PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Meaning and Definition of Guidance

Guidance is based upon a philosophy of human uniqueness, goodness, worth and dignity all
of which can be nurtured. The guidance processes are based on the belief that given certain
conditions, an individual’s potential to make a choice and make a decision can be utilized
for maximum benefit to the individual and society

As a teacher, you may have come across youngsters who are confused and indecisive when
called upon to take decisions regarding choice of subjects, others activities in school or
interpersonal difficulties with friends or siblings at home. You may have often wondered
what you can do to help these children. Need for professional guidance is increasing due to
increasing complexities of daily living.

The goal of education is to bring out and develop the inherent potentialities of an
individual. Guidance has an important contribution in achieving these goals. School
educational programmes consist of a variety of co-curricular activities which can, if guided
properly become a vehicle for self-development.

MEANING OF GUIDANCE

To guide means to indicate, to point out, and to show the way. It means more than to
assist. A man falls on the street; we assist him to get up but we do not guide him unless we
help him to go in a certain direction.

The synonyms of ‘to guide’ are – to lead, to conduct, to regulate, to direct, to steer, to
show, to channel, to point.

Guidance involves personal help given by someone; it is designed to assist a person to

decide where he wants to go, what he wants to do, or how he can best accomplish his
purpose; it assists him to solve problems that arise in his life. It does not solve problems for
the individual but helps him to solve them.

The focus of guidance is the individual, not the problem; its purpose is to promote the
growth of the individual in self-direction. This guidance may be given to groups or to
individuals, but it is always designed to help individual even though they may be in group.

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DEFINITION OF GUIDANCE

Ruth Strang. “Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through his own efforts, to
discover and develop his potentialities for his personal happiness and social usefulness.”

A.J. Jones. “Guidance involves personal help given by a competent person; it is designed to
assist a person in deciding where he wants to go, what he wants to do, or how he can best
accomplish his purposes; it assists him in solving problems that arise in his life. It does not
solve problems for the individual, but helps him to solve them. The focus of guidance is the
individual and not the problem; its purpose is to promote the growth of the individual in
self-direction.”

Knapps. “Learning about the individual student, helping him to understand himself,
effecting changes in him and in his environment which will help him to grow and develop as
much as possible – these are the elements of guidance.”

Secondary Education Commission, 1952. “Guidance involves the difficult art of helping boys
and girls to plan their own future wisely in the full light of all the factors that can be
mastered about themselves and about the world in which they are to live and work.”

Crow and Crow. “Guidance is assistance made available by personally and adequately
trained men or women to an individual of any age to help him manage his own life
activities, develop his own points of view, make his own decisions and carry his own
burdens.”

John Brewer. “Guidance is a process through which an individual is able to solve his
problems and pursue a path suited to his abilities and aspirations.”

Woodworth, “Guidance helps an individual to develop his personality and enables him to
serve the society to the best of his capabilities and talents.”

Kitson. “Guidance is ‘individualised education’. Each student is to be helped to develop

himself to the maximum possible degree in all respects.”

V.M. Proctor. “Guidance is a process through which an individual or groups of individuals

are helped to make necessary adjustment to the environment – inside or outside the
school.”

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Some types of guidance
Educational Guidance

It refers to that guidance that a child or students need during his school life. Also, it helps
them to solve the problem that they face in school. In addition, it gives all the required
details that children need related to the school they find most suitable. Most noteworthy,
education is the process that guides and directs children for her/his proper development.

Every aspect of school education is strongly related to educational guidance. Moreover, it

includes the aim, objectives, discipline, syllabus, the role of teachers, methods of teaching,
and co-curricular activity.

In addition, these guidelines help in the adjustment of the course of study according to the
ability and skill of the student. This process helps a student to make wise choices in relation
to his education life ahead. Most noteworthy, this process assists a person to plan her/his
education plan and carry it forward without any problem.

Education guidance concerns every related aspect of student education. Also, it provides
assistance to students to choose the school, course, study habit, and several others.
Besides, it helps in the growth and development of children.

