Operation amplifier:

An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential
(OPAMP) amplifiers and followed by a level translator and an output stage. An operational amplifier is
available as a single integrated circuit package.

The block diagram of OPAMP is shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1

The input stage is a dual input balanced output differential amplifier. This stage provides most of the
voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input resistance of the OPAMP.The intermediate
stage of OPAMP is another differential amplifier which is driven by the output of the first stage. This is
usually dual input unbalanced output.

Because direct coupling is used, the dc voltage level at the output of intermediate stage is well above
ground potential. Therefore level shifting circuit is used to shift the dc level at the output downward to zero
with respect to ground. The output stage is generally a push pull complementary amplifier. The output
stage increases the output voltage swing and raises the current supplying capability of the OPAMP. It
also provides low output resistance.

Level Translator:  

Because of the direct coupling the dc level at the emitter rises  

from stages to stage. This increase in dc level tends to shift
the operating point of the succeeding stages and therefore
 
limits the output voltage swing and may even distort the output
signal.
 
To shift the output dc level to zero, level translator circuits are
used. An emitter follower with voltage divider is the simplest  
form of level translator as shown in fig. 2.
 
Thus a dc voltage at the base of Q produces 0V dc at the
output. It is decided by R1 and R2. Instead of voltage divider  
emitter follower either with diode current bias or current mirror
bias as shown in fig. 3 may be used to get better results.  

In this case, level shifter, which is common collector amplifier,  

Fig. 2
shifts the level by 0.7V. If this shift is not sufficient, the output
may be taken at the junction of two resistors in the emitter leg.
 
 Fig. 3

Fig. 4, shows a complete OPAMP circuit having input different amplifiers with balanced output,
intermediate stage with unbalanced output, level shifter and an output amplifier.

Fig. 4

The symbolic diagram of an OPAMP is shown in fig. 1.

741c is most commonly used OPAMP available in IC package. It is an 8-pin DIP chip.

Parameters of OPAMP:

The various important parameters of OPAMP are follows:

1.Input Offset Voltage:

Input offset voltage is defined as the

voltage that must be applied between the
two input terminals of an OPAMP to null
or zero the output fig. 2, shows that two
dc voltages are applied to input terminals
to make the output zero.

Vio = Vdc1 – Vdc2

Vdc1 and Vdc2 are dc voltages and

RS represents the source resistance. Vio is
the difference of Vdc1 and Vdc2. It may be
positive or negative. For a 741C OPAMP
the maximum value of Vio is 6mV. It
means a voltage ± 6 mV is required to
one of the input to reduce the output Fig. 2
offset voltage to zero. The smaller the
input offset voltage the better the
differential amplifier, because its
transistors are more closely matched.

2. Input offset Current:

The input offset current Iio is the difference between the currents into inverting and non-inverting terminals
of a balanced amplifier.

Iio = |   IB1 – IB2 |

The Iio for the 741C is 200nA maximum. As the matching between two input terminals is improved, the
difference between IB1 and IB2 becomes smaller, i.e. the Iio value decreases further.For a precision
OPAMP 741C, Iio is 6 nA

3.Input Bias Current:

The input bias current IB is the average of the current entering the input terminals of a balanced amplifier
i.e.

IB = (IB1 + IB2 ) / 2

For 741C IB(max) = 700 nA and for precision 741C IB = ± 7 nA

4. Differential Input Resistance: (Ri)

Ri is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the inverting or non-inverting input terminal
with the other terminal grounded. For the 741C the input resistance is relatively high 2 MΩ. For some
OPAMP it may be up to 1000 G ohm.

5. Input Capacitance: (Ci)

Ci is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either the inverting and noninverting terminal
with the other terminal connected to ground. A typical value of C i is 1.4 pf for the 741C.

6. Offset Voltage Adjustment Range:

741 OPAMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are marked offset null for this purpose. It can
be done by connecting 10 K ohm pot between 1 and 5 as shown in fig. 3.

Fig. 3

By varying the potentiometer, output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero volts.
Thus the offset voltage adjustment range is the range through which the input offset voltage can be
adjusted by varying 10 K pot. For the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV.

7. Input Voltage Range :

Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for which a differential amplifier remains
linear. It is used to determine the degree of matching between the inverting and noninverting input
terminals. For the 741C, the range of the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum. This means
that the common mode voltage applied at both input terminals can be as high as +13V or as low as –13V.
8. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).  

CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain ACM

CMRR = Ad / ACM.

For the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically. The higher the value of CMRR the better is the matching between
two input terminals and the smaller is the output common mode voltage.

9. Supply voltage Rejection Ratio: (SVRR)

SVRR is the ratio of the change in the input offset voltage to the corresponding change in power supply
voltages. This is expressed in V / V or in decibels, SVRR can be defined as

SVRR = Vio /  V

Where  V is the change in the input supply voltage and Vio is the corresponding change in the offset
voltage.

For the 741C, SVRR = 150 µ V / V.

For 741C, SVRR is measured for both supply magnitudes increasing or decreasing simultaneously, with
R3 10K. For same OPAMPS, SVRR is separately specified as positive SVRR and negative SVRR.

10. Large Signal Voltage Gain:

Since the OPAMP amplifies difference voltage between two input terminals, the voltage gain of the
amplifier is defined as

Because output signal amplitude is much large than the input signal the voltage gain is commonly called
large signal voltage gain. For 741C is voltage gain is 200,000 typically.

11. Output voltage Swing:

The ac output compliance PP is the maximum unclipped peak to peak output voltage that an OPAMP can
produce. Since the quiescent output is ideally zero, the ac output voltage can swing positive or negative.
This also indicates the values of positive and negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP. The output
voltage never exceeds these limits for a given supply voltages +V CC and –VEE. For a 741C it is ± 13 V.

12. Output Resistance: (RO)

RO is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the output terminal of the OPAMP and the
ground. It is 75 ohm for the 741C OPAMP.

Example - 1
Determine the output voltage in each of the following cases for the open loop differential amplifier of fig.
4:

a. vin 1 = 5 m V dc, vin 2 = -7 µVdc

b. vin 1 = 10 mV rms, vin 2= 20 mV rms

Fig. 4

Specifications of the OPAMP are given below: 

A = 200,000, Ri = 2 M Ω , R O = 75Ω, + VCC = + 15 V, - VEE = - 15 V, and output voltage swing = ± 14V.

Solution:

(a). The output voltage of an OPAMP is given by

Remember that vo = 2.4 V dc with the assumption that the dc output voltage is zero when the input
signals are zero.

(b). The output voltage equation is valid for both ac and dc input signals. The output voltage is given by

Thus the theoretical value of output voltage vo = -2000 V rms. However, the OPAMP saturates at ± 14 V.
Therefore, the actual output waveform will be clipped as shown fig. 5. This non-sinusoidal waveform is
unacceptable in amplifier applications.
 Fig. 5

13. Output Short circuit Current :

In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately zero. Even its output
impedance is 75 ohm but cannot supply large currents. Since OPAMP is low power device and so its
output current is limited. The 741C can supply a maximum short circuit output current of only 25mA.

14. Supply Current :

IS is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP the supply current is 2.8 m
A.

15. Power Consumption:

Power consumption (PC) is the amount of quiescent power (v in= 0V) that must be consumed by the
OPAMP in order to operate properly. The amount of power consumed by the 741C is 85 m W.

16. Gain Bandwidth Product:

The gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the OPAMP when the open loop voltage gain is reduced
to 1. From open loop gain vs frequency graph At 1 MHz shown in. fig. 6, It can be found 1 MHz for the
741C OPAMP frequency the gain reduces to 1. The mid band voltage gain is 100, 000 and cut off
frequency is 10Hz.
 Fig. 6

17. Slew Rate:

Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time under large signal
conditions and is expressed in volts /  secs.

To understand this, consider a charging current of a capacitor shown in fig. 7.

Fig. 6

If 'i' is more, capacitor charges quickly. If 'i' is limited to I max, then rate of change is also limited.
Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an OPAMP can change in response to changes in the input
frequency with input amplitude constant. The slew rate changes with change in voltage gain and is
normally specified at unity gain.

If the slope requirement is greater than the slew rate, then distortion occurs. For the 741C the slew rate is
low 0.5 V / S. which limits its use in higher frequency applications.

18. Input Offset Voltage and Current Drift:

It is also called average temperature coefficient of input offset voltage or input offset current. The input
offset voltage drift is the ratio of the change in input offset voltage to change in temperature and
expressed in  V /° C. Input offset voltage drift = (  Vio /T).

