 cm time was also consistent and
within limits with 0, 10, 20, and 30%
bottom ash for all mixes. The L-box ratio
for all the mixes at 15% fly ash was
observed to be best between 0.80 and
0.95 when compared to mixes with 25
and 35% fly ash. Also, the difference in
height in U-box was observed to be
within range for all replacements with
bottom ash.
The mix with 25% fly ash content
showed maximum slump flow diameter
for 10% bottom ash and decreased gradu-
ally with increase in bottom ash contents
from 10 to 30%. The T50 cm was maxi-
mum for 0% bottom ash, but was consid-
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
erably less and consistent with replace-
ments with bottom ash. Difference of V-
funnel time T10 s and T5 min was minimum
for 20% bottom ash mix.
For mixes with 35% fly ash, maxi-
mum slump was observed for 10% bot-
tom ash and 20 and 30% bottom ash
contents showed same and lower slump
diameters. The V-funnel time with 35%
fly ash content was maximum in all
replacements with bottom ash. The mixes
having V-funnel time higher than the
upper limit tends to entrap air due to the
high viscosity. This means that self-com-
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pactibility cannot be maintained. On the
other hand, many researchers have pro-
posed the lower limit of V-funnel time in
the range of 8–10 s. It is considered that
a mixture having a V-funnel time below
this limit has a potential of stability loss.
Although, mix F15BA20 showed
maximum T50 cm time, the difference of
V-funnel times was observed to be low
which is also evident from the Figure 2,
giving the relationship of time required to
flow through V-funnel and to reach
500 mm of slump flow, with good L-box
ratio and U-box difference at 0.95 and
30 mm, respectively. The results show
that percentage of bottom ash has played
a significant role in the workability of
SCC mixes. The best mix was observed
to be F15BA30, in terms of workability.
5.2. Strength properties
5.2.1. Compressive strength
The compressive strength and split tensile
strength for different mixes are given in
Tables 4 and 5. As a general result, the
compressive and split tensile strengths
were observed to be increasing with a
decrease in the percentage of the fly ash
and the water-to-cementitious materials
ratio.
For the mixes with 0% bottom ash,
an increase of 18% strength at 28 days
and 40% at 365 days was observed with
the decrease of fly ash content from 35
73
to 15%. The gain of strength at 7 days
was observed to be 77–84% of 28-day
strength, having sufficient early age
strength gain despite the presence of fly
ash in SCC (as observed in normal con-
crete, i.e.70% at 7 days). The difference
of gain of strength for various mixes was
observed to be 60–85% between 7 and
90 days increasing with increase in
cement content. Lam et al. [17] reported
gain of strength between 7 and 90 days
for normal concrete (slump about 75 mm)
as 72%. Nehdi et al. [18] observed the
same gain of strength between 7 and
28 days and 28 and 90 days for the 50%
replacement of cement content by fly ash
in total powder content in SCC mixes. In
the study, the gain of strength between 7
and 365 days was 66–91% with maxi-
mum value for F15BA0. At the cement
content of 360 kg/m3 (also having micro
silica and fly ash), increase in strength of
approximately 50% was reported at
270 days with reference to 28 days
strength for SCC [19]. Similarly, for 10%
bottom ash content, an increase of 37%
strength at 28 days and 21% at 365 days
was observed with the decrease of fly ash
content from 35% to 15%. The strength
at 7 days was observed to be 74–81% of
the 28-day strength, having sufficient
early age strength gain but slightly less
than that observed at 0% bottom ash. The
gain of strength for various mixes was
observed to be 51–59% between 7 and
90 days. It was observed that the use of
fly ash and bottom ash at 10% replace-
ment of fine aggregates with bottom ash
in SCC showed better results for 7-day
strength of 74–81% and 90-day strength
of 126–133% with reference to 28-day
strength, as compared to the use of com-
bination of fly ash and bottom ash in nor-
mal concrete with strength of 63% for
7 days and 117% for 90 days with refer-
ence to 28-day strength [20]. Also, at
20% bottom ash content, an increase of
23% strength at 28 days and 18% at
365 days was observed with the decrease
 74 R. Siddique et al.

Table 4. Compressive strength (MPa).

