R

A
OYAL AIR I DLISKMENT
BEDFORD. REPORT 96

a.
O
Q_
ADVISORY GROUP FOR AERONAUTICAL
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

REPORT 96

TITANIUM FABRICATION

by

L P. SPALDING

APRIL 1957

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

PALAIS DE CHAILLOT. PARIS 16
 REPORT 96

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY GROUP FOR AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

TITANIUM FABRICATION

by

L.P. Spalding

This Report was presented at the Fifth Meeting of the Structures and Materials Panel,
held from 24th to 27th April, 1957, in Oslo, Norway
 SUMMARY

A description is given of the problems encountered and the techniques

evolved for their solution during the manufacture of some two thousand
airplanes incorporating about a million pounds of titanium In their
designs. Primary emphasis is given to titanium alloy sheet applications.
Source and receiving inspection, blanking and shearing, and forming
methods (bending, stretching, drawing, and drop hammer and hydropress
forming) are discussed with respect to process limitations and compari-
sons between titanium and other metals. Matching and the corollary pro-
cess of chemical milling are covered briefly. Heat treatment, scale
prevention or removal, and cleaning are described. Assembly operations
include drilling and riveting as well as resistance and fusion welding.
Rejections and scrap losses are tabulated for each stage of production.

SOMMAIRE

Expose des problemes poses par la fabrication de quelque deux mille

avions dont la construction demande 1'utilisation d'environ un million
de livres de titane, et Indication des methodes elaborees pour leur
solution. 1/auteur traite principalement des applications des alliages
de titane en toles. Les questions concernant le contr&le de la qualite
du metal tant en cours de fabrication qu'apres livraison, le decoupage
de flans, le cisaillement, les procede's de formage (pllage, etirage,
emboutissage, formage a martineau-pilon et sur presse hydraulique) sont
examinees par rapport aux limitations inherentes aux precedes et aux
comparaisons etablies entre le titane et d'autres metaux. Consideration
sommaire des operations d' usinage et de celles du precede derive du
fraisage chimique; description des traitements thermiques utilises ainsi
que des methodes pour 1' inhibition ou 1'enlevement de croute et pour
nettoyage. Les techniques d'assemblage comportent alesage et rivetage
aussi bien que soudage electrique par resistance et par fusion. Les
pertes, ayant egard au metal rejete ou rebute, sont resumees dans un
tableau pour chaque etape de production.

669.295.6

3c8b4:3c2blc

ii
 CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY i i

LIST OF FIGURES iv

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. SOURCE AND RECEIVING INSPECTION 2

3. MATERIAL PREPARATION 3

4. FORMING. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 4

4. 1 Bending 5
4.2 Stretch Forming. Sections 5
4.3 Stretch Forming. Skins 6
4.4 Drop Hammer Forming 7
4.5 Hydropress Forming 7
4.6 Deep Drawing 8

4.7 Inspection of Formed Parts 8

5. MACHINING Q

6. CHEMICAL MILLING P

7. HEAT TREATING 10

8. CLEANING AND PICKLING 11

9. WELDING 11

10.ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES 13

11.SCRAP LOSSES AND SALVAGE 14

12.CONCLUSION 14

FIGURES 16

DISTRIBUTION

111
1

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Pig. 1 Annual consumption of titanium a t N.A. A. 16

Fig. 2 P-100 a f t fuselage assembly 16

Pig. 3 F-100 aft fuselage assembly. Structural members 17

Pig. 4 Hydrogen analysis - 1956 17

Fig. 5 Titanium sheet rejected at receiving inspection 18

Fig. 6 Optimum utilization of titanium sheet stock 18

Pig. 7 Lamellar cracks in sheared titanium sheet 19

Fig. 8 Typical blanking die and part 19

Pig. 9 Alloy properties pertinent to forming operations 20

Fig.10 Hot straightening on a hydraulic press 21

Pig.11 Stretching brake. Formed parts 22

Pig.12 Net die technique 22

Fig.13 Hot straightening fixture 23

Fig.14 Fabrication of curved *Z' sections 23

Fig.15 Stretch forming. Skins 24

Fig. 16 Stretch forming. Wing tip 24

Pig.17 Drop hammer die 25

Fig.18 Aluminum overlay technique 25

Fig. 19 Aluminum overlay technique, parts in overpress 26

Pig.20 Hot straightening press 26

Fig.21 Hydroform press 27

Pig.22 Surface defects on formed longeron radius 27

Fig.23 Photomicrographs of cracks 28

Fig.24 Titanium parts requiring rework 29

Fig.25 Titanium horizontal stabilizer skin 29

iv
 Page

Fig.26 Typical Chem-milled part 30

Pig.27 Welding titanium in controlled-atmosphere chamber 30

Fig.28 Tooling for butt joints 31

Fig.29 Welded titanium tank 31

Pig.30 Keller air drills used in assembly operations 32

Fig.31 Erco automatic punch riveting 32

Fig.32 Titanium losses during fabrication 33

 TITANIUM FABRICATION

L.P. Spalding*

1. INTRODUCTION

North American has used titanium in production since 1950. The first applications
were of unalloyed sheet for fire walls, shrouds, and ducts on an experimental model.
Both Sr% manganese alloy sheet and the unalloyed grade were used in limited quantities
on several versions of the F-86 Sabre Jet, beginning in 1952. The F-100 Super Sabre
airplane, whose production started in 1953 and has continued at a fairly high rate
to the present time, represents the major utilization of titanium by North American.
Other applications have been in Navy fighters and the Navaho missile. Annual
consumption of titanium is shown in Figure 1, which indicates a total of over 2%
million pounds used through 1956.

The P-100 airplane has about 600 lb of finished titanium parts, comprising some
350 lb of alloy sheet, 230 lb of unalloyed sheet, and a few pounds of forgings and
machined fittings. The low percentage of forgings, bar, and extrusions may be
explained in part by our preoccupation with the problems of getting sheet products
into production. However, we would expect that forms other than sheet would always
represent a relatively small part of airframe usage. Essentially all of this
titanium goes into the aft fuselage section (Fig.2) which surrounds the jet engine,
afterburner, and tail pipe. This section is built almost entirely of titanium, the
chief exception being two heavy steel forgings which support the horizontal and
vertical tail surfaces.