Similarly, input offset current drift is the ratio of the change in input offset current to the change in
temperature. Input offset current drift = (  Iio / T).

For 741C,

 Vio /  T = 0.5  V / C. 

 Iio/  T = 12 pA / C.

xample - 1

A 100 PF capacitor has a maximum charging current of 150 µA. What is the slew rate?

Solution:

C = 100 PF=100 x 10-12 F 

I = 150 µA = 150 x 10-6 A

Slew rate is 1.5 V / µs.

Example - 2

An operational amplifier has a slew rate of 2 V / µs. If the peak output is 12 V, what is the power
bandwidth?

Solution:

The slew rate of an operational amplifier is

As for output free of distribution, the slews determines the maximum frequency of operation fmax for a
desired output swing.

so    
So bandwidth = 26.5 kHz.

Example - 3

For the given circuit in fig. 1. Iin(off) = 20 nA. If Vin(off) = 0, what is the differential input voltage?. If A = 10 5,
what does the output offset voltage equal?

Fig. 1

Solutin:

Iin(off) = 20 nA
Vin(off) = 0

(i) The differential input voltage = Iin(off) x 1k = 20 nA x 1 k = 20µ V

(ii) If A = 105 then the output offset voltage Vin(off) = 20 µ V x 105 = 2 volt

Output offset voltage = 2 volts.

The ideal OPAMP :

An ideal OPAMP would exhibit the following electrical characteristic.

1. Infinite voltage gain Ad

2. Infinite input resistance Ri, so that almost any signal source can drive it and there is no loading of
the input source.
3. Zero output resistance RO, so that output can drive an infinite number of other devices.
4. Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
 5. Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to infinite Hz can be amplified without
attenuation.
6. Infinite common mode rejection ratio so that the output common mode noise voltage is zero.
7. Infinite slew rate, so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage
changes.

There are practical OPAMPs that can be made to approximate some of these characters using a negative
feedback arrangement.

Equivalent Circuit of an OPAMP:

Fig. 5, shows an equivalent circuit of an OPAMP. v1 and v2are the two input voltage voltages. Ri is the
input impedance of OPAMP. AdVd is an equivalent Thevenin voltage source and RO is the Thevenin
equivalent impedance looking back into the terminal of an OPAMP.

Fig. 5

This equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing the basic operating principles of OPAMP and in observing the
effects of standard feedback arrangements

vO = Ad (v1 – v2) = Ad vd.

This equation indicates that the output voltage vO is directly proportional to the algebraic difference
between the two input voltages. In other words the OPAMP amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages. It does not amplify the input voltages themselves. The polarity of the output voltage depends on
the polarity of the difference voltage vd.

Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:

The graphic representation of the output equation is shown in fig. 6 in which the output voltage vO is
plotted against differential input voltage vd, keeping gain Ad constant.
 Fig. 6

The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltages. These saturation
voltages are specified for given values of supply voltages. This means that the output voltage is directly
proportional to the input difference voltage only until it reaches the saturation voltages and thereafter the
output voltage remains constant.

Thus curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output offset voltage is assumed to be
zero. If the curve is drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical because of very large values of A d.

Open loop OPAMP Configuration:

In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection, exists between input and output
terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not fedback in any form as part of the input signal.

In open loop configuration, The OPAMP functions as a high gain amplifier. There are three open loop
OPAMP configurations.

The Differential Amplifier:

Fig. 1, shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals v in1 and vin2 are applied to the
positive and negative input terminals.

Fig. 1
Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input signals, this configuration is called
the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc input signals. The source resistance
Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance R i. Therefore voltage drop across
these resistances can be assumed to be zero.

Therefore

v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2.

vo = Ad (vin1 – vin2 )

where, Ad is the open loop gain.

The Inverting Amplifier:

If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded then it is called
inverting amplifier.This configuration is shown in fig. 2.

v1= 0, v2 = vin.

vo = -Ad vin

Fig. 2

The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input 180 ° or is of
opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.

The non-inverting amplifier:  

In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and inverting terminal is ground
as shown in fig. 3.

v1 = +vin                  v2 = 0

vo = +Ad vin
This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at the output.

Fig. 3

In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation level.
This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP is either
negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels. Therefore
open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications.

Closed Loop Amplifier:

 The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if fedback is introduced in the circuit. That is, an output signal
is fedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the signal fedback is of opposite or out
phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative fedback.

