Electric Charges and field

1. Basic quantum of charge. The smallest amount 5. Electrostatic force vs. gravitational force.
of charge or the basic quantum of charge is the Electrostatic forces are much stronger than
n charge on an electron or proton. Its exact gravitational forces. The ratio of the electric force
magnitude is and gravitational force between a proton
𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 and an electron is
𝑭𝒆 𝒌𝒆𝟐
2. Coulomb's law. The force of attraction or = ≃ 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗
𝑭𝑮 𝑮𝒎𝒑 𝒎𝒆
repulsion between two stationary point charges
(jj and ^2 is directly proportional to the product 6. Principle of superposition of electrostatic
inversely proportional to the square of the forces. When a number of charges are
distance r between them. Mathematically, interacting, the total force on a given charge is
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌 𝟐 the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due
𝒓 to all other charges. The force between two
The proportionality constant k depends on the
charges is not affected by the presence of other
nature of the medium between the two charges
and the system of units chosen to measure charges. The total force on charge 𝑞1 due to the
𝑓, 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑟. For free space and in SI units, charges 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … , 𝑞𝑁 will be
𝟏 𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + ⋯ , +𝐹⃗1𝑁
𝑘 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 = 𝑲 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐 , 𝑁
𝟎
𝑞1 𝑞𝑖
𝜀0 is called permittivity of free space and its value = ∑ 2 𝑟̂1𝑖
is 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑵−𝟏 𝒎−𝟐 . 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1𝑖
𝑖=2
𝑁
Hence Coulomb's law in SI units may be expressed 𝑞1 𝑞𝑖 (𝑟⃗1 − 𝑟⃗𝑖 )
𝟏 𝒒 𝒒 = ∑
as 𝑭 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 . 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝟐 4𝜋𝜀0 |𝑟⃗1 − 𝑟⃗𝑖 |3
𝟎 𝑖=2
𝑟⃗1 −𝑟⃗𝑖
where 𝑟̂1𝑖 = |𝑟⃗1 −𝑟⃗𝑖 |3
3. SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). It is that
amount of charge that repels an equal and = a unit vector pointing from 𝑞𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑞1.
similar charge with a force of 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵 when
placed in vacuum at a distance of one metre 7. Electric field. An electric field is said to exist at
from it. a point, if a force of electrical origin is exerted
on a stationary charge placed at that point.
Quantitatively, it is defined as the electrostatic
4. Dielectric constant or relative permittivity. force per unit test charge acting on a
The ratio (𝜀/𝜀0 ) of the permittivity of the given vanishingly small positive test charge placed at
medium to that of free space is known as the given point.
relative permittivity (𝜀𝑟 ) or dielectic constant Mathematically,
(𝑘) of the given medium, ⃗⃗
𝑭
⃗⃗ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝑬
𝜺 𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 𝒒𝟎 →𝟎 𝒒𝟎
𝜺𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒌 = =
𝜺𝟎 𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅
The dielectric constant of a medium may be Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is
defined as the ratio of the force between two same as that of the force exerted on a positive
charges placed some distance apart in free space test charge.
to the force between the same two charges
when they are placed the same distance apart
in the given medium. 8. Units and dimensions of electric field. The SI
Coulomb’s law for any medium other than vacuum unit of electric field is newton per coulomb
can be written as (N𝐶 −1 ) or volt per metre (V𝑚−1). The dimensions
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 of electric field are
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 [𝑬] = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪
𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 = [𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟑 𝑨−𝟏 ]
= = . 𝑨𝑻
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒌 𝒓𝟐 𝒌

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9. Electric field due to a point charge. The 𝟏 𝟐 𝒑𝒓 𝟏 𝟐𝒑
𝑬𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 = . 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
≃ .
electric field of a point charge q at distance r 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 (𝒓 − 𝒂 ) 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑
from it is given by 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 ≫ 𝒂.
𝟏 𝒒 At any axial point, the direction of dipole field is
𝑬= . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 along the direction of dipole moment 𝑃⃗⃗
If q is positive, E points radially outwards and if q is
negative, E points radially inwards. This 15. Electric field at an equatorial point of a dipole.
field is spherically symmetric. The electric field at a point of the perpendicular
bisector of the dipole at distance r from its
10. Electric field due to a system of point charges centre is
: Superposition principle for electric fields. The 𝟏 𝒑 𝟏 𝒑
𝑬𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 . (𝒓𝟐−𝒂𝟐)𝟐 ≃ 𝟒𝝅𝜺 . 𝒓𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 ≫ 𝒂.
principle states that the electric field at any 𝟎 𝟎