Structural members (longerons, frames, and most of the exterior skins, as shown
in Figure 3) are made from the 8% manganese alloy, while unalloyed titanium is used
for shrouds, ducting, and the exterior skins at the extreme aft end. These applica-
tions reflect the approximately 60 to 40% distribution by weight previously mentioned.

Since this paper is primarily concerned with fabrication, no attempt will be made
to explain the design concepts and structural analyses which led to the incorporation
of titanium in the original F-100 design. (This was not a 'substitution' program).
It suffices to say that these applications have paid their way in terms of weight
saving and performance.

In the presentation to follow, most of the information relates to the 8% manganese

alloy sheet. This limitation was imposed because

(a) most of our experience has been with this product, and

(b) alloy sheet represents the largest and most Important application of titanium
in airframe construction. Where comments or data apply to other products,
this fact will be noted.

All of the sheet has been used in the annealed condition, with a standard size of
36 x 96 in. and a thickness range of 0.025 to 0.187 in.

* North American Aviation Inc. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Airport, Los Angeles 45, California.

U.S.A.
2. SOURCE A N D RECEIVING INSPECTION

Titanium products have been procured to company specifications or those developed

by the aircraft industry, since suitable Government specifications have not been
available. The current specification for alloy sheet includes the following
significant requirements:-

Ultimate tensile strength 120,000 lb/in.2 minimum

Yield strength (0.2% offset) 110,000 lb/in.2 minimum
Elongation in 2 in. 10% minimum
Bend radius - under 0.070 in. 3T (T .= sheet thickness)
0.070 in. and over 3&T
Flatness (over 0.025 in.) 3% maximum*
Manganese content 6-9%
Hydrogen content 150 parts per million maximum.

In addition to these, the specification controls impurity content (carbon, oxygen,

nitrogen, iron, etc.), surface condition, and tolerances.

Major sources of difficulty have been non-uniformity of gage and physical properties,
poor surface condition, and lack of flatness. Three years ago it was common to find
gage variations of 15% in a single sheet of material, in contrast to the 8 to 10%
allowed by specification for most gages. In the same sheet, yield and ultimate
strengths often varied as much as 15,000 lb/in.2 measured in a given direction - this
in addition to a spread of 15,000 lb/in.2 between longitudinal and transverse
properties. Gage and strength variations in a group of sheets were even greater.
These Inconsistencies caused extreme difficulties in such forming operations as
stretching. Departures from flatness of 2 in. in various areas of a standard size
sheet were not uncommon. Grinding marks, resulting from attempts to remove scale
during intermediate rolling, caused excessive breakage on formed parts. It should
be noted that, at the time, these conditions were typical of the best material
available - and we used it.

These difficulties resulted in the imposition of rigid quality requirements and

the use of much more intensive inspection than is applied to such materials as steel
or aluminium. Inspection at the mills has been frequently used to eliminate, at the
source, material unacceptable on the basis of flatness, gage variation, and grinding
marks. For a time, every sheet was tested by the supplier for physical properties,
chemical analysis, and bend. Every sheet was re-tested on receival at our plant.
Due to stringent efforts by the producers, the general quality level has been greatly
improved, permitting some relaxation in the degree of inspection.

Current practice is to accept the vendor's test report, which certifies physical
properties (two sheets per lot, each tested in the longitudinal and transverse
direction), chemical analysis (three per ingot - top, middle, and bottom), and a
bend test on each sheet, with examination of the bend at 20X magnification for signs
of cracking. Finally, sheet thickness is measured at 2 ft intervals along the center
and both edges of every sheet.

• When a s t r a i g h t e d g e is laid across the sheet in any p o s i t i o n or over any length, the sheet
surface s h a l l not depart from the s t r a i g h t e d g e by more than 3% of the distance between the
points of contact of the s t r a i g h t e d g e . For sheet thicknesses of 0.025 in. and l e s s , the
allowance is 5%.
 Upon receipt of the material, tensile tests are run on 10% of each lot. The
vendor's bend test samples, which are included in the shipment, are re-examined, and
repeat tests are run if deemed necessary. Each sheet Is checked for surface
condition, flatness, gages and dimensional tolerances. During a period when
difficulties were experienced with hydrogen contamination, analyses were run on
every sheet, but this has been reduced to a 10% sampling. Figure 4 shows the results
of hydrogen analyses for the year 1956.

In contrast to these rather elaborate procedures which have been evolved to control
the quality of titanium, the practices for aluminium and steel are quite simple.
For aluminium, the vendor's test report of chemical analysis and physical properties
is generally accepted without further checking. Precipitation-hardening stainless
steels, which are being extensively used in applications similar to titanium, are
checked (on the basis of one sample per heat) for chemistry, physicals, bend, and
heat-treatment response.

Figure 5 is a chronological record of total receiving inspection rejections for

all causes during the past three years. The record is quite erratic, but in view of
the increasingly stringent requirements which have been periodically added, we feel
that the producers have achieved a significant improvement in quality. Several of
these changes are noted on the chart, where their effect on rejections is evident.
During the past year, surface defects and failure to pass the bend test have been
the major difficulties.

3. MATERIAL PREPARATION

This operation encompasses the preparation, by shearing and other means, of blanks
for subsequent steps in fabrication. Due to the high cost (about $20.00 per pound)
of titanium sheet, much thought and effort is put into the layout of blanks to attain
optimum utilization of stock sheets (see Figure 6). A two-year average utilization
of 85% has been achieved, based on actual weight of cut blanks.

Although sheet is purchased to a nominal size of 36 x 96 in. the suppliers are

permitted to ship randon lengths within a range of from 84 to 114 in. These sheets
are stocked in one-inch increments of length and drawn out selectively to obtain the
best nesting pattern for a given set of parts. In addition, many of the rectangular-
shaped exterior skin parts are ordered to exact size or multiples, so that the vendor
takes the scrap.