An amplifier with negative fedback has a self-correcting ability of change in output voltage caused by
changes in environmental conditions. It is also known as degenerative fedback because it reduces the
output voltage and,in tern,reduces the voltage gain.

If the signal is fedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback. In positive
feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal. It is also known as regenerative feedback. Positive
feedback is necessary in oscillator circuits.

The negative fedback stabilizes the gain, increases the bandwidth and changes, the input and output
resistances. Other benefits are reduced distortion and reduced offset output voltage. It also reduces the
effect of temperature and supply voltage variation on the output of an op-amp.

A closed loop amplifier can be represented by two blocks one for an OPAMP and other for a feedback
circuits. There are four following ways to connect these blocks. These connections are shown in fig. 4.

These connections are classified according to whether the voltage or current is feedback to the input in
series or in parallel:

 Voltage – series feedback

 Voltage – shunt feedback
 Current – series feedback
 Current – shunt feedback
 Fig. 4

In all these circuits of fig. 4, the signal direction is from input to output for OPAMP and output to input for
feedback circuit. Only first two, feedback in circuits are important.

Voltage series feedback:

It is also called non-inverting voltage feedback circuit. With this type of feedback, the input signal drives
the non-inverting input of an amplifier; a fraction of the output voltage is then fed back to the inverting
input. The op-amp is represented by its symbol including its large signal voltage gain A d or A, and the
feedback circuit is composed of two resistors R1 and Rf. as shown in fig. 5
 Fig. 5

The feedback voltage always opposes the input voltage, (or is out of phase by 180° with respect to input
voltage), hence the feedback is said to be negative.

The closed loop voltage gain is given by

The product A and B is called loop gain. The gain loop gain is very large such that AB >> 1

This shows that overall voltage gain of the circuit equals the reciprocal of B, the feedback gain. It means
that closed loop gain is no longer dependent on the gain of the op-amp, but depends on the feedback of
the voltage divider. The feedback gain B can be precisely controlled and it is independent of the amplifier.

Physically, what is happening in the circuit? The gain is approximately constant, even though differential
voltage gain may change. Suppose A increases for some reasons (temperature change). Then the output
voltage will try to increase. This means that more voltage is fedback to the inverting input, causing
vd voltage to decrease. This almost completely offset the attempted increases in output voltage.

Similarly, if A decreases, The output voltage decreases. It reduces the feedback voltage v f and hence,
vd voltage increases. Thus the output voltage increases almost to same level.
Different Input voltage is ideally zero.

Again considering the voltage equation,

           vO = Ad vd

 or       vd = vO / Ad

Since Ad is very large (ideally infinite)

vd  0.

and    v1 = v2 (ideal).

This says, that the voltage at non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp is approximately equal to that at
the inverting input terminal provided that Ad is very large. This concept is useful in the analysis of closed
loop OPAMP circuits. For example, ideal closed loop voltage again can be obtained using the results

nput Resistance with Feedback:

fig. 1, shows a voltage series feedback with the OPAMP equivalent circuit.

Fig. 1
In this circuit Ri is the input resistance (open loop) of the OPAMP and Rif is the input resistance of the
feedback amplifier. The input resistance with feedback is defined as

Since AB is much larger than 1, which means that Rif is much larger that Ri. Thus Rif approaches infinity
and therefore, this amplifier approximates an ideal voltage amplifier.

Output Resistance with Feedback:

Output resistance is the resistance determined looking back into the feedback amplifier from the output
terminal. To find output resistance with feedback Rf, input vin is reduced to zero, an external voltage Vo is
applied as shown in fig. 2.

Fig. 2

The output resistance (Rof ) is defined as

This shows that the output resistance of the voltage series feedback amplifier is ( 1 / 1+AB ) times the
output resistance Ro of the op-amp. It is very small because (1+AB) is very large. It approaches to zero
for an ideal voltage amplifier.

Reduced Non-linear Distortion:

 The final stage of an OPAMP has non-linear distortion when the signal swings over most of the ac load
line. Large swings in current cause the r'e of a transistor to change during the cycle. In other words, the
open loop gain varies throughout the cycle of when a large signal is being applied. It is this changing
voltage gain that is a source of the non-linear distortion.

Noninverting voltage feedback reduces non-linear distortion because the feedback stabilizes the closed
loop voltage gain, making it almost independent of the changes in open loop voltage gain. As long as loop
gain, is much greater than 1, the output voltage equals 1/B times the input voltage. This implies that
output will be a more faithful reproduction of the input .

