Chapter 2

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

2.1 Comparators

*Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the

amplitude of one voltage with another.

*In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration, with
the input voltage on one input and a reference voltage on the other.

Because the output is always in one of two states, comparators are often used
to interface between an analog and digital circuit.

Zero-Level Detection
*One application of an op-amp used as a comparator is to determine when an
input voltage exceeds a certain level as in Figure 2–1.

*Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a small difference voltage

between the two inputs drives the amplifier into saturation, causing the output
voltage to go to its limit.

*As you see, the zero-level detector can be used as a squaring circuit to
produce a square wave from a sine wave.

Figure 2–1 the op-amp as a zero-level detector.

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Nonzero-Level Detection
*The zero-level detector in Figure 2–1 can be modified to detect positive and
negative voltages by connecting a fixed reference voltage source to the
inverting (-) input, as shown in Figure 2–2(a).

*A more practical arrangement is shown in Figure 2–2(b) using a voltage

divider to set the reference voltage, VREF, as follows:

The circuit in Figure 2–2(c) uses a zener diode to set the voltage (VREF = VZ).

*If Vin is less than VREF, the output remains at the maximum negative level.

*When the input voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the output goes to its
maximum positive voltage, as shown in Figure 2–2(d) with a sinusoidal input.

Figure 2–2 Nonzero-level detectors.

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Example 2.1
The input signal in Figure 2–3(a) is applied to the comparator in Figure 2–
3(b). Draw the output showing its proper relationship to the input signal.
Assume the maximum output level of the comparator is14 V.

Solution
The reference voltage is set by R1 and R2 as follows:

As shown in Figure 2–4, each

time the input exceeds +1.63
V, the output voltage switches
to its + 14 V, level, and each
time the input goes below
+1.63 V the output switches
back to its -14 V level.

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Comparator Applications
Over-Temperature Sensing Circuit
*The circuit of Figure 2–5 consists of a Wheatstone bridge with the op-amp
used to detect when the bridge is balanced.

*The potentiometer (R2) is set at a value equal to the resistance of the

thermistor at the critical temperature. At normal temperatures (below critical),
R1 is greater than R2, thus creating an unbalanced condition that drives the
op-amp to its low saturated output level and keeps (npn) transistor Q1 off.

FIGURE 2–5 An over-temperature sensing circuit.

As the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases. When

the temperature reaches the critical value, R1 becomes equal to R2, and the
bridge becomes balanced (since R3=R4). At this point the op-amp switches to
its high saturated output level, turning Q1 on. This energizes the relay, which
can be used to activate an alarm or initiate an appropriate response to the over-
temperature condition.

Examples of Comparators ICs:

LM111 and LM311
Neighboring Figure is the Pin configuration
for LM111

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2.2 Summing Amplifiers
Summing Amplifier with Unity Gain
*It has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is proportional to the
negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages, Figure 2-6.

IT = I1 + I2

FIGURE 2–6 two-input inverting summing amplifier.

Since VOUT = -IT Rf, the following steps apply:

If all three of the resistors are equal (R1 = R2 = Rf = R), then

A general expression is given in Equation below for a unity-gain summing

amplifier with n inputs, as shown in Figure 2–7 where all resistors are equal
in value.
VOUT = - (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 + …… + VINn)

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 FIGURE 2–7 Summing amplifier with n inputs.

Example 2.5
Determine the output voltage in Figure 2–8.

Solution
VOUT = - (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3)
= - (3 V + 1V + 8V)
= - 12 V

Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater Than Unity

When Rf is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has a gain of Rf /R,
where R is the value of each equal-value input resistor:

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Example 2.6
Determine the output voltage for the summing amplifier in Figure 2–9.

Solution

Averaging Amplifier
A summing amplifier can be made to produce the mathematical average of the
input voltages. This is done by setting the ratio Rf /R equal to the reciprocal of
the number of inputs (n).

Example 2.7
Show that the amplifier in Figure 2–10 produces an output whose magnitude
is the mathematical average of the input voltages.