Vocational Guidance

It refers to that type of guidance in which ordinary information is provided regarding

choosing the occupation. Also, it prepares them for the occupation and helps in entering
and progressing. Besides, it is also known as vocational development. Most noteworthy, in
modern education it’s perspective is much wider.

This type of guidance helps a person to know her/his strength and weaknesses. Moreover,
it helps them to choose a vocation for better adjustment with every situation. In other
words, vocational guidance helps a person choose his career and other aspects related to it.

It is an assistance that helps students and children to know the world of vocation by getting
in the school. Most noteworthy, it is an early exposure to students about the variety of job

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choices they would have later in life. It is a motivation for hard work in school or college
studies.

Vocational Guidance help children to know what they are capable of and what they can
become in life. And this ultimately depends on what they are capable to do in their school
life. In addition, they need to be on the right track to prepare them for life.

In short, we can say that it is a universally accepted process that assists an individual to
know her/himself better.

Socio - Personal Guidance

It refers to that type of guidance where a person or individual overcome their problem on
their own. Also, it is the assistance that is provided to an individual to solve their social,
mental, morals, health, and ethical problems. Besides, it helps in solving those problems,
which we cannot solve with just vocational and educational guidance.

Personal assistance is of two types written and oral. They help to make an adjustment in
our life. Moreover, it is the guidance they let us know what we are now and what we can
become later in life. Besides, it helps children and student to help them and look at them
from the right point of view.

In the case of personal guidance, we observe that it is not an easy task. And the total
development of an individual’s personality depends on the development of personal habits
and attitudes. That’s why most of the individual face this problem in life.

Guidance services are often rendered for clients. They include:

1. Information Service: Counsellors provides or gives adequate information for the
clients where educational information are needed, vocational information and socio-
personal information.
2. Placement Service: the duty of the counsellor is to place the students where they fit
in to. For instance, students in the JSS3 going to SS1 are to be placed by counsellor to
either Science, Art or Commercial class. It can also involve other placement of any
category.
3. Orientation Service: Orientation service is usually done to the new students in
Schools. This service is often rendered by the counsellors for the students to be
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 aware of their new environment, how to interact with people, the rules and
regulations of the new environment, their code of conduct, the dos and don’ts.
4. Referral Service: counsellors can also refer clients to appropriate places when
necessary during counselling sessions. For instance if client needs medical attention,
female counsellor’s attention, the counsellor can refer the client.
5. Career guidance service: this is another service rendered by the counsellors in
schools. Students or client that want to choose a career will be guided by the
counsellor through counselling skills and might even make use of psychological
inventories such as Vocational Interest Inventory by Prof G.C.M. Bakare.

Counselling: Definition
Counselling is a process by which counsellor solved client’s problem with the use of
counselling theories during counselling sessions, in the counsellor’s office or counselling
clinic. Counselling is a talking therapy that allows people to discuss their problems with
trained professionals in a peaceful and safe ambiance. The exact meaning of counselling
might vary among individuals. But in general, it is the process where you talk about your
issues in detail either intending to overcome the same or to explore your thoughts
comprehensively.
The role of a counselor doesn’t limit to suggesting you do this or that. Rather they
support you to speak about your problems in detail to identify the primary cause behind
them. Furthermore, they develop an action plan to help you cope up with the issue or win
over it.
There are different formats through which the counselling sessions can take place, The
client is free to choose a format that suits and fits his needs the best. Below are the popular
counselling formats that people mostly favor:

 In-Person or Individual Counselling: Face-to-face counselling sessions take place in

the counselor’s chamber where you meet them in person after scheduling an
appointment to discuss your problems. It is one of the most popular counselling
formats. The problem involve here is personal.

 Group Counselling: Professionals provide group counselling sessions where you can
join to address the issues. Joining such a group will help you find people with similar
problems and you will be able to develop a strong network of support as well.
However, if you wish to focus on your problem, in-person sessions are better.

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  Telephonic Sessions: A great alternative to in-person counselling sessions are
telephonic rounds that can be scheduled from the comfort of your home. Telephonic
counselling rounds are best for busy individuals who might find it difficult to get into
the chambers. In this flexible process, you can discuss the problems with the
counselor in a secure environment from your room.