Consider, under large signal conditions, the open loop OPAMP circuit produces a distortion voltage,
designated vdist. It can be represented by connecting a source vdist in series with Avd. Without negative
feedback all the distortion voltage vdist appears at the output. But with negative feedback, a fraction of
vdist is feedback to inverting input. This is amplified and arrives at the output with inverted phase almost
completely canceling the original distortion produced by the output stage.

The first term is the amplified output voltage. The second term in the distortion that appears at the final
output. The distortion voltage is very much, reduced because AB>>1
Bandwidth with Feedback:

The bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the band of frequencies for which the gain remains
constant. Fig. 3, shows the open loop gain vs frequency curve of 741C OPAMP. From this curve for a
gain of 2 x 105 the bandwidth is approximately 5Hz. On the other hand, the bandwidth is approximately
1MHz when the gain is unity.

Fig. 3

The frequency at which gain equals 1 is known as the unity gain bandwidth. It is the maximum frequency
the OPAMP can be used for. 
Furthermore, the gain bandwidth product obtained from the open loop gain vs frequency curve is equal to
the unity gain bandwidth of the OPAMP. 
Since the gain bandwidth product is constant obviously the higher the gain the smaller the bandwidth and
vice versa. If negative feedback is used gain decrease from A to A / (1+AB). Therefore the closed loop
bandwidth increases by (1+AB).

Bandwidth with feedback = (1+ A B) x (B.W. without feedback)

ff= fo (1+A B)

output Offset Voltage:

In an OPAMP even if the input voltage is zero
an output voltage can exist. There are three
cause of this unwanted offset voltage.

1. Input offset voltage.

2. Input bias voltage.
3. Input offset current.

Fig. 4, shows a feedback amplifier with an

output offset voltage source in series with the
open loop output AVd. The actual output offset
voltage with negative feedback is smaller. The
reasoning is similar to that given for distortion.
Some of the output offset voltage is fed back
to the inverting input. After amplification an out
of phase voltage arrives at the output
canceling most of the original output offset
voltage.

When loop gain AB is much greater than 1, the Fig. 4

closed loop output offset voltage is much
smaller than the open loop output offset
voltage.

Voltage Follower:

The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1. When the non-
inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is called voltage follower because the output voltage is equal to the
input voltage and in phase with the input voltage. In other words the output voltage follows the input
voltage.

To obtain voltage follower, R1 is open circuited and Rf is shorted in a negative feedback amplifier of fig. 4.
The resultant circuit is shown in fig. 5.

vout = Avd= A (v1 – v2)

v1 = vin

v2 =vout

v1 = v2 if A >> 1

vout = vin.

The gain of the feedback circuit (B) is 1. Therefore

Af = 1 / B = 1
Fig. 5
Voltage shunt Feedback:

Fig. 1, shows the voltage shunt feedback amplifier using OPAMP.

Fig. 1

The input voltage drives the inverting terminal, and the amplified as well as inverted output signal is also
applied to the inverting input via the feedback resistor Rf. This arrangement forms a negative feedback
because any increase in the output signal results in a feedback signal into the inverting input signal
causing a decrease in the output signal. The non-inverting terminal is grounded. Resistor R 1 is connected
in series with the source.

The closed loop voltage gain can be obtained by, writing Kirchoff's current equation at the input node V 2.
The negative sign in equation indicates that the input and output signals are out of phase by 180.
Therefore it is called inverting amplifier. The gain can be selected by selecting R f and R1 (even < 1).

Inverting Input at Virtual Ground:

In the fig. 1, shown earlier, the noninverting terminal is grounded and the- input signal is applied to the
inverting terminal via resistor R1. The difference input voltage vd is ideally zero, (vd= vO/ A) is the voltage at
the inverting terminals (v2) is approximately equal to that of the noninverting terminal (v 1). In other words,
the inverting terminal voltage (v1) is approximately at ground potential. Therefore, it is said to be at virtual
ground.

