Strength of Materials I AUE 2010 E.

C
(Sami J.)
CHAPTER SEVEN

7. Buckling Instability

7.1 Introduction

Columns are the structural members that take axial compressive load and bending moments.
The bending effects may be due to:

 The lateral loads,

 Inaccurate positioning of loads resulting in eccentricity of the axial loads.
 Imperfections within materials or fabrication processes
 Asymmetry of the cross-section can induce premature failure either in a part of the cross-
section, such as the outstand flange of an I-section, or of the element as a whole.

In such cases the failure mode is normally buckling (i.e. lateral movement), of which there are
three main types:

The design of most compressive members is governed by their overall buckling capacity, i.e. the
maximum compressive load which can be carried before failure occurs by excessive deflection in
the plane of greatest slenderness. Typically this occurs in columns in building frames and in
trussed frameworks as shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Examples in structural analysis

Reinforced concrete columns are classified in EBCS 2, as un-braced (sway) or braced (non-
sway), based on how the horizontal loads are transmitted by the super structure to the foundation.

Un-braced Columns (sway frames): An un-braced structure is one in which frame action is
used to resist horizontal loads (lateral loads due to wind or earthquake). In such structure, beam
and column members may be designed to act together as a rigid frame in transmitting the lateral

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forces down to the foundations through bending action in the beams and columns. In such an
instance the columns are said to be un-braced and must be designed to carry both the vertical
(compressive) and lateral (bending) loads. Moments in the columns can substantially reduce the
vertical load carrying capacity. The frame as a whole may exhibit significant lateral
displacement. The bending moment can increase due to second order effect.

Braced columns (in non-sway frames): If the lateral loads in a frame are transmitted to the
foundation through a system of bracing or shear walls, the column member in such a frame is
said to be braced column and consequently carry only vertical loads. In such a case, second
order effect will be negligible.

7.2 Slenderness ratio (Section 4.4.5 of EBCS 2):

On the basis of the slenderness ratio columns may be classified as short or long (slender).

The slenderness ratio is defined by:

Le

i

Where Le is the effective buckling length

i is the minimum radius of gyration of the concrete section only.

Limits of slenderness ratio (Section 4.4.6 of EBCS 2):

Generally, the slenderness ratio of concrete columns shall not exceed 140.

Second-order effects in compressive members need not be taken into account in the following
cases:

(a). For sway frames, the greater of the two

  25
15
 
d

(b). For non – sway frames

  50  25
M1 
M 2 

Where M1 and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments at the ends, M2 being always positive
and greater in magnitude than M1, and M1 being positive if member is bent in single curvature
and negative if bent in double curvature.  d  N sd
f cd Ac
N sd  design axial load 

Effective Buckling Length (LE)

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Strength of Materials I AUE 2010 E.C
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The Euler Critical Load for the fundamental buckling mode is dependent on the buckling length
between pins and/or points of contra-flexure as indicated in Figure 7.9. In the case of columns
which are not pin-ended, a modification to the boundary conditions when solving the differential
equation of bending given previously yields different mode shapes and critical loads as shown in
Figure 7.10.

Figure 7.10 Effective Buckling Lengths for Different End Conditions

Effective length of compression members

The effective height (length) of a column is the distance between the two consecutive points of
contra flexure or zero bending moments. The figure shown below may serve this purpose.

L
0.5L

0.7L 1.2L 0.8L

 e  0.65L
e  L  e  0.8L  e  1.2L  e  1.5L
 e  0.8L
In accordance with EBCS-2, 1995, the effective length Le for an RC Column is given as,

Le  m  0.4
a. Non-sway mode   0.7
L  m  0.8
Le 7.5  41   2   1.61 2
b. Sway mode   1.15
L 7.5  1   2

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Le
Or Conservatively  1  0.8 m 1.15.
L
For the theoretical model shown below.

K1  K c
1 
K 11  K 12 Lc2 Ic2
K2  Kc
2  Ib22 Ib21
K 21  K 22 Ic
Lc
1   2 Ib12 Ib11
m 
2 Lc1 Ic1

Where K1 and K2 are column stiffness coefficients (EI/L) for the lower and the upper column
respectively. Kc is the stiffness coefficient (EI/L) of the column being designed.