Shearing of titanium, which is all done cold, presents no particular problems in

gages up to j^ in. - the maximum attempted to date. Heavy-duty equipment, rated for
| in. capacity in steel, is recommended. A blade clearance of 0.002 to 0.004 in.,
varying with material gage, is used. Where the blanks are narrow enough to permit
it, they are deburred by means of a draw bench which uses tool steel knives.
Larger parts are deburred by belt sanding. Some time ago, trouble was encountered
with lamellar cracking of sheared parts (see Figure 7). Hot shearing and other
expedients were tried without success, and much hand rework of blanks was required.
At that time, the titanium producers were making many changes in mill processes
(because of this and other difficulties), and the shear cracking ultimately
disappeared. We do not know yet what caused it or what cured it.
 Small irregularly shaped blanks of 0.050 in. gage or less are blanked In crank
presses, using conventional pancake-type dies (see Figure 8). These dies are
made of medium carbon steel with flame-hardened cutting edges. Blanked edges are
deburred by belt sanding.

Routing of curved or irregularly shaped blanks, as commonly used for aluminium,

was tried on titanium without success. All combinations of router bit materials and
configurations, speeds, feeds, and coolants gave unacceptably short tool life.
Because of this failure, nibbling is used to produce blanks which cannot be sheared
or are too large for die blanking. The scalloped edges of nibbled blanks are
dressed by belt sanding.

The material preparation department has, for a time, the problem of flattening
a large percentage of the titanium sheets received. Even though the producers
have more recently met the 3% flatness specification, this is still not adequate
for some exterior skin parts. To overcome this difficulty, a process of creep
flattening was devised. A stack of five to ten sheets (or part blanks) is clamped
between two 1 \ in. thick steel plates and the assembly charged into a furnace at
1000°F. Due to its mass, the load requires several hours to reach temperature,
where it Is held for 30 minutes, removed from the furnace, and allowed to slow-cool.
The sheets come from this operation almost perfectly flat. In all, we have
salvaged over 50,000 lb of titanium by this process. Some of the producers are also
using it to supplement their more conventional flattening techniques of roller and
stretcher leveling.

Some blanks are jig-drilled at the material preparation stage for tooling hole
locations or for subsequent assembly riveting. In this operation, standard high-
speed steel drills of the shortest possible length are used with a total material
thickness not exceeding !4 in. Drills are air-driven at speeds of 1200 r.p.m. on
No. 40 drill size, down to 400 r.p.m. for the !4 in. size. A constant load and feed
are mandatory. Holes are deburred by means of flat belt sanders.

In summary, it may be said that the material preparation procedures for titanium
are quite like those for stainless steel, and differ from aluminium only in the
limitation on routing. Considerably more care is taken in deburring titanium blanks,
since edge imperfections frequently cause cracking in the subsequent forming
operations.

4. FORMING. G E N E R A L OBSERVATIONS

In contrast to the usual practice of cold-forming aluminium and steel sheet metal
parts, heat is very widely used on titanium. Many parts which cannot be cold-formed
are readily made on cold dies if the titanium blanks are preheated in air ovens to
900-1050°F. (At the time of forming, blanks may be at a temperature of 600°P to
800°F, depending on the. handling required, time of contact with dies, etc.). In
some cases, heated dies may be used, with either hot or cold parts. Hot forming of
titanium has been so successful that consideration is being given to the use of
similar techniques on precipitation hardening stainless steels. For this operation
to be successful, the hot forming treatment must be compatible with the heat treat-
ment cycle for the steel.
 Figure 9 compares those physical properties of titanium, aluminium, and stainless
steel which are pertinent to forming operations. Attention is called to the high
yield strength of titanium and its narrow range between yield and ultimate, which
allows little room for error in working the material. Since the spring-back
characteristics of titanium cannot be predicted consistently, it is impossible to
provide a fixed allowance for spring-back, as is done with aluminium and some steels.
Uniform elongation is limited so that only about 3 to 4% over-all stretch can be
obtained cold. For those operations where hot stretching is not feasible, forming
in stages with intermediate anneals may be required. Titanium is not amenable to
shrinking, using normal fabrication techniques, even with the application of heat.
Cognizance of this limitation should be taken in the design of parts, in tooling,
and in manufacturing processes.

Practically all formed parts, with the exception of slightly contoured skins,
are stress-relieved or annealed after forming. This is described in more detail in
Section 6, "Heat Treating'.

4.1 Bending
Corresponding to the bend radius of 3T to 3&T required by material specifications
for titanium alloy sheet, part designs normally call for a 4T minimum bend radius.
For unalloyed titanium, the corresponding values are 2T to 2%T per specifications
and 3T minimum for design.

Angle and channel sections involving straight bends are formed on power brakes,
using a radiused punch and channel die. Degree of bend and allowance for variable
spring-back are governed by the depth of the punch stroke, at the control of the
operator. About 80% of the work is done with cold tools and with blanks heated to
900-1000°F. The remaining 20%, involving larger bend radii, are formed cold. Parts
are lubricated with a dispersion of molybdenum disulfide in mineral oil, lanolin, or
petroleum grease.

Some small parts (usually angles with a joggle at one or both ends) are made by a
two-stage process, using a mating *V block and punch. In the first step, a hot
blank is formed to approximate shape on cold tools. Then, the cold part is re-formed
on the same tools, which are heated by conduction from special holders on the platens
of a hydraulic press (see Figure 10). Cartridge-type or strip-type resistance heaters
are imbedded in the holders. Parts are held in the hot dies for from one to five
minutes at about 900°F; they emerge in proper shape, requiring no hand-finishing.

The bending operations described here for titanium are somewhat more complex than
those for steel and aluminium, which are both formed cold in a single operation.
Joggled steel parts will usually require some hand re-work.