Fly ash (%) 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash 20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
7 days
15 29.55 25.78 22.7 20.78
25 25.52 22.13 21.21 19.18
35 22.78 20.49 18.21 15.23

28 days
15 35.19 35.07 28.89 25.77
25 31.47 27.83 25.47 21.22
35 29.62 25.44 23.33 18.22

90 days
15 58.99 46.49 39.48 36.24
25 43.77 36.94 35.52 32.33
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35 40.88 33.62 32.89 31.53

365 days
15 61.24 48.78 45.34 41.81
25% 46.47 42.20 40.00 38.47
35% 43.73 40.30 38.51 36.50

T50 vs V-funnel
5
500mm Slump flow( s)
Time required to reach

0
-1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0
Tme required to flow through V-funnel(s)

Figure 2. Relationship of time required to flow through V-funnel and to reach 500 mm of slump
flow.

of fly ash content from 35 to 15%. bottom ash but slightly less than that for
At 7 days F15BA20, F25BA20, and 0% bottom ash. The gain of strength for
F35BA20 gained 78, 83, and 79%; at various mixes was observed to be 56–
90 days gained 141, 139, and 137%; and 63% higher than that for 10% bottom ash
at 365 days gained 165, 157 and 156% of (51–59%) between 7 and 90 days increas-
28-day strength. The gain of strength at ing with increase in cement content. At
7 days was observed to be 78–83% of the the bottom ash content of 30%, a gain of
28-day strength, higher than that for 10% strength of about 41% at 28 days and
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
Table 5. Split tensile strength (MPa).
Fly ash (%) 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash
28 days
15 2.40
25 1.83
35 1.55
90 days
15 2.68
25 2.12
36 1.76
365 days
15 2.96
25 2.33
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35 2.12
14% at 365 days (as compared to 18 and
40% for 0% bottom ash, 37 and 21% for
10% bottom ash, and 23% and 18 for
20% bottom ash) was observed with the
decrease in fly ash contents from 35%
(F35BA30) to 15% (F15BA30).These
findings are similar to the ones by Bai
et al. [21] in normal concrete, wherein
they concluded that when the bottom ash
content was increased, the decrease in
compressive strength could be attributed
to the increase in water demand. In nor-
mal concrete also the reduction in
strength was observed up to 30% replace-
ment of fine aggregate with bottom ash.
The gain of strength of mixes with
replacement of 30% bottom ash at 7 days
was 81–90% of 28-day strength, higher
than that observed for 0, 10, and 20%
bottom ash, and the gain of strength for
various mixes was observed to be 56–
63% in comparison to 10% bottom ash
(51–59%) between 7 and 90 days. The
use of fly ash and bottom ash at 30%
replacement in SCC also showed 90-day
strength of 141–173% and 365-day
strength of 162–200% with reference to
28-day strength. The gain of strength
increased with replacement of fine aggre-
gate with bottom ash and was found to
be comparable with the SCC mixes with-
out bottom ash.
75
20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
2.26 2.12 1.90
1.69 1.62 1.48
1.48 1.41 1.27
2.40 2.26 2.05
1.90 1.76 1.69
1.69 1.55 1.48
2.82 2.54 2.26
2.19 2.12 1.97
1.97 1.82 1.69
5.2.2. Split tensile strength
An increase of about 18% in split tensile
strength at 28 days and 40% at 365 days
was observed with the decrease of fly ash
content from 35 to 15%. The strength
values at 7 days of F35BA0 are compara-
ble with the results reported by Lachemi
et al. [22] for the replacements with fly
ash at 40% of total powder content. But
strength at 28 days was found to be lower
since no VMA and AEA was added to
the SCC mixes. It was observed that the
strength gain at 90 and 365 days was
within the limits corresponding to the
amount of cement content used in
the SCC mixes. For the same mix, the
strength values corresponded to those
reported by Xie et al. [23] at 28 days age
of curing. Although the amount of water
used for mixes in this study was higher
and no VMA was used in these mixes,
sufficiently good strength could be
obtained. An increase of about 54% of
strength at 28 days and 40% at 365 days
was observed with the decrease of the fly
ash contents from 35 to 15%. As the per-
centage of fly ash in 0% bottom ash
mixes decreased, the tensile strength
increased at all ages. The F35BA0,
F25BA0, and F15BA0 showed the gain
of split tensile strength to be 5.2, 5.8,
 76 R. Siddique et al.

