CHAPTER 9

Internet and Social Media as Tools for Social Movements

The Internet and social media platforms have become crucial tools for social
movements, enabling the linkage of various movements and networks for coordinated
activities and the development of a collective identity among activists. Avaaz.org,
launched in 2007, exemplifies the use of online platforms to organize citizens globally
and address a wide range of global, regional, and national issues. Through translations
into multiple languages and the involvement of volunteers worldwide, Avaaz leverages
the power of the Internet to spread information and mobilize action, combining both
online and offline campaigns.

The "Twitter Revolution" and Social Media Activism

The phenomenon known as the "Twitter Revolution" gained prominence during mass
protests in Moldova in 2009 and subsequently through popular uprisings in North Africa
and the Middle East. While the term specifically references the use of Twitter, it
encompasses the broader utilization of social media in social movements. In Iran,
following the controversial re-election of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in 2009,
activists turned to Twitter as a means of communication and organizing when traditional
media outlets were shut down. Twitter, particularly through mobile phones, played a
vital role in spreading information and coordinating actions. Notably, the death of Nedā
Āghā-Soltān, captured on video and shared through social media, became a symbol of
opposition and garnered widespread attention globally.

Social Media's Impact on Popular Protests

The influence of social media in popular protests extends beyond individual instances.
Egypt's protests in 2010-2011, triggered in part by the death of Khaled Mohamed Said,
gained momentum through the dissemination of images depicting Said's injuries online.
Social media platforms, including the "We Are All Khaled Said" Facebook group,
facilitated the organization of mass protests and provided a platform for mobilization.
Despite the government's attempts to suppress the uprising by shutting down the
Internet, the organized movement successfully led to the overthrow of President Hosni
Mubarak, marking a significant victory for the power of social media in driving social
change. Similar patterns of social media utilization were observed in Tunisia, Bahrain,
Yemen, and other countries, as these popular protests spread throughout the region
and the world

The Power of Internet and Social Media in Activism

The examples provided above illustrate how the Internet, social media platforms, and
cell phones can be effectively utilized to rapidly disseminate information and organize
protest events in real time. These technologies have the ability to compress time and
space, connecting networks of activists across long distances. They also enable broader
participation through citizen journalism and provide access to news and news-making in
unprecedented ways. In essence, these technologies facilitate global flows of
information and can be leveraged to challenge the limitations imposed by national
regimes. However, it is important to note that the mere presence of these technologies
does not guarantee the effectiveness of social movements, and the notion of these
technologies as inherently "revolutionary" has its critics.

Controversies Surrounding the "Twitter Revolution"

The term "Twitter Revolution" or similar terms like "Facebook Revolution" are subject to
controversy for several reasons. Critics argue against the use of corporate names to
describe revolutions that are driven by mass popular protest, emphasizing the role of
collective action rather than specific platforms. Moreover, it is noted that Twitter and
Facebook are just a few tools among many that contribute to movement organizing,
and they may not necessarily be the most crucial elements in achieving the goals of
activists. Critics like Malcolm Gladwell argue that effective organizing and campaigning
existed prior to the advent of social media, and revolutions will continue to unfold
irrespective of these platforms.

High-Tech Flows and Barriers

The Internet has played a pivotal role in advancing the process of globalization, earning
a central position in many analyses of this phenomenon. Thomas Friedman's notion of a
"flat world" in his analysis of globalization, with the Internet as a prominent example,
highlights the accessibility and participation it offers to people worldwide. However, it is
important to recognize that the view of the world naturally becoming flatter due to the
Internet is met with skepticism. Throughout history, various barriers have consistently
emerged to impede movement in different forms. This is evident in the case of the
Internet in China today, where efforts to control and monitor it persist. Additionally,
countries like the United States and the United Kingdom employ the Internet as a tool
for surveillance, maintaining power at both national and global levels. Therefore, it is
essential to acknowledge that technology, including the Internet, plays a dual role within
globalization, facilitating both flows and the creation of new barriers. In the framework
presented by Kellner, technology can enable both globalization from above and
globalization from below, but its inherent nature does not inherently flatten the world
THINKING ABOUT THE GLOBAL MEDIA

Marshall McLuhan's Influence on Global Media

Marshall McLuhan's ideas on the "global village" have significantly shaped

contemporary thinking about the media and its relationship with globalization. McLuhan
emphasized the importance of the medium itself, arguing that in the new media age,
the medium is the message. Rather than focusing solely on the content presented
through a medium, McLuhan highlighted the transformative power of the medium (e.g.,
television) in shaping individual subjectivity and culture on a global scale. However,
McLuhan's analysis fell short of connecting the global proliferation of media with their
origins in larger social structures and institutions.

Guy Debord and the Globalization of Media Spectacle

French social theorist Guy Debord is known for his work on the spectacle, media
spectacle, and its globalization. Debord explored how spectacle not only produces and
reproduces capitalism and consumer culture but also operates on a global level. Media
spectacles have become increasingly grandiose and can be rapidly disseminated
worldwide. The growing sophistication and ubiquity of media spectacles have made it
challenging to distinguish the actual events from their spectacular representations. As
the media's power has intensified, their role in globalizing spectacles has significantly
expanded.