 Online Counselling: If you wish not to meet your counselor face to face and protect
your anonymity, you have the option to email the counselor. In this process, you
have the scope to think well and decide which of the problems you want to discuss
with him. The online counselling trend is becoming much more popular these days.

Counselling Process
1. Initial counseling: this is where you build a warmth relationship with the client
2. Subsequence interview: this can take through many sessions of counseling
interview where the counselor will continue giving dates for the counseling
session till the problem is solved.
3. Referral: this might be necessary if the client need to be refer to another
practitioner such as doctor in the hospital or a female counselor or otherwise.
4. Termination: here the counselor brings to an end the counseling relationship
when the problem has been taken care of
5. Follow up: this is when the counsellor continue to monitor the client whether
the problem did not surface again.
The counselling process involves a step-by-step approach and the counselor conducts
it in a way to make sure that his client is comfortable with the process. Let’s have a look at
the five crucial stages of a counselling process.
Processes during the interview
1: Building a Warm Relationship
When you are hitting up a counselor to discuss your problems, you ought to suffer from any
serious issue concerning academics, relationships, career, or anything else. The first thing
your expert does is to make yourself comfortable around him/her. He focuses on
developing a warm relation and mutual trust first to make sure you do not hesitate while
speaking about the problems you are facing.
2: Analysis
Now comes the second part, which is assessment. In this stage, the professional encourages
you to speak in detail about your problems to grab the roots of the problem. He observes

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every minute detail from how you are speaking to your reactions to certain questions that
might come from his end. Once he assesses the problem, the goal is fixed.
3: Setting the Goal
After a thorough evaluation of your problems, now comes the significant section of goal
setting. Considering the issues you are facing the counselor sets a goal. That can be either
you overcoming the problem or reconciling with it.
4: Plan of Action
The counselor plans an action for you to practice to see the results. Suppose someone has
public speaking fear, the expert might ask him to practice speaking in front of the mirror.
This is just an instance. Once you go through the plan for the desired tenure, he assesses
your improvement. If things seem normal, you are at the final stage! If not, he might design
something different.
5: Overcoming the Problem
As I mentioned in the previous point after you follow the plan of action the consequent
results are taken into consideration. If things seem to go in the right direction and you start
feeling relaxed, yes! You have achieved your goal.
Counselling Skills
 Effective Listening:

 A Good Communicator:

 Analysis:

Aspect or branches of psychology

1. Clinical psychology
2. Experimental psychology
3. Educational psychology
4. Adolescent psychology
5. Developmental psychology
6. Child psychology
7. Applied psychology
8. Counselling psychology

Types of Counselling
1. Mental health counselling
2. Rehabilitation counselling
3. Sex and marital counselling or relationship counselling
4. Adolescent counselling
5. Career counselling
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 6. Pastoral counselling

Mental Health Counselling

A mental health counselor is responsible for providing the people with support who are
going through any emotional distress like fear of something, anxiety, depression, or
frustration. There are different causes when people need mental health counselling that
may include, extensive grief, supreme anger issues, addiction to something, family issues,
eating disorders, and so on. After talking to the clients about the problems, mental health
counselors try and provide them ways to overcome this situation and nurture their well-
being.
Career Counselling
A little different from the traditional counselling processes, career counselling means
providing aspirants with career guidance and showing them the right path towards a bright
career according to their areas of interest and skills. The career counselling curriculum is
designed to guide people in selecting, changing, or leaving a career and can be availed at
any stage of life. A career counselling expert assesses your aptitude, personality, and
interests to suggest you the best career option.
Rehabilitation Counselling
The rehabilitation counselling process helps people with disabilities fulfill their goals
and lead an independent life with complete participation in the community. This is a
systematic method to help people with emotional, physical, cognitive, and mental
disabilities accomplish their life goals and live a cherishable life. The rehabilitation
counselors support the concerned people to overcome psychological disabilities.
Relationship Counselling
Also known as couples therapy, people seek such counselling when something
serious affects their love life. People choose to go for relationship counselling for various
reasons including the desire to have a stronger relationship with the partner or spouse,
issues emerging from disagreement, unhealthy abuses, something hectic that affected their
lives, etc. A relationship therapist helps the couple to overcome the problems they are
facing and enter into a long-term commitment.