Kij is the effective beam stiffness coefficient (EI/L)

= 1.0 (EI/L) for opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained.

= 0.5 (EI/L) for opposite end free to rotate.

= 0.0 (EI/L) for a cantilever beam.

N sd
For a non – sway frame  0.1
N cr

Where: Nsd – the design value of the total vertical load.

Ncr – critical vertical load for failure in a sway mode given as

 2 EI e
N cr 
L2e

M bal
EIe = 0.2EcIc + EsIs (or EIe =  0.4 Ec I c )
1 rbal 

Ec 1100 f cd Curvature 1
rbal
 d 10
 5 3

Ic = Moment of inertia of the concrete sections of the substitute column w.r.to center

Is = Moment of inertia of reinforcement sections of the conc. section

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A frame may be classified as braced if its sway resistance is supplied by a bracing system which
is sufficiently stiff to assume that all horizontal loads are resisted by the bracing system. (Not
more than 10% of the horizontal loads are attracted by the frame)

Compression elements can be considered to be sub-divided into three groups:

 short elements,
 slender elements and
 intermediate elements

7.1.1 Short Elements

Provided that the slenderness of an element is low, e.g. the length is not greater than (10×the
least horizontal length), the element will fail by crushing of the material induced by
predominantly axial compressive stresses as indicated in Figure 7.2(a). Failure occurs when the
stress over the cross-section reaches a yield or crushing value for the material. The failures of
such a column can be represented on a stress-slenderness curve as shown in Figure 7.2(b).

Figure 7.2(a) Figure 7.2(b)

7.1.2 Slender Elements

When the slenderness of an element is high, the element fails by excessive lateral deflection (i.e.
buckling) at a value of stress considerably less than the yield or crushing values as shown in
Figures 7.3(a) and (b).

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Figure 7.3(a) Figure 7.3 (b).

7.1.3 Intermediate Elements

The failure of an element which is neither short nor slender occurs by a combination of buckling
and yielding/crushing as shown in Figures 7.4(a)

Figure 7.4(a)

7.2 Second order effect or P - δ effect:

Consider a slender column subjected only to equal and opposite end moment, M, as shown in
figure. The column is bent into a single curvature with a maximum deflection δ at the mid height
as shown. If the axial compression is applied at the ends of the column now, additional bending
moment is caused due to the axial load acting on the deformed shape. This additional bending

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moment causes additional deflection and so on, until the final maximum deflection δ is reached
at the stage of equilibrium under combined axial force and bending moments. This is referred to
as P- δ effects. It should be observed that due to P- δ effects the maximum moment in the
column is larger than the externally applied end moment M. If the column is short, P- δ effect is
negligible. If the column is slender, P- δ effect is to be considered.

Secondary Stresses

As mentioned in Section 7.1, buckling is due to small imperfections within materials, application
of load etc., which induce secondary bending stresses which may or may not be significant
depending on the type of compression element. Consider a typical column as shown in Figure
7.5, in which there is an actual centre-line, reflecting the variations within the element, and an
assumed centre-line along which acts an applied compressive load, assumed to be concentric.

Figure 7.5

At any given cross-section the point of application of the load P will be eccentric to the actual
centre-line of the cross-section at that point, as shown in Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6

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(Sami J.)
The resultant eccentric load produces a secondary bending moment in the cross-section. The
cross-section is therefore subject to a combination of an axial stress due to P and a bending stress
due to (Pe) where e is the eccentricity from the assumed centre-line as indicated in Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.7

The combined axial and bending stress is given by:

Where: σ is the combined stress, P is the applied load, e is the eccentricity from the assumed
centre-line, A is the cross-sectional area of the section, and Z is the elastic section modulus about
the axis of bending.

7.2.1 Effect of secondary bending on Short Elements

In short elements the value of the bending stress in the equation is insignificant when compared

to the axial stress i.e. and consequently the lateral movement and buckling
effects can be ignored.

7.2.2 Effect of secondary bending on Intermediate Elements

Most practical columns are considered to be in the intermediate group and consequently both the
axial and bending effects are significant in the column behavior, i.e. both terms in the equation

are important.