4.2 Stretch Forming. Sections

Curved angle and channel sections are produced by stretching previously brake-
formed parts (Fig.11) which are annealed as an intermediate operation. Steel
stretcher dies are generally used with a light mineral oil lubricant, although
Kirksite dies (zinc base alloy with 4% aluminium and 3% copper) may be used for
short runs. On light gage sections, this work is done cold, and troubles have
arisen from material variability. Yield strength variations lead to uncontrolled
spring-back, while gage variation may cause local necking. Warm stretching has been
used on heavier gage material with fairly good success. The dies are preheated to
400°F in ovens, and electrically heated platens are used to maintain the temperature.
Forming is done slowly to permit heat conduction into the part as it wraps around
the die.

A maximum of about 10% stretch can be realized in the extreme outer fibers of
curved titanium sections; however, most parts can be successfully formed with
considerably less deformation. In contrast, steel and aluminium can tolerate a
maximum of 20% or more stretch, if formed in the soft condition.

An effective technique has been devised for the production of those sections
where spring-back is particularly troublesome. The parts are overcontoured using
one stretcher die, annealed, and then re-stretched on a second die to exact contour
(see Figure 12). Typically, on a part with a 20 in. radius of curvature the first
stage would overcontour & in. at the center of the arc.

Another technique for producing curved sections in titanium is to cold- or warm-

stretch the brake-formed part to approximate contour and give it a combined finish
hot form and stress relief in a fixture. The part is placed between mating dies,
of hot-work tool steel, which are held by clamping wedges (see Figure 13). Where
possible, nesting of parts is used to reduce die material. Parts and fixtures are
heated in a circulating air furnace for Vk hours' at a temperature of 950°F. This
operation is relatively slow, but it produces parts to exact contour.

Figure 14 compares the steps required to make a curved 'Z* section part from
alloy titanium, 18-8 CA hard) stainless steel, 17-7PH precipitation-hardening stain-
less, and 7075 aluminium alloy.

4.3 Stretch Forming. Skins

Exterior skin parts having curvature of large radius and in only one direction
are laid in place on assembly without preforming. More severely, or doubly, contoured
parts require stretch forming, which is usually done cold over Kirksite dies (see
Figures 15 and 16). A silicone-base lubricant is used. This operation is essentially
the same for titanium, stainless steel, or aluminium, except for material limitations.
The narrow working range and 4% limit on stretching titanium means that less severe
forming can be accomplished than with most other materials. Forming in stages with
intermediate anneals is a means of obtaining greater deformations. Parts made of
precipitation-hardening stainless are readily stretched in the annealed condition,
but they must be carefully supported during heat treating to minimize warpage.
Ordinary 18-8 type stainless is excellent for stretching when annealed, but quite
difficult to work in the Vz-hard condition. Aluminium alloy parts are stretched in the
heat-treated and aged condition wherever possible, to avoid the warpage attendant
upon the quench during heat treatment of annealed material.

As with stretching of sectional shapes, attempts have been made to hot-stretch skin
panels. This has been generally unsuccessful, due to the aforementioned difficulty
of getting sufficient, uniform heating. In some cases, the dies are warmed to about
400°P, using an open gas flame.
 The grips used in stretch forming are made from 5% chromium, air-hardening steel,
heat-treated to 60 Rockwell 'C hardness. 60 degree 'V serrations are spaced ~ in»
on centers. Grips must be carefully matched or aligned by the use of shims. This is
largely a matter of operator experience and technique.

4.4 Drop Hammer Forming

Heat is essential to successful drop hammer forming of titanium. Blanks heated

to 1000°P are used on unheated Klrksite dies with Kirksite punches. Steel inserts
may be used at points of wear, although die life is generally satisfactory. Because
of their mass, the dies are not appreciably heated or softened by contact with the
hot blanks.

The poor shrinking characteristics of titanium make it necessary that all deforma-
tion be accomplished by stretching or bending. (This is good practice for all
materials). Controlled deformation is accomplished by the use of beads, or traps
(Pig.17), which restrain the edges of the blank, somewhat analogous to the use of
hold-down rings in deep drawing. Because of limited ductility, more stage dies may
be required for titanium than for other materials. Drop hammer parts are trimmed by
friction sawing at speeds of 5000 to 10,000 ft/min.

Rubber pads are conventionally used to impart extra pressure for localized
deformations. With the heated titanium blanks, a special heat-resistant rubber is
used. Due to the hardness of titanium, a 70 Shore hardness rubber is needed, in
contrast to the 40 Shore used on steel and aluminium.

Efforts have been made to reduce the large losses of material resulting from edge
trimming of drop-hammer-formed parts (especially where traps are used). Considerable
success has been achieved through the use of net size blanks (zero trim allowance),
which can be formed only to the approximate finished shape. These parts are then
finished using hot-form fixtures, as described in Section 4.2, 'Stretch Forming.
Sections'. There is an economic balance to be figured here between the cost of trim
losses versus the cost of the hot form fixtures plus the extra operation their use
entails. If a large run of parts with large trim loss is involved, the latter method
may be cheaper.

4.5 Hydropress Forming

Titanium is more difficult to form on the hydropress than aluminium or steel.

Three of the factors contributing to this are high yield strength, large and variable
spring-back, and the previously noted limitation on shrinking which is frequently
encountered on the flanges of hydropressed parts. The use of heated blanks (900°F
to 1050°P) minimizes but does not eliminate these difficulties. Hot forming entails
the use of carbon steel dies and heat-resistant rubber, protected by a layer of
asbestos. As with other materials, heavy pressure (5000 to 10,000 lb/in.2)is favored
on titanium, to obtain more completely formed parts.