Who is a counselor?

A counsellor is a trained, objective professional with whom you can build a healing and
trusting relationship. They are trained to offer different types of assistance; most frequently
talk-based styles of therapy.

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 A counselor is a professionally trained expert who helps people overcome their issues
after a systematic chain of sessions. The types of counselling vary, depending on the needs
of the clients.

Counselling is a process of talking about and working through your personal problems with
a counsellor. The counsellor helps you to address your problems in a positive way by
helping you to clarify the issues, explore options, develop strategies and increase self-
awareness. For some people, just the process of telling their story to a counsellor, and
being listened to, is helpful.

A trained counsellor is someone trained to offer a talk-based therapy. There are many types
of talk-based therapy. A counsellor may work in partnership with a medical doctor or other
health professionals at times to give comprehensive and integrated care.

Counselling provides confidential support. This means that everything you discuss with the
counsellor is private, between you and the counsellor. The exception is when a counsellor
has a duty of care to report something that threatens your wellbeing or the wellbeing of
others. This legal requirement will be explained to you in your first counselling session.

Five major characteristics of a trained counselor

9. Confidentiality: Counsellor must keep secret, secret. Any discussion during

counselling session must not be heard outside unless the client permit the
counsellor to say it. Counsellor can only reveal client’s secret based on two
reasons.
a. When a client want to harm himself and he/she informed the counsellor whether to
commit suicide
b. When a client want to harm another person and he/she informed the counsellor
about the operation.
10.Empathic understanding: Counsellor must be empathic rather than to be
sympathetic. Empathic understanding is when a client put his/herself in the
client’s position while explaining his/her case to the counsellor
11.Congruence: This is a state of agreement between the counsellor and the
client. Whatever the counselling relationship agreed on, the counsellor must
not deviate from it.
12.Unconditional positive regard: This means that counsellors should welcome
everyone that comes for counselling irrespective of their religion, tribe, colour,

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 gender or educational background. Counsellor should not be bias or
discriminate
13.Respect: Counsellor should respect everyone. Most especially your client’s
opinion. One must not force his/her opinion on the client if he/she is not
willing.

Important distinctions or differences between Counselling and Guidance

The following ideas highlight the key distinctions between advice and counselling:

1. Guidance is defined as pertinent information or advice given by a superior to solve a

problem or overcome a challenge. Counselling is receiving expert assistance from a
counsellor to assist a client in overcoming personal or psychological issues.
2. Counselling is curative, whereas guidance is preventative. You could look for advice
when making job decisions, but you go to counselling to save your marriage from
falling apart.
3. Counselling typically has a therapeutic, curative, or remedial focus, whereas guidance
has a preventive one.
4. Guidance is a thorough procedure with an outside perspective. Contrarily,
counselling focuses on the in-depth and internal investigation of the issue until the
client fully comprehends and resolves it.
5. Counselling enables people to shift their perspective, while guidance assists them in
making the greatest decisions. While counselling helps clients develop their well-
informed solutions, the guidance provides them with ready options. While therapy
takes a more thorough effort to identify the problem's underlying causes before
addressing it, the guidance takes an external approach to the issue at hand.
6. Counselling is used when the issue is one of personal or socio-psychological nature,
whereas guidance is used when it comes to matters about school and career.
7. A guide, who can be superior or an expert in a certain profession, guides as opposed
to counselling offered by professionals with extensive training and expertise in their
counselling field. Since a guide can advise on an open forum, less privacy is required,
unlike counselling, where complete confidentiality is guaranteed.
8. A single person or a group of people may receive guidance at once. Contrarily,
counselling always takes place one-on-one.
9. The best method for addressing issues with school and careers is guidance, but
counselling is the best way to address socio-psychological and other personal
problems.
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 10. An authority in the relevant field or anybody superior can offer advice. It doesn't call
for formal training. People who have received professional training to treat
psychological issues provide counselling.