7.3 Critical Stress (σcritical)

The critical load Pc (i.e. critical stress× cross-sectional area) must be estimated for design
purposes. Since the critical stress depends on the slenderness it is convenient to quantify

slenderness in mathematical terms as:

Where: LE is the effective buckling length,

r is the radius of gyration =

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I is the second moment of area about the axis of bending and

A is the cross-sectional area of the section.

7.3.1 Critical Stress for Short Columns

Short columns fail by yielding/crushing of the material and σcritical = Py, the yield stress of the
material. If, as stated before, columns can be assumed short when the length is not greater than
(10×the least horizontal length) then for a typical rectangular column of examples in structural
analysis cross-section (b×d) and length L≈10b, a limit of slenderness can be determined as
follows:

From this we can consider that short columns correspond with a value of slenderness less than or
equal to approximately 30 to 35.

7.3.2 Critical Stress for Slender Columns

Slender columns fail by buckling and the applied compressive stress σcritical << Py. The critical
load in this case is governed by the bending effects induced by the lateral deformation.

7.3.2.1 Euler Equation

In 1757 the Swiss engineer/mathematician Leonhard Euler developed a theoretical analysis of

premature failure due to buckling. The theory is based on the differential equation of the elastic
bending of a pin-ended column which relates the applied bending moment to the curvature along

the length of the column, i.e.

Where approximates to the curvature of the deformed column. Since this expression for
bending moments only applies to linearly elastic materials, it is only valid for stress levels
equal to and below the elastic limit of proportionality. This therefore defines an upper limit of
stress for which the Euler analysis is applicable. Consider the deformed shape of the assumed
center-line of a column in equilibrium under the action of its critical load Pc as shown in Figure
7.8.

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Figure 7.8

The bending moment at position x along the column is equal to and hence

Bending Moment This is a 2nd Order

Differential Equation of the form: The solution of this equation can be shown to

be: where: n is 0, 1, 2, 3…etc. This expression for PE defines the Euler Critical Load
(PE) for a pin-ended column. The value of n = 0 is meaningless since it corresponds to a value of
PE = 0. All other values of n correspond to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd…etc. harmonics (i.e. buckling mode
shapes) for the sinusoidal curve represented by the differential equation. The first three
harmonics are indicated in Figure 7.9.

Figure 7.9 Buckling mode-shapes for pin-ended columns

The higher level harmonics are only possible if columns are restrained at the appropriate levels,
e.g. mid-height point in the case of the 2nd harmonic and the third-height points in the case of the
3rd harmonic.

The fundamental critical load (i.e. n = 1) for a pin-ended column is therefore given by:

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This fundamental case can be modified to determine the critical load for a column with different
end-support conditions by defining an effective buckling length equivalent to that of a pin-ended
column.

7.3.2.2

The Euler stress corresponding to the Euler Buckling Load for a pin-ended column is given by:

Where (L/r) is the slenderness λ.

Note: In practical design it is very difficult to achieve full fixity as assumed for the end
conditions. This is allowed for by modifying the effective length coefficients e.g. increasing the
value of 0.5L to 0.7L and 0.7L to 0.85L.

A lower limit to the slenderness for which the Euler Equation is applicable can be found by
substituting the stress at the proportional limit σe for σ

Euler as shown in the following example with a steel column.

Assume that σe = 200 N/mm2 and that E = 205 KN/mm2

In this case the Euler load is only applicable for values of slenderness ≥ ≈ 100 and can be
represented on a stress/slenderness curve in addition to that determined in Section 7.3.1 for short
columns as shown in Figure 7.11.

The Euler Buckling Load has very limited direct application in terms of practical design because
of the following assumptions and limiting conditions:

 the column is subjected to a perfectly concentric axial load only,

 the column is pin-jointed at each end and restrained against lateral loading,
 the material is perfectly elastic,
 the maximum stress does not exceed the elastic limit of the material,
 there is no initial curvature and the column is of uniform cross-section along its length,
 lateral deflections of the column are small when compared to the overall length,
 there are no residual stresses in the column,
 there is no strain hardening of the material in the case of steel columns,
 the material is assumed to be homogeneous

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Figure 7.11

7.3.3 Critical Stress for Intermediate Columns

Figure 7.12

Since the Euler Curve is unsuitable for values of stress greater than the elastic limit it is
necessary to develop an analysis which overcomes the limitations outlined above and which can
be applied between the previously established slenderness limits (see Figure 7.11) as shown in
Figure 7.12.

