The central authorities embarked on the policy of restoring the traditional order through emphasis on

old values of morality and application of knowledge to practical affairs.

Growing inequality in the Chinese society. The Taipings, led by Hong Xiuquan, fought

Not only against the foreign Qing dynasty, but also vigorously challenged the threats

Posed by the Western powers ever since the Opium War I. Although the movement failed

And was ruthlessly crushed, the magnitude of people’s participation was unmatched in

Chinese history. The way the Taiping and other peasant movements spread from one

Province to another, showed an outward sign of “an immense political and social crisis.”

The suppression of these revolts by the government, even to the extent of seeking

Desperate help from foreign powers, was an attempt on the part of the government to re-

Establish the decaying system of government and society. Little did it understand the

Messages conveyed through these revolts about the glaring disparity that plagued the

Chinese society. Both the Opium Wars had proved, beyond doubt, the superiority of

Western weaponry. Western canons, in particular, not only exploded the myth of China’s
Might, it was also of great use while tackling the Taiping Movement. Western weapons

Were extensively used to curb these movements. Therefore, in the post-Opium War II

Years, it was the acquisition of foreign weapons that was emphasised

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Most. The Chinese authorities thought that it would serve the twin purpose of curbing

Internal rebellions as well as repulsing any attack by foreign countries in case the

Situation arose. It is a difficult story that they failed to realise the fact that without

Effecting fundamental changes in the Chinese socio-economic and political structure, it

Was futile to go ahead with plans of weaponry and arsenals.

The impact of Western countries on China was evident in other ways also. The opening

Of Treaty Ports brought in more and more foreigners, who could now reside more freely

Than their days at Guangzhou. Along with them came Western ideas, institutions,

Diplomacy, beliefs, customs, and missionaries. Foreigners could move freely at these

Ports and acquire some property also, particularly after the Convention of Beijing. Thus,

A different life-style developed at these ports and the Chinese were exposed for the first
Time, to such activities on a large scale. This resulted, although indirectly, in a mood for

Change. However, the Chinese authorities decided in favour of change mainly in the field

Of military and diplomatic affairs, and at the same time not willing to do away with the

Old Confucian order.

However, the most glaring impact of foreign intrusion is noticeable in arsenal factories

And navy. The Chinese authorities emphasised only the military humiliation faced by

China and consequently, we see the development of armament industry and navy in

Particular. In the Confucian social structure, the society was led by intellectuals and the

Gentry. In other words, education had special significance in the Chinese society.

Therefore, those who produced goods, i.e. the merchants, traders etc, were held in low

Esteem. Moreover, in the old Confucian order, there was no role for military element and

Chinese failure* was revealed in this

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Field for which the Confucian order did not provide any safeguard. Thus, the Self-
Strengthening Movement gave a. shock to the Confucian order by over emphasising the

Role of the army.

The penetration of foreign powers into the Chinese mainland had greatly altered the

Prevalent political structure in China. The Chinese notion of “tributary system” was

Effectively challenged by Western diplomacy and international laws. The Western

Powers particularly emphasised on their being treated as equals and not to be put under

Tribute paying category. And it was only after the Opium War II that they finally

Succeeded in having their residences at Beijing. From now on, diplomatic relations were

Maintained on equal terms. This development did away with the age old Chinese concept

Of Middle Kingdom (Zhongguo). It had many advantages for China too. At least

Diplomatically, China was brought into the fold of international law which was uniform,

Even if theoretically. Now, Chinese scholars and diplomats could go out to Western

Countries, with ease, to study and train themselves in Western science, ideas and thoughts

And international law.

The old system of administration in China had alienated itself from the masses. The
Privileged classes— particularly gentry— wielded enormous power and influence in

Chinese society. They enjoyed unique privileges in legal matters as well as religious

Ceremonies. The “gentry” received special treatment in courts, acted as intermediaries

Between the local magistrates and the common people, made out of court settlements,

Acted as guardians of cultural heritage and organised militia in times of rebellions and

Unrest. On the contrary, other classes of the Chinese society i.e. the peasants, artisans, and

The merchants, were given a rather subordinate

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Status and were frowned upon. The merchant class, in particular, was looked down upon

With disfavour and discontent and was not trusted. The inferior status granted to the

Merchants showed the “defensive reaction of an. Agricultural society against economic

Forces that were threatening its equilibrium.” The position of the gentry was such that

People from other classes strove very hard to get into it. However, in order to enter the

Gentry class, one had to pass through a series of examinations which was archaic in
Nature and was characterised by Eight-legged Essay requiring great literary skill. It was

Very difficult for people of other classes to afford time and money preparing for such

Examinations. But, there was some provision of purchasing degrees and some wealthy

Merchants managed to get these degrees for themselves and their sons so as to enjoy the

Much elevated position of the gentry.