Input Resistance with Feedback:

To find the input resistance Miller
equivalent of the feedback resistor Rf,
is obtained, i.e. Rf is splitted into its
two Miller components as shown
in fig. 2. Therefore, input resistance
with feedback Rif is then

Fig. 2

Output Resistance with Feedback:

The output resistance with feedback

Rof is the resistance measured at the
output terminal of the feedback
amplifier. The output resistance can be
obtained using Thevenin's equivalent
circuit,shown in fig. 3.

iO = ia + ib

Since RO is very small as compared to

Rf +(R1 || R2 )

Therefore,i.e. iO= ia

vO = RO iO + A vd.

vd= vi – v2 = 0 - B vO

Fig. 3

Similarly, the bandwidth increases by

(1+ AB) and total output offset voltage
reduces by (1+AB).

Example - 1
(a).An inverting amplifier is implemented with R 1 = 1K and Rf = 100 K. Find the percentge change in the
closed loop gain A is the open       loop gain a changes from 2 x 105 V / V to 5 x 104 V/V. 
(b) Repeat, but for a non-inverting amplifier with R1 = 1K at Rf = 99 K.

Solution: (a). Inverting amplifier

Here      Rf = 100 K

              R1 = 1K

When, 

(b) Non-inverting amplifier

Here      Rf = 99 K
              R1 = 1K

                

Example - 2

An inverting amplifier shown in fig. 4 with R1 = 10Ω and R2 = 1MΩ is driven by a source v1 = 0.1 V. Find
the closed loop gain A, the percentage division of A from the ideal value - R 2 / R1, and the inverting input
voltage VN for the cases A = 100 V/V, 105 and 105 V/V.
Solution:

we have 

when A = 103, 

Fig. 4
                     

Example - 3

Find VN, V1 and VO for the circuit shown in fig. 5.

Solution:

Applying KCL at N 

                 
or                2VN + VN = VO.

                         
Now         VO - Vi = 6 as point A and N are virtually shorted.
                   VO - VN = 6 V 
Therefore,  VO = VN + 6 V

Fig. 5

             
Therefore, VN = Vi = 3 V.

Analog Inverter and Scale Changer:

The circuit of analog inverter is shown in fig. 1. It is same as inverting voltage amplifier.

Assuming OPAMP to be an ideal one, the

differential input voltage is zero.

i.e. vd = 0 
Therefore, v1 = v2 = 0

Since input impedance is very high, therefore,

input current is zero. OPAMP do not sink any
current.

 iin= if
vin / R = - vO / Rf
vo = - (Rf / R) vin

If R = Rf then vO = -vin, the circuit behaves like an

inverter. Fig. 1

If Rf / R = K (a constant) then the circuit is called

inverting amplifier or scale changer voltages.

Inverting summer:

The configuration is shown in fig. 2. With three input voltages va, vb & vc. Depending upon the value of
Rf and the input resistors Ra, Rb, Rc the circuit can be used as a summing amplifier, scaling amplifier, or
averaging amplifier.
Again, for an ideal OPAMP, v1 = v2.
The current drawn by OPAMP is zero.
Thus, applying KCL at v2 node

This means that the output voltage is

equal to the negative sum of all the
inputs times the gain of the circuit Rf/
R; hence the circuit is called a
summing amplifier. When Rf= R then
the output voltage is equal to the Fig. 2
negative sum of all inputs.

vo= -(va+ vb+ vc)

If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor in other words weighted differently at the output, the
circuit is called then scaling amplifier.

The circuit can be used as an averaging circuit, in which the output voltage is equal to the average of all
the input voltages.

In this case, Ra= Rb= Rc = R and Rf / R = 1 / n where n is the number of inputs. Here R f / R = 1 / 3.

vo = -(va+ vb + vc) / 3

In all these applications input could be either ac or dc.

Noninverting configuration:

If the input voltages are connected to noninverting input through resistors, then the circuit can be used as
a summing or averaging amplifier through proper selection of R 1, R2, R3 and Rf. as shown in fig. 3.
To find the output voltage expression, v1 is
required. Applying superposition theorem, the
voltage v1 at the noninverting terminal is given by

Hence the output voltage is

Fig. 3

This shows that the output is equal to the average of all input voltages times the gain of the circuit (1+ R f /
R1), hence the name averaging amplifier.

If (1+Rf/ R1) is made equal to 3 then the output voltage becomes sum of all three input voltages.

vo = v a + vb+ vc

Hence, the circuit is called summing amplifier.

Example - 1

Find the gain of VO / Vi of the circuit of fig. 4.

Solution:

Current entering at the inveting

terminal  .