On heavy gage titanium alloy parts, the dies are heated to about 600°P, with the
blanks at 1000°F to 1050°F, and an aluminium overlay is used (see Figures 18 and 19).
This procedure gives fairly good parts, but one aluminium piece must be thrown away
for each titanium part made.
 A new process has been devised to finish-form hydropressed and similar type parts.
This Involves the use of a hot straightening fixture which is an elaboration of the
process described earlier. In these machines (Fig. 20), the part is placed between
mating dies which are heated to 1000°P (by either gas or electricity), and hydrauli-
cally loaded both horizontally and vertically, maintaining about 2500 lb/in.2 pressure
on the parts. Pressure and temperature are maintained for from 5 to 15 minutes;
the parts, which need be only approximately to contour for placement in the dies,
come out in perfect shape. This equipment is expensive ($100,000) and usually
requires the use of 5% chromium hot work die steel inserts, since they are held at
operating temperature for extended times. (Recently, some success has been achieved
with cast iron dies). Use of the hot straightening machines has achieved a 75%
reduction in personnel assigned to this type of titanium forming, by reducing the need
for hand-working of improperly formed parts. At the same time, a reduction in
rejections from about 20% to 3% has been accomplished. However, a portion of these
improvements may properly be attributed to improvements in the titanium sheet.

4.6 Deep Drawing

We have had only limited applications for deep-drawn parts in titanium. Where
such parts have been produced, most of them have been made on a Cincinnati hydroform
press rather than conventional mechanical presses with double-acting draw dies.
The hydroforra process features simple and economical tooling and high forming forces.
This Is accomplished by developing 8000 lb/in.2 hydraulic pressure in a steel dome,
behind a tough rubber membrane. A male punch is forced vertically, by mechanical
means, through and beyond a heavy draw ring (see Figure 21). The flat bank,
previously placed over the face of the punch and draw ring, is slowly formed over
the male punch as it travels into the membrane. The 8000 lb/in.2 initial pressure
is increased to as much as 15,000 lb/in.2 by compression, as the punch travels into
the dome. It is possible to obtain very deep draws by this method when the work is
done in stages with intermediate anneals. Due to the high forming stresses, some
warpage occurs on stress relieving, which necessitates final straightening.

The wide variation in sheet thickness previously referred to is a major source of

trouble in the use of double-acting draw dies, or any other form of matched steel
tooling. Material on the low side of the gage tolerance will not form completely.
Material on the high side will either gall or break the die.

4.7 Inspection of Formed Parts

Titanium sheet has a tendency to crack (particularly on formed bend radii) if the
surface has a brittle oxide layer which was not removed in pickling. To ensure that
no formed parts are cracked, all primary structural parts and all parts with a crack
history are given a fluorescent penetrant Inspection. Any defects that are found
by inspection are removed by filing or grinding, and the parts are then re-inspected.
Figures 22 and 23 give examples of the types of defects found. Figure 24 is a plot
of the number of parts requiring re-work. The significant improvement achieved
during the past year can be attributed to two factors:

(a) Improved material is used, as a result of critically examining bend tests of all
incoming material at 20X magnification, and

(b) improved forming techniques have been used.

5. MACHINING

Our experience with machining of titanium has been too limited to permit more than
a few general observations. The tendency for titanium to weld to the tool edge and
the frequent occurrence of a hard surface layer on plate and billet stock both
contribute to reduced tool life. Several types of high-speed steel have been tried
for cutters, with 6W-6Mo-4Cr-3V-lC proving very superior to other grades. Carbide
(80WC-20N1) cutters permit a more rapid rate of metal removal, but cannot be used
in many applications because of excessive wear and breakage. Cuts up to 0.3 in. in
depth have been made. It is preferable to finish on the first cut, but if a finish
cut is necessary, it should be of 0.025 in. minimum depth. Also, it is very
important that any cut go below the hard surface layer. Machine tools of adequate
power and rigid construction are required. A copious flow of coolant is desirable,
and a wide range of performance has been observed with different products. Since
most of these are proprietary materials, no specific description of recommended
coolants can be given.

As a broad generalization, it may be said that the rate of metal removal for
titanium is comparable to that for Cr-Ni-Mo steel heat-treated to 180,000 lb/in.2
tensile strength. The removal rate for annealed precipitation-hardening stainless
is about twice, and for aluminium alloys about ten times, that for titanium.
Conversely, on heat-treated precipitation-hardening stainless steels, the removal
rate is perhaps one half that for titanium. Under these conditions, tool life is
roughly the same in cutting any of the materials.

Figure 25 shows an experimental horizontal stabilizer skin which is made from

8Mn titanium alloy plate, 36 x 135 x | in. A | in. high-speed steel four-flute end
mill was used to cut the periphery at 200 r.p.m. and 2& in./min table feed. The
skin was tapered from 0.300 to 0.073 in. and sculptured in various areas, using 3 in.
and 4 in. high-speed steel shell mills at 44 r.p.m. and 2Vi in./min table feed.
Surface finish was 125 RMS. These figures are typical of our experience to date,
except that better finish (63 RMS) has been attained. Paster cutting is possible,
but only at a prohibitive cost in tool life.

6. CHEMICAL MILLING

The Chem-Mill process, developed and patented by North American Aviation for use
on aluminium alloys, has recently been extended to steel and titanium. Essentially,
Chem-Milling is a method of selective, controlled metal removal by chemical dis-
solution. Pour steps are involved: cleaning, masking, etching, and mask removal.
The process is particularly adapted to the sculpturing of formed sheet metal parts
(see Figure 26). If these parts are first sculptured by milling, the subsequent
forming operations are unsatisfactory because of the varying section thicknesses.
If forming is accomplished first, the machining operation then becomes very complex
and costly. With Chera-Milling, the parts are formed and then etched to the desired
configuration. Based on pilot plant operations, the cost of titanium removal has
been estimated at $1.50 per pound.
10

On titanium, the only part of the Chem-Milling operation not completely solved is
that of hydrogen pickup during etching. Removal of 0.015 in. of material from each
side of an 8Mn titanium alloy sheet gave about 50 parts per million hydrogen pick-
up. On 6AI-4V, on 5AI-2& Sn, and on unalloyed titanium, only 70 parts per million
hydrogen pickup was observed in removing lk in. of metal. These results indicate
that vacuum annealing after Chem-Milling may be required in some cases, although
there is optimism over the possibility of reducing hydrogen pickup even further.

