Current Electricity
1. Electric current. The flow of electric
charges through a conductor
constitutes electric current.
Quantitatively, electric current across
an area held perpendicular to the
direction of flow of charge is defined
as the amount of charge flowing across
that area per unit time.For a steady
𝑄 the potential difference applied across the
flow of charge, 𝐼 =
𝑡
If the rate of flow of charge varies with
time, then
∆𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝐼 = lim = 5. 𝑹 = 𝝆 𝑨 , 𝜌 =
∆𝑡→0 ∆t 𝑑𝑡
SI unit of current is ampere (A).
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 = 𝑜𝑟 𝟏𝑨 =
𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
−𝟏
𝟏𝑪𝒔 .
2. electromotive force(emf). The emf of a
source may be defined as the work done
by the source in taking a unit positive
charge from its lower potential terminal
to the higher potential terminal. Or, it is
the energy supplied by the source in
taking a unit positive charge once round
the complete circuit. It is equal to the
terminal p. d. measured in open circuit.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑾
EMF= 𝒐𝒓 𝝃 =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒒
3. Ohm’s law. The current flowing through a
con doctor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends.
Provided the temperature and other
physical conditions remain unchanged.
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𝑽
𝑽 ∝ 𝑰 𝒐𝒓 𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰 𝒐𝒓 =𝑹
𝑰
Here R is called the resistance of the
conductor.
4. Resistance. It is the property by virtue of
which a conductor opposes the flow of
charges through it. It is equal to the ratio of
conductor to the current flowing through it.
It depends on the length 𝑙 and area of cross-
section A of the conductor through the
relation:
𝒍
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙. 5. SI
unit of resistance is ohm (𝛀). The
resistance of a conductor is 1 ohm if
a current of 1 ampere flows through
it on applying a potential difference
of 1 volt across its ends.
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
1 ohm = 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝛀 = 𝟏𝑽𝑨−𝟏
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
6. resistivity or specific resistance. It is
the resistance offered by a unit cube of
the material of a conductor.
𝑹𝑨
𝝆= 𝒍
SI unit of 𝜌 = Ω𝑚
It depends on the nature of the
material of the conductor and the
physical conditions like temperature,
pressure, etc.
7. current density. It is the amount of charge
flowing per second per unit area normal
to the flow of charge. It is a vector
quantity having the same direction as that
of the motion of the positive charge.
For normal flow of charge,
𝒂/𝒕 𝑰
𝒋= 𝑨 =𝑨
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 In general, 𝐼 = 𝑗𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐽⃗. 𝐴⃗ resistance per unit original resistance
SI unit of current density = 𝐴𝑚−2. per degree rise in temperature. It is
8. conductance. It is the reciprocal of given by
resistance. 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏
𝜶=
𝟏
Conductance = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑹𝟏 (𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )
𝟏
If 𝑡1 = 0℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 = 𝑡℃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
Or 𝑮=𝑹 𝑹 −𝑹
𝒂 = 𝑹𝒕 ×𝒕𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝒕)
SI unit of conductance = 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 = 𝟎
The unit of 𝛼 is 0𝐶 −1 or 𝐾 −1 .
𝑚ℎ𝑜 = 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛(𝑆).
13. Mobility of a charge carrier. The mobility
9. conductivity or specific conductance. It is
of a charge carrier is the drift velocity
the reciprocal of resistivity.
𝟏 acquired by it in a unit electric field. It is
conductivity = give by
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝟏 𝒗𝒅 𝒒𝝉
Or 𝝈= 𝝁= =
𝝆 𝑬 𝒎
SI unit of conductivity = 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1 = For an electron, 𝜇𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑒𝜏
𝑚𝑒
𝑚ℎ𝑜 𝑚−1 = 𝑆𝑚−1 𝑒𝜏ℎ
10. Drift velocity and relaxation time. For a hole, 𝜇ℎ = 𝑚ℎ
The average velocity acquired by the free SI unit of mobility = 𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
electrons of a conductor in the opposite Practical unit of mobility = 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
direction of the externally applied electric 14. Relation between electric current
field is called drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 ). The average and mobility.
time that elapses between the two For a conductor, 𝐼 = 𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝜇𝑒 𝐸
successive collisions of an electron is called For a semiconductor,
relaxation time (𝜏). 𝑰 = 𝒆 𝑨𝑬 (𝒏 𝝁𝒆 + 𝒑𝝁𝒉 )
𝒆𝑬𝝉 𝒎𝒍 𝒎 And 𝝈 = 𝒆(𝒏 𝝁𝒆 + 𝒑𝝁𝒉 )
𝒗𝒅 = ;𝑹 = 𝟐 ;𝝆 = 𝟐 ;
𝒎 𝒏𝒆 𝝉𝑨 𝒏𝒆 𝝉 Where n and p are the electron and
𝑰 = 𝒆𝒏 𝑨𝒗𝒅 ; 𝑱 = 𝒆𝒏𝒗𝒅 hole densities.