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Solution

Scaling Adder
A different weight can be assigned to each input of a summing amplifier by
simply adjusting the values of the input resistors. As you have seen, the output
voltage can be expressed as:

The weight of a particular input is set by the ratio of Rf to the resistance, Rx,
for that input (Rx = R1, R2, … Rn).

Example 2.8
Determine the weight of each input voltage for the scaling adder in Figure 2–
11 and find the output voltage.

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Solution

2.3 Integrators and Differentiators

An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration, which is basically

a summing process that determines the total area under the curve of a function.
An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical differentiation, which is a
process of determining the instantaneous rate of change of a function.

Op-Amp Integrator

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Example 2.10
a. Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to the
input square wave, as shown for the ideal integrator in Figure 2–13(a).
The output voltage is initially zero. The pulse width is 100 µs.
b. Describe the output and draw the waveform.

Solution
a. The rate of change of the output voltage during the time that the input
is at +2.5 V (capacitor charging) is:

Figure 2–13

The rate of change of the output during the time that the input is negative
(capacitor discharging) is the same as during charging except it is positive.

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b. When the input is at +2.5 V, the output is a negative-going ramp. When
the input is at -2.5 V, the output is a positive-going ramp.
∆ Vout = (25 mV/µs) (200 µs) = 5 V
During the time the input is at +2.5 V, the output will go from 0 to -5 V.
During the time the input is at -2.5 V, the output will go from -5 V to 0 V.
Therefore, the output is a triangular wave with peaks at 0 V and - 5 V, as
shown in Figure 2–13(b).

H.W.) Modify the integrator in Figure 2-13 to make the output change from 0
to -5V in 100 s with the same input.

The Practical Integrator The ideal integrator uses a capacitor in the feedback
path, which is open to dc. This implies that the gain at dc is the open-loop gain
of the op-amp.

In a practical integrator, any dc error voltage due to offset error will cause the
output to produce a ramp that moves toward either positive or negative
saturation (depending on the offset), even when no signal is present.

Practical integrators must have some means of overcoming the effects of

offset and bias current.

The simplest solution to this situation is to use a resistor in parallel with the
capacitor in the feedback path, as shown in Figure 2–14.

The feedback resistor, Rf, should be large compared to the input resistor Rin,
to have a negligible effect on the output waveform.

In addition, a compensating resistor, Rc, may be added to the noninverting

input to balance the effects of bias current.

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 Figure 2–14
The Op-Amp Differentiator
The Ideal Differentiator An ideal differentiator is shown in Figure 2–15.

*A differentiator produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change

of the input voltage.

Figure 2–15 an op-amp differentiator.

Example 2.11
Determine the output voltage of the ideal op-amp differentiator in Figure 2–
16 for the triangular-wave input shown.

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Solution
Starting at t = 0, the input voltage is a positive-going ramp ranging from -5 V
to +5 V (a +10 V change) in 5 µs. Then it changes to a negative-going ramp
ranging from +5 V to -5 V (a -10 V change) in 5 µs. The time constant is

Rf C = (2.2 kꭥ) (0.001 µF) = 2.2 µs

Determine the slope or rate of change (VC/t) of the positive-going ramp and
calculate the output voltage as follows:

Likewise, the slope of the negative-going ramp is -2V/µs, and the output
voltage is:
Vout = - (-2V/µs) 2.2 µs = +4.4 V

Figure 2–17 shows a graph of the output voltage waveform relative to the
input.

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 Figure 2–17

The Practical Differentiator The ideal differentiator uses a capacitor in series

with the inverting input. Because a capacitor has very low impedance at high
frequencies, the combination of Rf and C form a very high gain amplifier at
high frequencies. This means that a differentiator circuit tends to be noisy
because electrical noise mainly consists of high frequencies.
The solution to this problem is simply to add a resistor, Rin, in series with the
capacitor to act as a low-pass filter and reduce the gain at high frequencies.
The resistor should be small compared to the feedback resistor to have a
negligible effect on the desired signal. Figure 2–18 shows a practical
differentiator. A bias compensating resistor may also be used on the
noninverting input.

Figure 2–18
Dr. Ali Abed
2020
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