Multicultural Counselling
Multicultural counseling is a term used to describe a specific type of counseling practice
that acknowledges how various aspects of a patient’s cultural identity might influence their
mental health. Relevant factors can include issues of race, ethnicity, immigration status,
religion, socioeconomic background, and gender identity.
“Multicultural counseling is, at its heart, about appreciating that individuals are not all the
same and that their personal background—their ethnicity, their race, and their cultural
context—is an important component of who they are,” says Susan Bradley, Assistant
Program Coordinator for the Applied Psychology Department in the Bouvé College of
Health Sciences at Northeastern University. “These factors need to be an essential element
of the assessment process and their treatment.”
Counselors and psychologists who embrace the tenets of multicultural counseling
acknowledge how these factors might influence the individual. They also seek to
understand how different cultures and groups approach mental health and counseling
issues to tailor treatment plans to these realities more effectively. Additionally, counselors
and psychologists may specialize in working with populations facing racism, discrimination,
and oppression.

Why is Multicultural Counseling Important?

Multicultural counseling is vital because we live in a diverse society that is only projected to
become more so over the coming decades. As more and more people from different
backgrounds seek therapeutic treatment, mental health counselors and psychologists need
to be able to take a holistic approach in understanding, acknowledging, and addressing
their needs.
More specifically, being trained in multicultural counseling is important for several tactical
reasons. People from different cultural backgrounds often have very different lived realities.
These differences influence not only the types of mental health issues that a person
experiences but also their perception of and relationship to counseling.
People of different cultures and ethnic groups or socioeconomic backgrounds often
approach counseling and mental health through the lens of their cultural background.
When a culture has assigned a negative connotation to the idea of mental health
counseling, that belief can lead to a reluctance to seek help, which can ultimately inhibit
effective treatment.

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For example, in many Latin American cultures, there is a strong emphasis placed on gender
roles. In men, this is often characterized by the term machismo, which refers to a form of
strong, often aggressive masculinity. Belief in this concept can cause someone from that
background to avoid or forego counseling, even when it is necessary, due to the implication
that doing so would be a form of weakness. Additionally, this mindset could very well be
the cause of relationship troubles, intimacy issues, and even depression.
Many studies have also demonstrated that African Americans are less likely than white
Americans to seek mental health services, even when they believe that such services are
effective. Further research has found that low-income Americans have less access to mental
health services than those who live in high-income households.
There are many potential reasons that these disparities may exist, and affordability and
access receive much of the discourse around the subjects. But mental health professionals
should seek to understand the cultural issues which also play a role in making someone
more or less likely to seek counseling.

Developing Multicultural Counseling Skills

To effectively work with individuals from various cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds,
mental health professionals must develop a deep sense of cultural awareness that
empowers them to understand the different cultural factors contributing to a patient’s
wellbeing.
As a counselor, this understanding will empower you to connect with your patients more
effectively, empathize with them, and tailor your treatment plans to their lived reality. It
will also allow you to recognize the various cultural factors which might cause an individual
to be more or less open to mental health services, which you can use to your advantage
during treatment.
In seeking a degree program in preparation for your career, such as a Master of Science in
Counseling Psychology, it’s essential to find a program that acknowledges the role that
race, ethnicity, and identity play in mental health, says Bradley.
“Being respectful of cultural backgrounds and incorporating cultural components into the
treatment process is woven throughout Northeastern’s program, and it’s an essential piece
of what we do,” she says.
Who is a psychotherapy?

According to WebMD Editorial Contributors (2021) A psychotherapist uses talk therapy to

treat people for emotional problems and mental illnesses. Depending on what degree and
specialty they get, psychotherapists can be psychiatrists, psychologists, counselors, or social
workers. They can work with individuals, couples, groups, or families.

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Psychotherapists use talk therapy to help you manage with general emotional unrest or
acute trauma or illness. They treat everything from daily overwhelm to grief to specific
mental disorders like depression or anxiety. Sometimes talk therapy is used in combination
with medications or lifestyle changes. However, not all psychotherapists are licensed to
prescribe medication.

What Does a Psychotherapist Do?