7.4 Tangent Modulus Theorem

Early attempts to develop a relationship for intermediate columns included the Tangent Modulus
Theorem. Using this method a modified version of the Euler Equation is adopted to determine
the stress/slenderness relationship in which the value of the modulus of elasticity at any given
level of stress is obtained from the stress/strain curve for the material and used to evaluate the
corresponding slenderness. Consider a column manufactured from a material which has a
stress/strain curve as shown in Figure 7.13 (a)

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Figure 7.13(a) Figure 7.13(b)

The slope of the tangent to the stress/strain curve at a value of stress equal to σ is equal to the
value of the tangent modulus of elasticity Et (Note: this is different from the value of Examples
in structural analysis Et at the elastic limit). The value of Et can be used in the Euler Equation to
obtain a modified slenderness corresponding to the value of stress σ as shown at position ‘x’ in

Figure 7.13(b):

If successive values of λ for values of stress between σe and σy are calculated and plotted as
shown, then a curve representing the intermediate elements can be developed. This solution still
has many of the deficiencies of the original Euler equation.

7.5 Perry-Robertson Formula

The Perry-Robertson Formula was developed to take into account the deficiencies of the Euler
equation and other techniques such as the Tangent Modulus Method. This formula evolved from
the assumption that all practical imperfections could be represented by a hypothetical initial
curvature of the column.

As with the Euler analysis a 2nd Order Differential Equation is established and solved using
known boundary conditions, and the extreme fiber stress in the cross-section at mid-height (the
assumed critical location) is evaluated. The extreme fiber stress, which includes both axial and
bending effects, is then equated to the yield value. Clearly the final result is dependent on the
initial hypothetical curvature.

Consider the deformed shape of the assumed centre-line of a column in equilibrium under the
action of its critical load Pc and an assumed initial curvature as shown in Figure 7.14.

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Figure 7.14

The bending moment at position x along the column is equal to = −Pc(y+yo)

If the initial curvature is assumed to be sinusoidal, then

Where a is the amplitude of the initial displacement and the equation becomes:

The solution to this differential equation is:

The constants A and B are determined by considering the boundary values at the pinned ends,
i.e. when x = 0, y = 0 and when x = L, y = 0.

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Substitution of the boundary conditions in the equation gives:

The value of the stress at mid-height is the critical value since the maximum eccentricity of the
load (and hence maximum bending moment) occurs at this position;

(Note: yo at mid-height is equal to the amplitude a of the assumed initial curvature).

The maximum bending moment,

The maximum combined stress at this point is given by:

Where c is the distance from the neutral axis of the cross-section to the extreme fiber. The
maximum stress is equal to the yield value, i.e. σmaximum = σy

The average stress over the cross-section is the load divided by the area, i.e. (Pc/A)

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The (ac/r2) term is dependent upon the assumed initial curvature and is normally given the

symbol η.

This equation can be rewritten as a quadratic equation in terms of the average stress:

This equation represents the average value of stress in the cross-section which will induce the
yield stress at mid-height of the column for any given value of η. Experimental evidence
obtained by Perry and Robertson indicated that the hypothetical initial curvature of the column

could be represented by; which was combined with a load

factor of 1.7 and used for many years in design codes to determine the critical value of average
compressive stress below which overall buckling would not occur. The curve of
stress/slenderness for this curve is indicated in Figure 7.15 for comparison with the Euler and
Tangent Modulus solutions.

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Figure 7.15 European Column Curves

Whilst the Perry-Robertson formula does take into account many of the deficiencies of the Euler
and Tangent Modulus approaches, it does not consider all of the factors which influence the
failure of columns subjected to compressive stress. In the case of steel columns for example, the
effects of residual stresses induced during fabrication, the type of section being considered (i.e.
the cross-section shape), the material thickness, the axis of buckling, the method of fabrication
(i.e. rolled or welded), etc. are not allowed for.

A more realistic formula of the critical load capacity of columns has been established following
extensive full-scale testing both in the UK and in other European countries. The Perry-Robertson
formula has in effect been modified and is referred to in design codes as the Perry strut formula

and is given in the following form: from which the value of

pc may be obtained using:

Where: py is the design strength

λ is the slenderness

The Perry factor ηfor flexural buckling under axial force should be taken as:

λ0 is the limiting slenderness below which it can be assumed that buckling will not occur. The
European Column curves are indicated in graphical form in Figure 7.16.