7. HEAT TREATING

The only heat treating operation performed to date on a production basis is that
of stress relief annealing, which is carried out in air atmosphere furnaces at 900°F
to 1050°F for 30 to 60 minutes. This accomplishes two things:

(a) There is restoration of compression yield strength, which may be lowered

10,000 to 20,000 lb/in.2, particularly on stretched parts, as a result of
the Bauschinger effect; and

(b) the relief of forming stresses has been helpful in preventing delayed
cracking of parts which contain high hydrogen.

Experimental work is in progress on the heat treatment of 6AI-4V sheet alloy.

Solution treatment at 1675°F for 54 hour is followed by water quenching and aging
at 900°F for 24 hours. This will rather consistently give properties as follows:
Ultimate tensile strength - 170,000 lb/in2; 0.2% offset yield - 160,000 lb/in.2;
with 5 to 7% elongation. The principal deterrent to the use of 6AI-4V alloy is its
poor formabillty, exemplified by a 6T bend radius, even in the annealed or solution-
treated condition.

Three new alloys, now in the pilot production stage, show much promise as heat-
treatable sheet materials. Their compositions are: 3AI-6MO, 4AI-3MO-1V, and 2%
AI-16V. In the solution-treated condition, these alloys are expected to have yield
strengths around 65,000 lb/in.2, a yield-to-ulitmate ratio of perhaps 0.6, elongation
of 10%, and a 2T to 3T bend radius. This should provide excellent formability, and
after an aging treatment, ultimate and yield strengths of 180,000 and 160,000 lb/in2,
respectively, may be attained.

A major problem in heat treating any titanium sheet alloy is the warpage which
results from the quench during solution treatment. The titanium producers and the
airframe manufacturers are working on this problem, but no solution has yet been
proven on a production basis. Methods tried involve two approaches:

(a) restraining the sheet during the quench, and

(b) flattening after the quench.

The latter method is restricted, since hot flattening may result in some aging, to
the detriment of forming capabilities.
 11

Limited work has been done on the heat treatment of titanium alloy forgings of
4AI-4Mn and 5AI-l.3Fe-l.3Cr-l.3Mo. The 4AI-4Mn alloy is erratic in its behavior,
leading to conservative properties (155,000 lb/in.2 ultimate, 140,000 lb/in.2 yield,
and 7% elongation) after a cycle of 1450°F for 2 hours, water quench, and 8 hours
aging at 900°F. The AI-Pe-Cr-Mo alloy exhibits good hardenability and readily
attains an ultimate strength of 180,000 lb/in.2 and a 160,000 lb/in.2 yield with 7%
elongation after a cycle of 1765°F for & hour, water quench, and 8 to 12 hours
aging at 900°F to 1000°P.

8. CLEANING AND PICKLING

Parts which have been fabricated without the use of heat are cleaned by vapor
degreasing to remove forming lubricants. Where hot forming or stress relieving has
been used, a light scale is formed. This can be removed by a two minute immersion
at 120°F in a bath of 2% HF and 48% HN03, a composition which gives negligible
hydrogen pickup, but is not always too effective in scale removal. Supplementary
treatments have been devised to facilitate descaling. Before heating, the titanium
is sprayed with a boric acid solution and dried. Subsequent heating produces a
modified scale which is readily attacked by the acid pickle. Another method is
caustic treatment of the scale between heating and acid pickling. This very effective
process employs a bath of NaOH and Na 2 Cr 2 0 7 used for 10 min at 275°F.

In the solution heat treatment of titanium, temperatures from 1500°F up are

involved, and extensive contamination may result. This is of particular concern
with sheet products, where ductility may be seriously impaired by a thin layer of
surface oxidation. To overcome this difficulty, considerable work has been done
on protective coatings, some of a proprietary nature. These coatings have been
based on ceramic frits and powered metals. After heat treatment and quench, the
coating can be removed by acid pickling in combination with caustic pretreatment.
The base material shows no oxygen pickup during heating in excess of an hour at
temperatures from 1450° to 1850°F. An unusual feature of one of these materials
is that it appears to prevent warpage during heat treatment and the subsequent
quench.

9. WELDING

Two characteristics of titanium and its alloys are of fundamental concern in

welding: phase changes and contamination (principally by oxygen pickup).

In resistance spot and seam welding, contamination appears to be of little

consequence, because of the very short heating time. Alpha-phase alloys, such as
5AI-254Sn and the unalloyed grades, are not subject to structural changes and give
strong, reasonably ductile welds. Resistance welding of these materials is very
similar to that of 18-8 stainless steel. Welding equipment of modest power require-
ment, and without the complex controls required for aluminium, may be used. The
only questionable feature of these welds is their low tension-shear strength ratio
of about 0.25, compared to 0.5 for aluminium alloys and 0.8 for stainless steel.
No difficulties have been traceable to this low ratio in a large volume of production
spot welding. The 6AI-4V alloy, though it contains a significant amount of beta
stabilizer, behaves like the alpha alloys in that its weldability is good.
12

Alloys with a larger amount of beta stabilizer, such as 8Mn, give brittle spot
welds because of transformation hardening. It is possible to restore ductility
by post-weld heat treatment, but this has not been regarded as a satisfactory
production process, due to warpage of the welded assemblies.

In fusion welding of titanium, the distinction between alpha- and beta-stabilized

alloys with respect to transformation hardening and embrittlement still applies.
In addition, however, it is necessary to take rather extreme precautions to avoid
contamination of the molten weld deposit. Sound welds can be produced in various
weldable alloys using controlled-atmosphere chambers (Pig. 27) or the consumable
or non-consumable inert gas shielded arc processes accompanied by adequate tooling.
The design of the part and the economic factors related to production costs dictate
which process should be used for a given component. Tooling costs may be extremely
high for the welding of some complex shapes by the inert gas shielded arc processes.
In these Instances, controlled-atmosphere chambers may be dictated. However, a
major objection to the use of chambers is that they inherently restrict the freedom
of the welding operator and make some jobs very difficult.