Applying KCL to node 1,

Applying KCL to node 2,

Thus the gain A = -8 V / VO

Differential Amplifier:

The basic differential amplifier is shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Since there are two inputs superposition theorem can be used to find the output voltage. When V b= 0,
then the circuit becomes inverting amplifier, hence the output due to V a only is

Vo(a) = -(Rf / R1) Va

Similarly when, Va = 0, the configuration is a inverting amplifier having a voltage divided network at the
noninverting input
ntegrator:

A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage waveform is called
integrator. Fig. 4, shows an integrator circuit using OPAMP.

Fig. 4

Here, the feedback element is a capacitor. The current drawn by OPAMP is zero and also the V 2 is
virtually grounded.

Therefore, i1 = if and v2 = v1 = 0

Integrating both sides with respect to time from 0 to t, we get

The output voltage is directly proportional to the negative integral of the input voltage and inversely
proportional to the time constant RC.

If the input is a sine wave the output will be cosine wave. If the input is a square wave, the output will be a
triangular wave. For accurate integration, the time period of the input signal T must be longer than or
equal to RC.

Fig. 5, shows the output of integrator for square and sinusoidal inputs.

Fig. 5

Example - 3

Prove that the network shown in fig. 6 is a non-inverting integrator with  .
Solution:

The voltage at point A is vO / 2 and it is also the voltage

at point B because different input voltage is negligible.

vB = VO / 2

Therefore, applying Node current equation at point B,

Differentator:

A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the differentiation of input voltage is called
differentiator.as shown in fig. 1.

 
Fig. 1

The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from the Kirchoff's current equation written at node
v2.
Thus the output vo is equal to the RC times the
negative instantaneous rate of change of the
input voltage vin with time. A cosine wave input
produces sine output. fig. 1 also shows the
output waveform for different input voltages.

The input signal will be differentiated properly

if the time period T of the input signal is larger
than or equal to Rf C.

T Rf C

As the frequency changes, the gain changes.

Also at higher frequencies the circuit is highly
susceptible at high frequency noise and noise
gets amplified. Both the high frequency noise
and problem can be corrected by additing, few
Fig. 2
components. as shown in fig. 2.

Voltage to current converter:

Fig. 3, shows a voltage to current converter in which load resistor RL is floating (not connected to ground).

The input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage across R drives
the inverting input terminal. This circuit is also called a current series negative feedback, amplifier
because the feedback voltage across R depends on the output current i L and is in series with the input
difference voltage vd.
Writing the voltage equation for the input
loop.

vin = vd + vf

But vd » since A is very large,therefore,

vin = vf 
vin = R iin
iin = v in / R.

and since input current is zero.

iL = iin = vin ./ R

The value of load resistance does not

appear in this equation. Therefore, the
output current is independent of the value of
load resistance. Thus the input voltage is
converted into current, the source must be Fig. 3
capable of supplying this load current.

Grounded Load:

If the load has to be grounded, then the above circuit cannot be used. The modified circuit is shown in fig.
4.

Since the collector and emitter currents are equal to a

close approximation and the input impedance of OPAMP
is very high,the load current also flows through the
feedback resistor R. On account of this, there is still
current feedback, which means that the load current is
stabilized.

Since vd= 0 
 v2 = v1 = vin
 iout = (vCC– vin ) / R

Thus the load current becomes nearly equal to iout. There

is a limit to the output current that the circuit can supply.
The base current in the transistor equals      iout /dc.
Since the op-amp has to supply this base current
iout /dcmust be less than Iout (max) of the op-amp,
typically 10 to 15mA.

There is also a limit on the output voltage, as the load

resistance increases, the load voltage increases and then
the transistor goes into saturation. Since the emitter is at
Vin w. r. t. ground, the maximum load voltage is slightly Fig. 4
less than Vin.
In this circuit, because of negative feedback VBEis automatically adjusted. For instance, if the load
resistance decreases the load current tries to increase. This means that more voltage is feedback to the
inverting input, which decreases VBE just enough to almost completely nullify the attempted increase in
load current. From the output current expression it is clear that as V in increases the load current
decreases.

urrent to voltage converter:

  The circuit shown in fig. 1, is a current to voltage converter.

Fig. 1

Due to virtual ground the current through R is zero and the input current flows through R f. Therefore,

vout =-Rf * iin

The lower limit on current measure with this circuit is set by the bias current of the inverting input.

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