Here n=no. of free electrons per unit 15. Resistances in series. When a number
volume or free electron density and m of resistances are connected in series,
= mass of an electron. their equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑠 ) is
11. Other forms of Ohm’s law. In terms of equal to the sum of the individual
vector quantities like current density 𝐽⃗ resistances.
and electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , Ohm’s law may be 𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯
expressed as 16. Resistances in parallel. When a
𝑱⃗ = 𝝈𝑬
⃗⃗ 𝒐𝒓 ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝝆𝒋⃗ number of resistances are connected
The equation 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑗⃗ leads to another in parallel, the reciprocal of their
statement of Ohm’s law i.e., a equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑝 ) is equal to
conducing material obeys Ohm’s law the sum of the reciprocals of the
when the resistivity of the material individual resistances.
does not depend on the magnitude 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
and direction of the applied electric 𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
field. For two resistances in parallel,
12. Temperature coefficient of resistance 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝒑 =
(a). it is defined as the change in 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

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 17. Division of current in resistors joined For maximum current, the external
in parallel. The current is divided in resistance must be equal to the total
resistors, connected in parallel, in the internal resistance, i.e.,
inverse ratio of their resistances. 𝒏𝒓
𝑹=
𝑹𝟐 𝒎
𝑰𝟏 = .𝑰 Or
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐 𝒎𝑹 = 𝒏𝒓.
𝑰𝟐 = .𝑰 22. Joule's law of heating. It states that
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
18. Relations between emf (𝝃), terminal the amount of heat H produced in a
potential difference (V) and internal resistor is
resistance (r). The potential drop across (i) directly proportional to the square
the terminals of a cell when a current is of current for a given R,
being drawn from it is called its terminal (ii) directly proportional to the
potential difference. It is less than the emf resistance R for a given I,
of the cell in a closed circuit. (iii) inversely proportional to the
𝜉𝑅 resistance R for a given V, and
𝜉 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟; 𝑉𝜉 − 𝐼𝑟; 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (iv) directly proportional to the time t
𝑅+𝑟
𝜉−𝑉 𝜉−𝑉 for which the current flows through
𝑟= = 𝑅[ ];𝐼 the resistor.
𝐼 𝑉
𝜉 𝜉 Mathematically, this law can be
= ; 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = expressed as 𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑅+𝑟 𝑟
𝑉 2𝑡
= 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙 = 𝑅
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Terminal p.d. of a cell when it is being 𝑉𝐼𝑡
charged is Or 𝐻 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙
4.18
𝑽 = 𝝃 + 𝑰𝒓, 𝑽 > 𝝃 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 𝑽𝟐 𝒕
= 𝟒.𝟏𝟖 𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟒.𝟏𝟖 𝑹 𝒄𝒂𝒍.
19. Cells in series. If n cells of emf 𝜉 and
23. Electric power. It is the rate at which an
internal resistance r each are connected in
electric appliance converts electric energy
series,-then current drawn through external
into other forms of energy. Or, it is the
resistance R is
𝒏𝝃 rate at which work is done by a source of
𝑰= emf in maintaining an electric current
𝑹 + 𝒏𝒓
20. Cells in parallel. If m cells are through a circuit. Electric power,
connected in parallel, then current 𝑾 𝑽𝟐
𝒑= = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
drawn through external resistance R is 𝒕 𝑹
𝒎𝝃 24. SI unit of power is watt. The power
𝑰= of an appliance is one watt if one ampere of
𝒎𝑹 + 𝒓
21. Cells in mixed grouping. If n cells are current flows through it on applying a
connected in series in each row and m potential difference of 1 volt across it.
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
such rows are connected in parallel, 1 watt =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
then current drawn through an = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 × 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
external resistance R is Or 1W = 1 𝐽𝑠 −1 = 1𝑉𝐴
𝒎𝒏𝝃 𝟏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 (𝒌𝑾) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾.