To produce sound welds by the shielded arc process, joints must be designed to
provide accessibility of the root side of the joint to inert backing gas. Even after
final assembly, the root side of the joint should be accessible, otherwise field
repair welds cannot be made. Weld tooling must provide good joint alignment and
fit-up of mating parts. Inert gas coverage at the root side of the joint, and maximum
chill. Chill is required to cool the weld deposit as rapidly as possible to reduce
contamination, which occurs to some extent even with the inert gas blanket. Figure
28 is a schematic illustration of the tooling for butt welds.

Important technique factors in fusion welding are:

(a) careful pre-weld cleaning of joint surfaces to avoid porosity,

(b) maintenance of inert gas coverage of all surfaces until their temperature
falls below 1000°F, and

(c) avoidance of contamination resulting from movement of the filler rod in and
out of the gas shield.

Both argon and helium are used as shielding gases. Argon is most widely used,
while helium is preferred where a hotter arc and deeper penetration are desired.
In the consumable electrode process, a mixture of the two gases gives best results.
Direct-current welding is used exclusively on titanium.

Figure 29 illustrates a tank made of 5AI-2& Sn alloy, using both resistance and
fusion welding. Stiffeners were spot-welded to the skin. Fusion welds were made by
the non-consumable electrode inert gas shielded arc process. Procedures have recently
been established for making production welds in 0.090 in. thick 6AI-4V alloy, using
the consumable electrode process. The welds, made at a speed of 50 in./min, were
radiographically sound and has a bend radius equal to that of the parent material.
An automatic traveling welding head with automatic electrode feed Is used for this
work.
 13

10. ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

At the present time, the fabrication of titanium components into sub-assemblies

and final assemblies presents no real problems, and the detailed procedures are
essentially the same as for aluminium or steel structures. In the past, there were
two areas of primary concern. Variability of the material resulted in the production
of detail parts which did not fit properly on assembly. Limited ductility prevented
forcing of parts into position without excessive cracking. This difficulty has been
largely overcome by Improvements in the material and by the evolution of manufactur-
ing techniques described earlier (such as hot forming) which produce better fitting
parts. As a general rule, more shimming of detail parts is done to ensure matching
on titanium assemblies than is done for other materials.

The other problem which plagued the assembly departments was delayed cracking.
At periods from a few hours to a few weeks after assembly of parts, they were found
to be cracked - usually at points of stress concentration, such as corners or rivet
holes. After lengthy Investigation, it was found that excessive hydrogen in the
titanium, combined with a state of stress, caused the cracking. It should be
remarked that this was no isolated occurrence. The entire titanium industry, both
producer and consumer, was faced with this problem. To overcome it, melting and
other mill processing techniques were modified to reduce hydrogen pickup, and
vacuum annealing was widely used. An arbitrary limit of 150 parts per million of
hydrogen was written into specifications. On our part, the efforts to reduce
built-in stresses by making better fitting parts was given strong emphasis. These
two actions together virtually eliminated the delayed cracking troubles.

Major assembly operations are drilling, countersinking, and riveting. A typical

sequence is to pilot-drill the skin and sub-structure while the parts are held in
an assembly jig. Parts are then disassembled, and holes are deburred. The sub-
structure holes are then machine countersunk while the skins are dimpled. Parts
are reassembled in the Jig and riveted with Monel rivets, using conventional rivet
guns and sets.

Drilling and countersinking of titanium are about the same as for stainless steel.
High-speed steel (6W-6Mo-4Cr-3V-lC) twist drills have been found to give much better
life than other types. Keller air drills are used in preference to hand drills
wherever possible. The speed and positive feed control offered by the air drills
makes for much faster work and up to eight times the drill life. Jigs have built-in
provisions for the bayonet-type fittings on the air drills (see Figure 30).
Deburring is done with rotary files, chisels, and a variety of special tools.

Dimpling is accomplished by the hot coin dimpling process originally developed for
the harder aluminium alloys. A-2 sec hold time with the tools at 750°F is used on
titanium, in contrast to 450°P for aluminium. During the period when cracking
troubles were prevalent, a-6 sec hold time was used, but with no improvement.

Erco automatic punch riveting (Pig. 31) has been very successful on sub-assembly
work which can be fed to the machine. At present a maximum thickness of 0.100 in.
can be handled on titanium. The machine operates in two steps, at a rate of 15 rivets
per minute. In the first stage, the hole in punched and the punch retracts. In the
second stage, the rivet is fed in and upset against the punch, which forms part of
the upsetting tool.
14

Attempts have been made to use titanium instead of Monel rivets for increased
shear strength at less weight. These efforts have been unsuccessful, due to the
high percentage of cracked rivets encountered. Some very limited success has been
reported with hot upsetting of titanium rivets, but no production applications are
known.

Titanium bolts are receiving increased interest, again because of their attractive
properties. Acceptance was long delayed by their erratic behavior (in common with
all titanium products) especially in fatigue and notch brittleness. These difficulties
appear now to have been largely overcome.

11. SCRAP LOSSES AND SALVAGE

Figure 32 shows what happens to all of the titanium sheet purchased for a single
F-100 airplane. It is seen that an over-all recovery of 53% is realized; however,
today only 2% of the total is lost because of material defects or workmanship. The
larger losses occur in preparing part blanks and trimming formed parts. This is
inherent in the type of parts being produced and, with the exception of receiving
inspection rejections, the figures given now compare favorably to our experience
with other materials.

At the Los Angeles Division of North American, approximately 25,000 lb of titanium

scrap is generated per month. Alloy and unalloyed scrap are segregated in the various
fabricating departments. Identification is usually dependent on vendors' markings
on the sheet, but this is lost after hot forming and cleaning. Recently a Thermal
Electric Comparator has been used to segregate small pieces of unmarked material.
Where there is doubt about the grade of material, the scrap is classified and sold
as alloy.

The unalloyed scrap is sold to the titanium producers for $1.00 per pound and is
re-melted by them. Alloy scrap Is sold to scrap dealers for about $0.50 per pound.
It is hoped that the producers will develop better methods for scrap utilization,
with the goal of reducing the high price of titanium and, Incidentally, providing a
better market for scrap.