The Robertson constant a should be taken as 2.0, 3.5, 5.5 or 8.0 as indicated in design codes
depending on the cross-section, thickness of material, axis of buckling and method of fabrication.

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Figure 7.16

Example 7.1. (Classification of columns).

The frame shown in figure below is composed of members with rectangular cross sections. All
members are constructed of the same strength concrete (E is the same for both beams and
columns). Considering bending in the plane of the frame only, classify column EF as long or
short if the frame is braced. All girders are 300 x 600 mm.

600
F 525 KN
C I
350 F
3.80 m 300 300 x 350 300 M1 = 30 KNm
600
B
H
E
400
3.80 m

300 x 400

A 9m D 7.5 m G M2 = 45 KNm
E

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Solution:

Moments of inertia (I):

3
300 x600
Girders: I g   54 x108 mm4
12
300 x 400 3
Columns: I DE   16 x108 mm 4
12
300 x350 3
I EF   10.71875 x10 8 mm 4 .
12
Stiffness Coefficients (K):

 
 
E  54 x108  6 x105 E.
EI g  BE
K K cF
9000
Girders : K g   
Lg   
E  54 x108 
 K EH  K FI   7.2 x105 E.
 7500

 
E  16 x108  4.21 x105 E
 K DE 
Columns: K c  EI c   3.8 x103
Lc 
 K EF 
 
E 10.71875 108  2.82 x105 E
 3.8 x103

The column being considered is column EF.

Rotational stiffness at joints E and F.

 EI col / L  I col / L 

 
 f EI g / Leff   f I g / Leff 

4.21x105  2.82 x105

Joint E: E   0.53
6 x105  7.2 x105

2.82 x105
Joint F: F   0.21
6 x105  7.2 x105

E  F 0.53  0.21
m    0.37
2 2

For a braced column (Non sway structure) for design

Le  m  0.4 0.37  0.4

   0.66  0.7 ,
L  m  0.8 0.37  0.8

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Le= (0.7) (3.8) = 2.66m = 2660mm

Le Le 2660
The slenderness ratio:   
I I A 10.71875 x10  300 x 350
8

   26.327.
  30 
  50  25   66.66  ok!
 45 
 The colum is short.

Axial compression

The ultimate capacity of an axially loaded short column can be determined by

Pdult = fcd (Ag - Ast) + fyd Ast, = fcdAg (1 – ρ) + ρ Ag fyd

Pdult = Ag [fcd (1 – ρ) + ρ fyd]

Ast
Where, ρ = or Ast = ρ Ag
Ag

Ag = Gross concrete area;

Ast = Area of main reinforcement

A column may be classified as long when the slenderness factor is defined as

Le
 12; Where Le = Effective height; b = least lateral dimension
b

For such columns a load reduction factor Cr is introduced in such a way that the concrete
concentric design axial load capacity can be given by

Pduc = Cr Pdult

Where Cr = 1.25 – Le/48b

E.g.: A column resting on an independent footing supports a flat slab. The super imposed
factored load transferred from the slab is 1000 KN. Design the column assuming a gross steel
ratio of (a) 0.01 (b) 0.02. Use concrete C30, steel S300 and class I works. Assume column
height h = 4 m.

Solution:

fcd = 13.6 MPa; fyd = 260.87 MPa; Pdult = 1000KN.

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Pdult = Ag [fcd (1 – ρ) + ρ fyd] = 1000KN

Pd
(a) For ρ = 0.01, Ag 
[ f cd (1   )  f yd ]

1000 *103
S2 = S = 249 mm
13.6(1  0.01)  0.01(260.87)

Use 250 mm × 250 mm cross section

Ast =ρ Ag = 0.01 (250)2 = 625 mm2

Use 4 numbers of 16 mm diameter rods; Ast provided = 804 mm2

Ties: d ≥ 6 mm (or) S ≤ 12* dia of main bar = 192 mm

≥ Dia of main bar/4 = 16/4 = 4 mm ≤ Least lateral dimension = 250 mm

≤ 300 mm

Therefore, use 6 mm dia rods at 190 mm center to center spacing.