𝑰=
𝒎𝑹 + 𝒏𝒓 25. Electric energy. It is the total work
done in maintaining an electric current
in an electric circuit for a given time.

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 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
= 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡
31.
= 𝑽𝑰 𝒕 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
26. Units of electric energy. The
commercial unit of electric energy is
kilowatt-hour (kWh) or Board of trade
(B.O.T) unit. It is the electric energy
consumed by an appliance of power
1000 watt in one hour.
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 1000𝑊ℎ
= 1000 𝑊 × 3600𝑠 = 3.6 × 106 𝐽
Another unit of electric energy is watt
hour.
1 watt hour = 1 watt × 1hour
=3.6× 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱.
27. Power rating. The power rating of an
electrical appliance is the electrical
energy consumed per second by the
appliance when connected across the
marked voltage of the mains.
𝑽𝟐
𝑷= = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑹
28. power consumed by a series
combination of appliance. The reciprocal
of the effective power is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual powers
of the appliances which have been
manufactured for working, on the same
voltage.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝑷 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑
29. Power consumed by a parallel
combination of appliances. The effective
power is equal to the sum of the powers
of the individual appliances.
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + ⋯
30. Efficiency of a source of emf. It is the
ratio of the output power to the input
power. If a source of emf 𝜉 and internal
resistance r is connected to an external
resistance, then its efficiency will be
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
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𝑽𝑰 𝑽 𝑹
= 𝝃𝑰
= 𝝃
= 𝑹+𝒓.
Maximum Power Theorem. It states
that the output power of a source of
emf is maximum when the external
resistance in the circuit is equal to
internal resistance of the circuit i.e.,
when 𝑅 = 𝑟.
𝝃𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟒𝒓
The efficiency of source of emf is 50%
when it delivers maximum power.
32. Efficiency of an electric device. It is
the ratio of the output power to the
input power.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(i) for an electric motor,
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(ii) Input electric power
= 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
+ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
The power output of an electric motor
is maximum when its back emf is one-
half the source emf, provided the
resistance of the windings of the
motor is negligible.
33. Kirchhoff's laws. These laws enable us
to determine the currents and voltages
in different parts of the electrical
circuits.
First law or junction rule. In an electric
circuit, the algebraic sum of currents at
any junction is zero. Or, the sum of
currents entering a junction is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving that
junction.
Mathematically,
Justification. This law is based on the
law of conservation of charge. When
the currents in a circuit are steady,
charges cannot accumulate or
originate at any point of the circuit.
4
 Second law or loop rule. Around any 35. Slide wire bridge or metre bridge. It
loop of a network, the sum of changes is an application of wheatstone
in potential must be zero. Or, the bridge in which R is fixed and a
algebraic of the emfs in any loop of a balance point is obtained by varying
circuit is equal to the sum of the P and Q i.e., by adjusting the position
products of currents and resistances in of a jockey on a 100 cm long
it. resistance wire stretched between
∑𝚫𝑽 = 𝟎 two terminals. If the balance point is
obtained at length Z, then
𝑃 𝑅 𝑙
𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝜉 = ∑ 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑆 = 100−𝑙
𝑄
Justification. This law is based on the 100−𝑙
Or 𝑆=( 𝑙
)𝑅
law of conservation of energy. As the 𝑆𝐴
electrostatic force is a conservative Resistivity, 𝜌 =
𝑙
force, the total work done by it along 𝑺×𝝅𝒓𝟐
= 𝒍
any closed path must be zero.
34. Potentiometer. It is a device used to
compare emfs of two sources. Its working
is based on the principle that when a
constant current flows through a wire of
uniform cross- sectional area and
composition, the p.d. across any length of
the wire is directly proportional to that
length.
𝑉∝𝑙
Or
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑙
where k is the potential drop per unit
length which is called potential
gradient. Potentiometer has two main
uses.
(i) To compare the emfs of two cells. If
𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are the balancing lengths of
the potentiometer wire for the cells of
emfs 6 , and 62 respectively, then
𝝃𝟐 𝒍𝟐
=
𝝃𝟏 𝒍𝟏
(ii) To find the internal resistance r of
a cell. If f is the balancing length of the
potentiometer wire without shunt and
l2 the balancing length with shunt R
across the cell, then internal resistance
of the cell will be
𝝃−𝑽 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
𝒓= ×𝑹= ×𝑹
𝑽 𝒍𝟐

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