point due to a group of point charges is equal to At any equatorial point, the direction of dipole
the vector sum of the electric fields produced field is antiparallel to the direction of dipole
by each charge individually at that point, when moment 𝑝⃗.
all other charges are assumed to be absent. In contrast to 1/𝑟 2 dependence of the electric field
⃗𝑬⃗ = ⃗𝑬⃗𝟏 + ⃗𝑬⃗𝟐 + ⋯ + ⃗𝑬⃗𝑵 of a point charge, the dipole field has 1/𝑟 3
dependence. Moreover, the electric field due to
11. Continuous charge distribution. When the a short dipole at a certain distance along the
charge involved is much greater than the axis is twice the electric field at the same
charge on an electron, we can ignore its distance along the equatorial line.
quantum nature and assume that the charge is
distributed in a continuous manner. This is 16. torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.
known as a continuous charge distribution. The forque on a dipole of moment 𝑝 when
𝑑𝑞 placed in a uniform electric field at an angle 𝜏 =
Volume charge density, 𝜌 = 𝐶𝑚−3 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑞
Surface charge density, 𝜎 = 𝐶𝑚−2 In vector rotation, 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆
Linear charge density, 𝜆 =
𝑑𝑞
𝐶𝑚−1 When the dipole is released, the torque 𝜏⃗ tends to
𝑑𝐿
align the dipole along the field 𝐸⃗⃗ .
12. Electrostatic force and field due to a If 𝐸 = 1 unit and 𝜃 = 900 , then 𝜏 = 𝑝. So dipole
continuous charge distribution. The total force moment may also be defined as the torque
on a charge 𝑞0 due to a continuous charge acting on an electric dipole placed
distribution is given by perpendicular to a uniform electric field of unit
⃗𝑬⃗𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕 = ⃗𝑬⃗𝑽 + ⃗𝑬⃗𝑺 + ⃗𝑬⃗𝑳 strength.
𝒒𝟎 𝝆 𝝈 𝝀
⃗𝑭⃗𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑻 = [∫𝑽 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑽 + ∫𝑺 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑺 + ∫𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑳]
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟎
⃗⃗
⃗𝑭⃗𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑻 = 𝑭𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑻 𝟏 𝝆
[∫ 𝒓̂𝒅𝑽 + 17. Electric flux. The electric flux through a given
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑽 𝒓𝟐
𝒒𝟎
𝝈 𝝀 area represents the total number of electric
∫𝑺 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑺 + ∫𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑳] lines of force passing normally through that
area. If the electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ makes an angle 𝜃
13. Electric field due to a general charge with the normal to the area elements AS, then
distribution. the electric flux is
It is given by ∆𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸Δ𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . Δ𝑆⃗ The electric flux
⃗𝑭⃗𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = ⃗𝑭⃗𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕 + ⃗𝑭⃗𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 through any surface 𝑆, open or closed, is equal
𝟏 𝒒 𝝆
= 𝟒𝝅𝜺 [∑𝑵 𝒊
̂ 𝒊 + ∫𝑽 𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑽 +
𝒊=𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝒓
to the surface integral of 𝐸⃗⃗ over the surface 𝑆.
𝟎 𝒊
𝝈 𝝀 𝝓𝑬 = ∫ 𝑬 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗. 𝐝𝑺
∫𝑺 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑺 + ∫𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂𝒅𝑳]
𝑺
Electric flux is a scalar quantity.
SI unit of electric flux = 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟏 .
14. Electric field at an axial point of a dipole. The
dipole field on the axis at distance r from the 18. Gauss's theorem. The total flux of electric field
centre is E through a closed surface S is equal to 1 /
𝜀0 times the charge q enclosed by the surface 𝑆⃗ .

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 𝒒
𝝓𝑬 = ∮ ⃗𝑬⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑺 =
𝑺 𝜺𝟎

19. Electric field of a line charge. The electric field

of a long straight wire of uniform linear charge
density 𝜆,
𝝀 𝟏
𝑬= 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑬 ∝
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
where r is the perpendicular distance of the wire
from the observation point.

20. Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of

charge. It does not depend on the distance of
the observation point from the plane sheet.
𝝈
𝑬=
𝟐𝜺𝟎
where 𝜎 = uniform surface charge density.

21.Electric field of two positively charged parallel

plates. If the two plates have surface charge
densities 𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 such that 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 0,
then

1
𝐸 = ± (𝜎 + 𝜎2 ) (Outside the plates)
2𝜀0 1
1
𝐸 = (𝜎 − 𝜎2 ) (Inside the plates)
2𝜀0 1

22. Electric field of two equally and oppositely

charged parallel plates. If the two plates have
surface charge densities ± 𝜎, then
𝐸 = 0 (For outside points)
𝜎
𝐸 = (For inside points)
𝜀0

23. Electric field of a thin spherical shell. If R is

the radius and 𝜎, the surface charge density of
the shell, then
1 𝑞
𝐸 = . 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑅 (𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝐸 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)
1 𝑞
𝐸 = . 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 𝑅 (𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎
24. Electric field of a uniformly charged solid
sphere. If 𝜌 is the uniform volume charge
density and R radius of the sphere, then
1 𝑞
𝐸 = . 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑅 (𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑞𝑟
𝐸 = . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
1 𝑞
𝐸 = . 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 𝑅 (𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑞 = 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌
3

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