and 6.8% of 28-day compressive strength a compressive strength of 40–50 MPa with
at 28 days; 4.3, 4.8, and 4.5% of 28-day 15–36% fly ash replacement.
compressive strength at 90 days, and 4.8,
5, and 4.8% at 365 days. The gain of split
tensile strength for various mixes was 5.3. Durability properties
observed to be between 4.3 and 5% at 28 5.3.1. Carbonation
and 90 days, increasing with increase in
Durability and, more specifically, carbon-
cement content. For 10% bottom ash
ation are of major importance for rein-
mixes, an increase of about 52% of
forced concrete structures. Before using
strength at 28 days and 43% at 365 days
new material like bottom ash in SCC, the
was observed with the decrease of the fly
carbonation behavior needs to be investi-
ash contents from 35 to 15%. As the per-
gated to study the effect of use of fly ash
centage of fly ash in 0% bottom ash
and bottom ash on SCC. Phenolphthalein
mixes decreased, the split tensile strength
indicator, which is used conventionally to
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increased at all ages. Similarly, for 20%

determine the depth of carbonation in con-
bottom ash mixes, an increase of about
crete, has a pH of approximately 9.0. The
50% strength at 28 days and 39% at
pH of all the samples tested was more
365 days was observed with the decrease
than 11. The results of carbonation depth
of the fly ash contents from 35 to 15%
in natural environment are expressed in
and an increase of about 50% strength at
Table 6, according to the square root of
28 days and 34% at 365 days was
time (T, in months). The rate of carbon-
observed with the decrease of the fly ash
ation (D) is determined by the diffusion of
contents from 35 and 15% for 30% bot-
carbon dioxide into concrete and carbon-
tom ash mixes. The mixes at 10% bottom
ated depth (X) can be expressed from
ash showed 3.5–8% strength decrease, 9–
Fick’s first law of diffusion as follows:
16% strength decrease with 20% bottom
ash, and 18–20% decrease with 30% bot-
X ¼ D
T 0:5 ð1Þ
tom ash at 28 days to corresponding to
mixes with 0% bottom ash. The mixes
Equations (2)–(5) give the various
with 10% bottom ash showed 4–10%
relationships established [24].
strength decrease, 12–18% strength
decrease with 20% bottom ash, and 16–
pH\7:5 Dc ¼ 100 ð2Þ
23% decrease with 30% bottom ash at
90 days in comparison to corresponding
mixes with 0% bottom ash. The mixes at 7:5\pH\9:0
10% bottom ash showed 4–8.5% strength ð3Þ
Dc ¼ 33:33 pH þ 349:98
decrease, 8–16% strength decrease with
20% bottom ash, and 15–23% decrease
with 30% bottom ash at 365 days in com- 9:0\pH\11:5
parison to corresponding mixes with 0% ð4Þ
Dc ¼ 20 pH þ 230
bottom ash.
For all percentages of fly ash, an
increase in compressive and split tensile pH > 11:5 Dc ¼ 0 ð5Þ
strength with age was observed. All mixes
showed strength gain beyond 28 days and The above results indicate that the
the mixes with 15 and 36% fly ash mixes zones of carbonation can be identified as
gained strength of the order of 58.99 and fully carbonated, partly carbonated, and
40.88 MPa, respectively, at 90 days. How- noncarbonated, according to the degree
ever, it was possible to produce SCC with of carbonation of the concrete, in relation
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 77

Table 6. Carbonation depth and pH for SCC mixes in natural environment.

90 Days 365 Days

Coefficient Coefficient
Mix Xp(mm) (Xp/age0.5) pH value Xp(mm) (Xp/age0.5) pH value
F15BA0 0.83 0.472 11.70 1.33 0.384 11.27
F15BA10 0.50 0.289 11.2 0.60 0.173 11.4
F15BA20 0.83 0.479 11.72 1.33 0.384 11.41
F15BA30 1.17 0.676 11.90 1.66 0.479 11.10
F25BA0 1.00 0.577 11.2 1.50 0.433 11.52
F25BA10 0.67 0.387 11.84 0.95 0.274 11.67
F25BA20 1.00 0.577 11.81 1.74 0.502 11.65
F25BA30 2.33 1.345 11.62 3.67 1.059 11.25
F35BA0 1.33 0.768 11.36 1.78 0.514 11.69
F35BA10 1.00 0.577 11.78 1.10 0.318 11.43
F35BA20 1.33 0.768 11.72 2.10 0.606 11.27
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F35BA30 1.67 0.964 11.70 2.50 0.722 11.39

