OP-AMP AND AMPLIFIER

Name : Sachlang Debbarma

Enrollment No.: 19UEE065
Section: B
What is an Operational Amplifier?
• An Operational Amplifier (known as an “Op-Amp”) is a device that is used to
amplify a signal using an external power source
• Op-Amps are generally composed of: › Transistors, Resistors, Capacitors
Operational Amplifiers Contruction

Operational Amplifier Schematic

The terminal with a (-) sign is called inverting input terminal and the terminal with (+) sign is
called non-inverting input terminal.

The V+ and V− power supply terminals are connected to the positive and negative
terminals of a DC voltage source respectively. The common terminal of the V+ and V−
is connected to a reference point or ground, else twice the supply voltage may
damage the op-amp.
Operational Amplifier Types
An op-amp has countless applications and forms the basic building block of linear and non-
linear analogue systems. Some of the types of op-amp include:
•A differential amplifier, which is a circuit that amplifies the difference between two signals.
•The instrumentation amplifier, which is usually built from three op-amps and helps amplify
the output of a transducer (consisting of measured physical quantities).
•The isolation amplifier, which is like an instrumentation amplifier, but having tolerance to
common-mode voltages (that destroy an ordinary op-amp).
•A negative-feedback amplifier, which is usually built from one or more op-amps and a
resistive feedback network.

•Power amplifiers to amplify small signals received from an input source such as
microphone or antenna.

Op-Amp Operation
Ideally, an op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, also called
differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp Vout is given by the equation:
Vout = AOL (V+ – V–)
where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier.
In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor, known as the
amplifier’s gain (A) multiplied by the value of the input signal.
Op-Amp Parameters
•Open-loop gain is the gain without positive or negative feedback. Ideally, the gain should be
infinite, but typical real values range from about 20,000 to 200,000 ohms.

•Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current. It is assumed to be infinite to
prevent any current flowing from the source to the amplifiers.

•The output impedance of an ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be zero. This

impedance is in series with the load, thereby increasing the output available for the load.

•The bandwidth of an ideal operational amplifier is infinite and can amplify any frequency
signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies. However, typical bandwidth is limited by the
Gain-Bandwidth product, which is equal to the frequency where the amplifier’s gain
becomes unity.

•The ideal output of an amplifier is zero when the voltage difference between the inverting
and the non-inverting inputs is zero. Real world amplifiers do exhibit a small output offset
voltage.
Some other important electrical parameters to consider are:

•Input offset voltage: It is the voltage that must be applied between the input
terminals of an op-amp to nullify the output.
•Input offset current: It is the algebraic difference between the currents into the (-) input and
(+) input.
•Input bias current: It is the average of the currents entering into the (-) input and (+) input
terminals of an op-amp.
•Input resistance: It is the differential input resistance as seen at either of the input terminals
with the other terminal connected to ground.
•Input capacitance: It is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either of the input
terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.
•Slew rate: It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step
input voltage. The slew rate improves with higher closed loop gain and DC supply voltage. It is
also a function to temperature and generally decreases with an increase in temperature
Negative Feedback and Closed-Loop Gain
In an operational amplifier, negative feedback is implemented by feeding a portion of the output signal
through an external feedback resistor and back to the inverting input

 Negative Feedback with Inverting Operational Amplifier

Negative feedback is used to stabilize the gain. By using a negative feedback, the closed-loop gain can be
determined via external feedback components that can have higher accuracy compared to the operational
amplifier’s internal components. This is because the internal op amp components may vary substantially due to
process shifts, temperature changes, voltage changes, and other factors. The closed-loop gain can be calculated
with :
Operational Amplifier Configuration Topologies
There are several different op amp circuits, each differing in function. The most common topologies
are described below.

Voltage follower
The most basic operational amplifier circuit is a voltage follower . This circuit does not generally require external
components, and provides high input impedance and low output impedance, which makes it a useful buffer.
Because the voltage input and output are equal, changes to the input produce equivalent changes to the output
voltage.
VOUT= V IN
Inverting operational amplifier
In inverting operational amplifiers, the op amp forces the negative terminal to equal the positive terminal,
which is commonly ground. Therefore, the input current is determined by the V IN / R1 ratio

 Inverting Operational Amplifier

In this configuration, the same current flows through R2 to the output. Ideally, current does not flow into the
operational amplifier’s negative terminal due to its high Z IN. The current flowing from the negative terminal
through R2 creates an inverted voltage polarity with respect to V IN. This is why these op amps are labeled
with an inverting configuration. Note that the op amp’s output can only swing between its positive and
negative supplies, so creating a negative output voltage requires an op amp with a negative supply rail.
VOUT can be calculated with
Non-inverting operational amplifier
In a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input signal from the source is connected to the non-inverting (+)
terminal .

 Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier forces the inverting (-) terminal voltage to equal the input voltage, which creates a
current flow through the feedback resistors. The output voltage is always in phase with the input voltage, which is
why this topology is known as non-inverting. Note that with a non-inverting amplifier, the voltage gain is always
greater than 1, which is not always the case with the inverting configurations. VOUT can be calculated with  
Voltage comparator
An operational amplifier voltage comparator compares voltage inputs, and drives the output to the supply rail of
whichever input is higher. This configuration is considered open-loop operation because there is no feedback.
Voltage comparators have the benefit of operating much faster than the closed-loop topologies discussed above

Voltage Comparator