TV News as Entertainment and the Dominance of Visuals

One notable manifestation of the globalization of spectacle is the transformation of TV

news into entertainment. The focus of TV news has shifted toward visually spectacular
events rather than the most significant news of the day. Events lacking compelling
visuals often receive minimal or no TV coverage. Conversely, news with limited
importance to the majority of people can garner substantial TV attention if it is
associated with captivating visuals. The most potent spectacles are those linked to
events of great importance that offer powerful visuals. The terrorist attacks of 9/11 serve
as the ultimate example, with the collapse of the twin towers endlessly broadcasted on
television. Similar spectacular visuals accompanied events like the bombings in the
London underground, the Madrid subway, the Boston Marathon, and violent clashes
between Turkey's government and protesters in 2013.
The dominance of visuals and the prioritization of spectacle in TV news underscore the
profound influence of media on shaping public perception and constructing narratives.
The globalization of media spectacles has not only altered the way events are
represented but has also contributed to the commodification of news and the fusion of
information and entertainment in contemporary media landscapes.
The Importance of Marginal Voices and Counter-Hegemonic Narratives

While media spectacles often highlight the global power of mainstream media,
alternative perspectives emphasize the significance of marginal voices and counter-
hegemonic narratives. Instead of solely focusing on the dominant messages
disseminated by media giants, it is crucial to recognize that counter-hegemonic
messages from the margins also circulate globally. Through the use of cell phones and
social media platforms like Twitter, marginalized voices can rapidly transmit messages to
large audiences, particularly in less developed regions. This perspective acknowledges
that a diverse range of perspectives and counterweights to the global media's influence
can circulate globally. Marginalized individuals and communities become a major source
of counter-hegemonic discourse worldwide, as exemplified by the dissent expressed
during the Arab Spring that began in December 2010.

The Pessimistic View: The Frankfurt School and the Culture Industry

In contrast to the optimistic perspective, various circles, including neo-Marxian theories

associated with the Frankfurt School, present a more pessimistic view. The Frankfurt
theorists shifted the focus of Marxist analysis from the economy to the culture, with the
media playing a significant role. According to the Frankfurt School, the media held
economic significance as a new source of capital realization. However, their primary
importance lay in their ability to exercise social control, influence people, and shape the
larger culture. Instead of fostering counter-hegemonic discourses, the Frankfurt thinkers
perceived the media, along with other components of the "culture industry," as closing
off the possibility of emancipatory discourse and action. Consequently, the Frankfurt
School's perspective, highlighting the media's role in maintaining hegemony, has gained
prominence over the more optimistic view.

Global Media as a Component of Globalization from Above

The prevailing emphasis tends to be on the impact of global media rather than the
counter-reactions of people to it and its messages. Global media culture is seen as
closely linked to multinational corporations (MNCs) and top-down globalization, rather
than grassroots or bottom-up globalization. Not only are global media heavily
influenced by MNCs, but many of them are MNCs themselves. As a form of globalization
from above, the global media largely controlled by MNCs produce predominantly
homogeneous products such as newscasts and entertainment programming. Due to
their global nature, these media conglomerates typically operate beyond the control of
any single nation-state, often reducing nation-states to mere distributors of cultural
forms and commodities for the conglomerates. While powerful media conglomerates
like CNN and Fox based in the US are well-known examples, there are numerous others
worldwide, such as Brazil's Globo and Mexico's Televisa. They exemplify globalization
from above by extending media and consumer culture into diverse communities,
blurring national boundaries, and potentially supplanting local culture.

This perspective underscores the dominance and unregulated nature of global media
conglomerates, highlighting their influence in shaping global media culture and their
potential to impact local cultures.

Challenges and Resistance: Indigenous Movements and Media Activism

Despite the overwhelming reach and power of media conglomerates, indigenous

viewers and communities strive to counter and redefine global messages. The global-
local struggle finds expression as indigenous movements, potentially spanning multiple
regions, join forces to challenge the dominance of global media. Alternative media
sources, particularly those associated with the Internet, offer platforms for resistance
and opposition. For instance, the Zapatista Movement is associated with EZLN's Radio
Insurgente, while new media forms like blogs enable powerful expressions of dissent.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge that some of these media activities from below
may inadvertently contribute to the development of the society of the spectacle, as
discussed by DeBord. To foster true change, a radical restructuring of media practices
and utilization in non-spectacular ways may be necessary.

Media Spectacles: Control, Energization, and Contradictions

Media spectacles, ranging from terrorist attacks to geopolitical events, play a significant
role in shaping public perceptions. While they can be used to control people's beliefs,
such as the premature declaration of the end of hostilities in Iraq by George W. Bush,
they can also energize opposition and highlight contradictions within themselves. The
broadcasting of accelerating hostilities in Iraq countered Bush's claims and made it
evident that the war was far from over. Moreover, the power of media spectacles was
exemplified when photographs of the abuses at the Abu Ghraib prison circulated
globally through the Internet, exposing the contradiction between American claims to
moral superiority and the reality on the ground.
Alternate Media Sources and Democratization

The development of alternative media sources is seen by some as a positive step toward
democratizing global media. These sources, which challenge the control of media
conglomerates, represent a shift towards a more diverse and inclusive media landscape.
They provide an opportunity to counter the homogeneity produced by conglomerates
and promote the circulation of different voices and perspectives. The democratization of
global media remains an ongoing process, with the Internet playing a crucial role in
empowering individuals and communities to access, create, and disseminate alternative
narratives.