Pd
(b) For ρ = 0.02, Ag 
[ f cd (1   )  f yd ]
1000 *103
S2 = S = 232 mm
13.6(1  0.02)  0.02(260.87)

Use 240 mm × 240 mm cross section

Ast = ρ Ag = 0.02 (240)2 = 1125 mm2

Use 4 numbers of 20 mm dia rods; Ast provided = 1256 mm2

Ties: d ≥ 6 mm (or) S ≤ 12* dia of main bar = 240 mm

≥ Dia of main bar/4 = 20/4 = 5 mm ≤ Least lateral dimension = 240 mm

≤ 300 mm

Therefore, use 6 mm dia rods at 240 mm center to center

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Columns with moments

Interaction diagram: It is a plot of axial load capacity of a column against the bending moment it
sustains. To illustrate conceptually the interaction between axial load and moment in a column,
an idealized, homogeneous and linearly elastic column with compressive strength fcu equal to its
tensile strength ftu is considered. This type of column fails in compression when

σmax = fcu.

P My P My
  f cu ; or  1 -------------------------(1)
A I f cu A f cu I

f cu I
But Pmax = fcu A & Mmax =
y

P M
Equation (1) becomes,   1; This equation is called interaction equation.
Pmax M max

It shows the interaction of (or) relationship between P and M at failure.

Interaction diagram for

an elastic column

fcu = ftu

Reinforced concrete is not elastic, and it has ft << fc. Tensile strength, of course, is developed by
rebars, on the tensile zone of the member. Therefore, calculation of interaction in concrete
member is complicated. However the general shape of the diagram resembles the figure given
below.

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Strength of Materials I AUE 2010 E.C
(Sami J.)

Axial load

Moment

 Any combination of loading with in the curve is a safe loading

 Any combination of loading outside the curve represents a failure combination
 All combinations of Pult and Mult between points A and C will cause the concrete to fail in
compression before the tension rebars yield.
 All combinations of Pult and Mult between points C and F will result in tensile yielding of
As before the concrete fails in compression.
When a member is subjected to combined axial load and bending moment it is more convenient
to replace the axial load and moment with an equivalent load applied at an eccentricity.

Design specifications from EBCS 2, 1995 Section 4.4.10:

Design of isolated columns

Total eccentricity
etot = ee + ea + e2
Where ee = equivalent constant first-order eccentricity of the design axial load.
ee = eo, for eo equal at both ends of a column
For first order moments varying linearly along the length, the equivalent eccentricity is the
higher of the following two values.
ee = 0.6 eo2 + 0.4eo1
ee = 0.4 eo2
Where eo1 and eo2 are first order eccentricities at the ends with eo2 being positive and greater in
magnitude than eo1.
For different eccentricities at the ends, the critical end section shall be checked for first order
moments.
etot = e02 + ea
ea = additional eccentricity in account of geometric imperfections.

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 23

Strength of Materials I AUE 2010 E.C
(Sami J.)
Le
ea =  20mm
300
e2 = Second-order eccentricity.
K L2 1 r 
For non – sway frames, e2 = 1 e
10

K1   0.75 for 15    35
20
K1  1.0 for   35.

1  Curvature at the critical sec tion

r
5
 K 2  10 3
d 
Where d = the Column dimension in the buckling plane less the cover to the center of the
longitudinal reinforcement.

K2 = M d
M bal

Md = design moment at the critical section including second-order effects.

Mbal = balanced moment capacity of the column.

Design of columns for uni-axial bending

A column is said to be bending uniaxially if it is loaded with a bending moment only in one
direction, in addition to axial force. For the design of such a column interaction charts are
prepared using non-dimensional parameters, ν and μ, in which,   N sd and   M sd 2
f cd bh f cd bh
A chart showing the interaction diagrams is shown in the next page. The charts are prepared
(and compiled in EBCS 2 - part 2) for different values of d' and h as given in the sample chart.
As can be calculated by the formula,

Ac f cd
As 
f yd

In using these charts for design, the following procedure may be adopted.

Given: axial load and bending moment, (BM = axial load × total eccentricity)

* Assume the cross section dimensions b and h.

* Assume d' and evaluate d'/h to choose appropriate chart number

* Calculate ν and μ,

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 24