to the respective pH of the pore solution.
The fully carbonated zone is defined by
the colorless depth of the phenolphthalein
indicator. In this area, the degree of car-
bonation exceeds 50% and the pH of the
pore solution in this zone is smaller than
9.0. In the partly carbonated zone, the
presence of both Ca(OH) and CaCO3 is
observed and the degree of carbonation
in the specimen lies between 0 and 50%.
The pH of the pore solution in the partly
carbonated zone lies between 9.0 and
11.5. For the noncarbonated zone, the pH
of the pore solution is greater than 11.5
and no signs of carbonation are observed.
Identification of three zones of carbon-
ation in concrete may help in applying
concepts that pertain to composite materi-
als to the analysis of the mechanical
behaviors of carbonated concrete
structures. However, concerning rein-
forcement corrosion, the pH value using
phenolphthalein indicator is a good indi-
cation for corrosion initiation.
The bottom ash and fly ash content
seems to be the main factors governing
the carbonation resistance of SCC mixes.
The carbonation depth at 10% replace-
ment of fine aggregates with bottom ash
was observed to be less than that for the
mixes with 0% bottom ash. The replace-
ment with 20% bottom ash has the same
effect on carbonation as the replacement
with 0%, i.e. without bottom ash mixes
at 90 days. It was observed that 10%
replacement of fine aggregates with bot-
tom ash was optimum level of replace-
ment for carbonation and carbonation
depth with 30% bottom ash exceeded for
all SCC mixes with different fly ash per-
centages. The carbonation depth of vari-
ous SCC mixes with 0, 10, 20, and 30%
bottom ash at 90 days and 365 days is
shown in Figures 3 and 4. It can be seen
that carbonation depth increased with
increase in age. From 25% till 35% fly
ash, the carbonation depth was almost
constant for 0, 10, and 20% bottom ash
contents at 90 days. When the bottom ash
content was 30%, the variation of carbon-
ation depth was observed. Figure 3 for
90 days indicates that for most of the
mixes, the carbonation depth lies between
1 and 2 mm and Figure 4 for 365 days
indicates that for most of the mixes, the
carbonation depth lies between 0 and
2 mm. Also, the amount of carbonation
material (e.g. a different type of cement,
use of fly ash as filler etc.) in the con-
crete has a strong influence.
 78 R. Siddique et al.

90 Days Carbonation 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
2
Carbonation Depth
1.5

0.5

0
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10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 3. Carbonation depth for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (90 days).

5.3.2. Deicing salt surface scaling
resistance
The average cumulative mass of scaled-
off material was obtained after 50 freez-
ing–thawing cycles along with average
visual surface ratings determined as per
the ASTM C672. Results are given in
Table 7. At 90 days, the maximum weight
loss was observed with 15% fly ash for
all bottom ash contents. The weight loss
at 35% was considerably less than that
observed at 15%, but more than that
observed for 25%.
For 365 days age, the weight loss was
almost consistent for all percentages of
fly ash varying between 0.525 and
0.750 kg/m2 as indicated in Figure 5. On
increasing the bottom ash content to
10%, the variation was between 0.375
and 0.625 kg/m2. The 20% bottom ash

365 Days Carbonation 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash

2.5
Carbonation Depth

1.5

0.5

0
10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 4. Carbonation depth for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (365 days).
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 79

Table 7. Weight loss and visual rating for SCC mixes.

90 day 365 day

2
Mix Weight loss (kg/m ) Visual rating Weight loss (kg/m2) Visual rating
F15BA0 3.7 1 0.525 0
F15BA10 3.375 0 0.375 0
F15BA20 3.625 1 0.35 0
F15BA30 4.25 2 0.75 1
F25BA0 1.125 1 0.45 0
F25BA10 0.9 1 0.35 0
F25BA20 0.5 1 0.2 0
F25BA30 0.625 1 0.275 0
F35BA0 2.25 1 0.75 0
F35BA10 2 1 0.625 0
F35BA20 0.5 0 0.45 1
F35BA30 1.5 1 0.45 1
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content showed the weight loss between methylcellulose, and a superplasticizer on

0.350 and 0.450 kg/m2 and found to be the frost durability of fluid concrete mix-
gradually decreasing with the increase in tures (without the presence of fly ash).
bottom ash content from 0 to 20%. The He concluded that regardless of the air-
minimum weight loss was observed for spacing factor and the presence of VMA,
20% bottom ash. such fluid concrete mixtures could have
The freezing and thawing cycles in poor surface scaling resistance, which
combination with deicing salts of the was attributed to the relatively high
mixes were done for the SCC mixes [25]. porosity of the skin of the concrete. But
Khayat [26] investigated the effect of the in the present study, the visual rating as
sequence of adding an air-entraining per ASTM C 672 for most of the mixes
admixture, two commonly used VMAs, was between 0 and 1 and never exceeded
namely welan gum and hydroxypropyl 2. Also, it was observed that 20%