At the same time, the Qing rulers never tried to identify themselves with the Chinese

People. The Qing, who were outsiders and had dethroned the Ming dynasty in the

Seventeenth century to capture power were not liked by the people either who still owed

Their loyalty to the Ming. Thus, during, the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,

Rebellions and secret societies repeatedly emphasised on the, slogan, “Fan Qing Fu Ming”

(Overthrow the Qing and Restore the Ming). The Qing rulers seldom cared for the

Welfare and development of the Chinese society, thus creating a gap between the ruler

And the ruled.

The mid-nineteenth century Chinese economy was marked by severe crisis. The Chinese

Social and economic structure had remained unchanged for the past many centuries. All
Good quality arable land was owned by the privileged classes— rich families of gentry,

Banner-men and

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Officials. The majority of the population was left with very little or no land of its own.

The landless peasants led a wretched life. They had to pay fifty percent of the yield as

Rent; and since the rent was paid in cash and not in kind, another 30% was added in the

Process of commutation. Thus, the poor peasant lived even below the subsistence level.

At the same time, increase in population resulted in continuous shrinkage of individual

Land-holdings, thus, gradually many a peasant sold his land and became the tenant of a

Landlord. One direct impact of high incidence of rent and shrinkage of individual land-

Holding was that many displaced and unemployed peasants moved to cities as porters,

Dock-yard workers, and sailors and still many just remained idlers and vagabonds. In fact,

These jobless vagabonds actively participated in various rebellions.

The Opium Wars had severely altered the trading relations between the foreigners and
China. A fixed tariff of 5% reduced China’s income to a minimum. Also, the copper-

Silver exchange rate was dislocated which resulted in an increase of 100% in exchange

Rate reducing man’s income by half. There was large scale influx of foreign goods at the

Treaty ports which, by the end at the Opium War II assumed great importance especially

In trading activities. Influx of foreign goods dislocated local household industries.

The Opium Wars had another impact also. After the treaty of Nanjing (August 1842) and

The treaties that followed it, many ports of the Chinese eastern coast were opened. These

Ports gradually emerged as flourishing centres of trading activity and modernization

Assumed distinct identity. There was, thus, a growing disparity in the lives of people at

Ports and the mainland. Thus, by 1860 the condition of China had reached such a level

Whereby, unless concrete steps were

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Taken, the decline of the Qing dynasty could not be averted. The defeat of China in 1860

Had shocked not only the officialdom, but also the intelligentsia. Hence, the chief task of

Restoration was taken up by Prince Gong at Beijing and leaders like Zang Guofan, Zuo
Zongtang, Li Hongzhang etc in the provinces. It was with the individual efforts of these

Provincial leaders with little central directive that the task of restoration and Self-

Strengthening was sought to be accomplished.

Prince Gong, who took up the responsibility at Beijing, had gained prominence during

Negotiations with Western powers at the Convention of Beijing in 1860. He had

Established, his political position through his talent as a diplomat. Although, initially the

Prince was violently anti-foreign and resisted foreign demands, gradually he had come to

Realise the realities of Western superiority which was proved, beyond doubt, by the end of

The Opium War II. Prince Gong, thus, resorted to a policy of diplomatic conciliation

Whereby China could modernize herself with the help Western powers. At the same time,

The foreign powers too thought it wise that a stable China was more conducive to an

Increasing foreign trade. Therefore, they did not hesitate in extending their help as long as

The authorities at Beijing were cooperative.

It was with these objectives in mind that Prince Gong recommended the establishment of
A new office, the Zongli yaman, to deal exclusively with foreign affairs. As stated earlier,

China had never accorded recognition to another country, on equal diplomatic level, but

Only on a tributary or trading basis. Hence, the opening of the foreign office marked a

New phase in the development of foreign diplomacy in China. The Zongli yaman was

Intended to be a temporary

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Office with the task of execution of foreign policy and not its. Formulation which was to

Be ultimately decided by the Emperor and his council. Organised into five bureaux—

British,, Russian, French, American, and coastal defence— it had two other organs also

Viz. the Inspectorate-General of Customs, and the Language School.

Apart from dealing in foreign affairs, the Zongli yaman also promoted modern schools,

Western science, industry, and communication. Although, this office was repeatedly

Criticised by the conservatives and did not do that well in foreign affairs, it succeeded to a

Great extent in promoting modernization in China.

The Interpreters’ College or the College of Foreign Languages {Tong Wen Guan) was
Established in 1862 to train able language experts. Initially, the Chinese were not found

Qualified enough to become instructors in foreign languages. Therefore, foreigners were

Appointed to teach at the Institute. Later, other subjects like astronomy and mathematics

Were added to the curriculum. One major translation work undertaken by the Institute was

That of Wheaton’s work on international law by W.A.P1. Martin. Similar schools were

Opened at Shanghai in 1863, Guangzhou in 1864, and at Fuzhou in 1866. Although very

Few upper class students came at these institutes, and a considerable number of students

Were mediocre, nevertheless, the College of Foreign Languages marked the beginning of

Western education in China.

One of the outstanding provincial leaders of modernization in China was Zeng Guofen,

Who hailed from Hunan province. Under his leadership, the Hunan army had successfully

Suppressed the Taiping Movement in the