12. CONCLUSION

It will be evident from the foregoing presentation that the fabrication of major
airframe components from titanium is an expensive business - considerably more so
than with conventional materials. The high cost of raw material, increased inspection,
hot forming, and extra processing steps all contribute to the final bill. It
would be interesting to show a step-by-step comparison of the costs of producing
typical assemblies in titanium, stainless steel, and aluminium. However, such a
comparison cannot be made because, even today, the figures are constantly being
outdated by cost-reducing improvements in manufacturing techniques. Despite its
high cost, careful analyses have shown that titanium construction can be clearly
justified for many applications in the temperature range of 300°P to 700°F.
 15

Entirely aside from its direct contribution to airplane performance, we believe

that our use of titanium to date has been very valuable in providing experience for
the next generation of airplanes and missiles. Whether improved titanium alloys or
stainless steels are used, the techniques now established will be of great value to
us. It is hoped that this presentation of our experiences will also help those who
have yet to work with titanium.
16

"THOUSANDS
o r POUNDS

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

Pig.1 Annual consumption of titanium a t N.A.A.

Pig.2 F-100 a f t fuselage assembly

 17

Pig. 3 P-100 aft fuselage assembly. Structural members

1000,
NUMBEROF
SHEETS SAMPLES TESTED-6176
HIGHH 2 SAMPLES-266
%HIGH H2SAMPLES-4.3
SPEC MAXIMUM
150 PPM

NO 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 OVER

250
HYDROGEN CONTENT - PARTS PER MILLION
Pig.4 Hydrogen analysis - 1956
18

PERCENT
REJECTED 3%-5% FLATNESS MAXIMUM HYDROGEN
REQUIREMENT REQUIREMENT
CEASE MILL
INSPECTION
20X BEND

1956
Fig.5 Titanium sheet rejected at receiving inspection

Pig. 6 Optimum utilization titanium sheet stock

 19

CRACKS ON SHEARED EDGE

Fig.7 Lamellar cracks in sheared titanium sheet

Fig.8 Typical blanking die and part

20

ULTIMATE
YIELD 120 130
%% MANGANESE 9
TITANIUM
ALLOY YIELD ULTIMATE
NEW HEAT 65 110
TREATABLE
TITANIUM ALLOYS
YIELD ULTIMATE
STAINLESS 40 130
STEEL
17-7PH ANNEALED
YIELD ULTIMATE
ALUMINUM 0 15 33
7075-SO
ANNEALED

Fig.9 Alloy properties pertinent to forming operations

 21

iiii
£
Pig.10 Hot straightening on a hydraulic press
22

Pig.11 Stretching brake. Formed parts

STRETCHING ACTION
4 1ST OPERATION
OVERCONTOURING PART'

NET STRETCHING
ACT,0N
CONTOUR "

2*B OPERATION ^
' N E T DIE''

•NET CONTOUR
Fig.12 Net die technique
 23

Fig.13 Hot straightening fixture

FABRICATION PROCESSES PART FORM AFTER

r A VARIOUS STEPS
I7-7PH 18-8 ^
ALUMINUM STEEL STEEL TITANIUM
Jt
BRAKE FORM ±.
]

1
i
i
±_
i
i
I ANNEAL
STRETCH FORM TO CONTOUR
• *

fc OR USE HOT ±
HEAT TREAT
±*
1 STRAIGHTENING
HOT

STRAIGHTENING FIXTURE
BE-STRETCH TO CONTOUR)
FIXTURE

SAW INTO Z - CROSS-SECTION

TO AIRFRAME ASSEMBLY

Fig.14 Fabrication of curved 'Z* sections

24

Pig.15 Stretch forming. Skins

Fig.16 Stretch forming. Wing tip

 25

Pig.17 Drop hammer die

OVERLAY

PART

FORMING
BLOCK

Pig. 18 Aluminum overlay technique

26

PART

ALUMINUM OVERLAY
DISCARDED AFTER EACH PART

Fig. 19 Aluminum overlay technique, parts in overpress

PART BEING FORMED HOT SIZING DIE

REFRACTORY
BRICK
UNING

GAS
BURNER

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
Fig.20 Hot s t r a i g h t e n i n g press
 27

STATIONARY
OIL UNDER RUBBER
PRESSURE DIAPHRAGM

PRESSURE
PAD TYPICAL PART

Fig.21 Hydroform press

CRACKS

* V

Fig.22 Surface defects on formed longeron radius

 sijOBJO jo sudEjSojoTuio^oiy zz *3Td

oo
 29

10,000
8,000
PAR"rs
REWORKE >

4,000
/ \
2,000
0
NOV D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
1955 195<5
Pig.24 Titanium parts requiring rework

,250 : ,063 .375^1

^ ^ ^••'",• ' I I
^k AV/.y.. ^UNolAINI IAKCK
'..•250 i .ow ..-...• ^ B
;
. - ' ' .063 ^ o B

Pig.25 Titanium horizontal stabilizer skin

30

Fig.26 Typical Chem-milled part

Pig.27 Welding titanium in controlled-atmosphere chamber

 31

COPPER HOLD DOWN FINGERS

& CHILL BAR

BACKING GAS ORIFICE

Pig.28 Tooling for butt joints

Fig.29 Welded titanium tank

32

Pig.30 Keller a i r d r i l l s used In assembly operations

I *J- i

1^ J H HP*
I
w&wr
&
^ > •
V
11 A /

J B !
r
\M
V
* T,^-
iHi
>.,—>
fc \

1.
'l
• "

*
ii '•
St* 0 0

X^ - « >
W1
p.
Pig.31 Erco automatic punch r i v e t i n g
 33

1100 LB PURCHASED WEIGHT LOST IN CUTTING

PER F-100 BLANKS

REJECTED IN
RECEIVING
LOST IN TRIMMING NSPECTION
FORMED PARTS

1 % SCRAPPED
DURING
FABRICATION

+ % SCRAPPED
DURING 580 LB AIRFRAME DELIVERED
ASSEMBLY TO CUSTOMER
Pig.32 Titanium losses during fabrication
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Nascimento

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