90 Days Weight Loss 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
5
Deicing Weight Loss

4
(Kg/m )

3
2

0
10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 5. Weight loss for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (90 days).
 80
365 Days Weight Loss
Deicing Weight Loss
(Kg/m )
2
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Figure 6. Weight loss for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (365 days).
replacement with bottom ash was opti-
mum level of replacement for deicing salt
surface scaling and replacement of fine
aggregates by bottom ash could be easily
carried out till 20%. It can be seen that
weight loss decreased with increase in
age. At 365-day age, salt frost scaling
was less than that at 90-day age of
testing (Figure 6).
6. Conclusions
(1) The SCC mixes without bottom
ash achieved 28-day cube com-
pressive strengths of 35–30 MPa
using 15–35% fly ash. As the
bottom ash content increased, a
decrease in compressive strength
was observed for a specific age at
particular fly ash content.
(2) The compressive strength and split
tensile strength were found to
increase with age for all mixes
with varying percentages of fly
ash and bottom ash.
(3) As the bottom ash content
increased, decrease in split tensile
strength was observed for a specific
age at particular fly ash content.
R. Siddique et al.
0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash
20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age
(4) A comparison between SCC with
various fly ash contents and at vari-
ous levels of replacements of fine
aggregates by bottom ash showed
that SCC obtained compressive
and split tensile strength increase
on decrease of water/powder ratio.
(5) The carbonation depth for mixes
with 10% replacement of fine
aggregates with bottom ash was
observed to be less than that for
the mixes with 0% bottom ash. It
was observed that 10% replace-
ment of fine aggregates with bot-
tom ash was optimum level of
replacement for carbonation.
(6) As was expected, the carbonation
depth of various mixes containing
bottom ash increased with increase
in age.
(7) The pH measurement results
showed that ash mixes exhibit
high alkalinity, indicating low cor-
rosion potential.
(8) At age of 90 days, the maximum
weight loss was observed with
15% fly ash for all bottom ash
contents. At age of 365 days, the
weight loss was almost consistent
for all percentages of fly ash at 0%
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
bottom ash varying between 0.525
and 0.750 kg/m2. The minimum
weight loss was observed for 20%
bottom ash. The weight loss
decreased with increase in age.
(9) Based on the materials used in
this study, the results suggested
that it is technically feasible to uti-
lize bottom ash as a part of paste
content in the production of SCC.
Besides environmental benefits,
there could be some technical and
economical advantages as well.
(10) As a general result, the presence
of fly ash and bottom ash affects
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durability properties of concrete
positively. Mainly, properties of
the replaced by-product and the
replacement ratio are the control-
ling factors for the influence level
and direction.
Notes on contributors
Rafat Siddique is a professor of Civil
Engineering at Thapar University, Patiala,
India. He earned his PhD degree from Birla
Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani,
India, and did 22-months post-doctoral work at
the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA.
He has been a visiting professor to University
of Cergy Pontoise, France; INSA Rennes,
France; and University of Wolverhampton, U.
K. His research interests are fiber-reinforced
concrete, high-volume fly ash concrete, high-
performance concrete, use of waste materials
and by-products in cement-based materials,
self-compacting concrete, and properties of
concrete at elevated temperatures. He has
published more than 75 research papers in
journals and conference proceedings and has
already authored two books. He is a reviewer
of many leading International Journals.
Paratibha Aggarwal is working as an associate
professor, Civil Engineering Department of
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
India. She earned her PhD degree from
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
India. Her areas of interest include
self-compacting concrete performance and
durability aspects and also modeling of
various properties of concrete using various
Artificial Intelligence Techniques such as
81
ANN, fuzzy logic, etc. She is a reviewer of
seven leading International Journals.
Yogesh Aggarwal is working as an assistant
professor, Civil Engineering Department of
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
India. He earned his PhD degree from
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
India. His areas of interest include
investigation of concrete (normal and SCC)
incorporating industrial by-products and
modeling the different properties of concrete
using ANN, SVM, M5-Model trees, etc.
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