Psychotherapists use talk therapy to help you live a better, healthier life. Psychotherapy has
been shown to improve emotions and behavior, and to go along with positive changes in
the body and brain.

The psychotherapist’s role in talk therapy is to:

 Offer a solution for your problem

 Engage in discussion about it

 Help you understand what you’re going through

 Analyze your conversation

 Help you change your actions

Education and Training

Psychotherapists have special training in psychology and counseling. They complete

graduate school to get their doctoral degree and become practicing therapists.

The body in charge of upholding the ethical principles of counsellors in Nigeria is

the Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON).

14 Principles of Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria

The principles below were outlined by Gesinde (1999):

1. The client’s permission should be sought before communicating any

information to any other person, the counselors associate, or agency.
2. Counsellors must not utilise their professional relationships with clients to gain
social, economic, or other personal advantage.
3. A counselor should not accept a client who is receiving psychological assistance
from another professional member unless there is an agreement as to the

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 respective areas of help being offered or unless the counsellees former
professional relationship has been terminated.
4. Counsellors should guard the confidences which are extended to them in
respect of clients. The only time a counsellor could reveal any confidence received
from a client or client’s parent is when it is quite clear that there is imminent
danger to the client or society.
5. Counsellors should not suggest or support unwarranted assumptions and
conclusions with respect to the usage of psychological instruments or techniques.
6. Counsellors should avoid overgeneralization of test results. It is unethical to use
test or non-test materials without prior proper training and when they are not
needed.
7. Diagnosis should be based on scientific theories supported by objective
evidence
8. Counsellors should not attempt to diagnose, treat or advise a client with
reference to problems which are not within the counseling domain.
9. Counsellors should not normally enter into a counselling relationship with close
friends or members of their families.
10. The purpose and goals of counselling interaction should be clear to the client,
thus suggestions and actions that will expose clients to hazards or negative
consequences should be avoided.
11. Counsellors should devote part of their services to work which are not included
in their duties or for which they will receive little or no financial gains. This makes
counseling a helping profession.
12. Counsellors should not impose their values on the client. They are not expected
to compromise their personal standard but should note that they are personal
issues.
13. Counselors should offer the highest level of service and refer clients to
appropriate agencies when cases are beyond their competence.
14. Counsellors should present their findings with respect to clients in simple and
accurate language. This is to facilitate effective understanding and interaction.
Benefits of Ethical Principles in Counselling
1. To guide the average citizen in understanding professional conduct
2. To regulate professional conduct
3. To regulate the relationship between counsellors and clients
4. To distinguish between scrupulous and unscrupulous counselling practitioners
5. To acquaint new counsellors with their professional obligation, privileges, and
rights
6. To protect competent professionals from unjust attack
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7. To protect the reputation of the profession
Conclusion
There you have the ethical principles of guidance and counselling in Nigeria and some
benefits of upholding ethical principles. It is the responsibility of all and sundry to see
that counsellors actually live by these principles.

Counsellor training programmes should teach them, counsellors should

practice them and encourage other counsellors to do so, counselling bodies
should enforce them, and clients should insist counsellors uphold them before
agreeing to be counselled and report unethical practices.

What is counselling theory

A counseling theory is an intellectual model that purports certain ideas about
underlying factors that affect behavior, thoughts, emotions, interpersonal interactions, or
interpersonal interpretations. A theory also must provide a focus of study (e.g., thoughts,
behaviors, emotions, relationships, systems of relationships, social agreements) for
clinicians using the model. The model outlines the limits of activities used by the clinician to
examine and evaluate the client. Once evaluated, it provides specific techniques of
intervention that can be used by the clinician to affect the client.

Boy and Pine (1983) state that there are six functions of theory in counselling:
1) It helps counsellors find unity and relatedness within the diversity of existence.
2) It compels counsellors to examine relationships they would otherwise overlook.
3) It gives counsellors operational guidelines by which to work and helps them
evaluate their development as professionals.
4) It helps counsellors focus on relevant information and tells them what to look for.
5) It helps counsellors assist clients in the effective modification of their behaviour,
cognitions, emotional functioning, and interpersonal relationships.
6) It helps counsellors evaluate both old and new approaches to the process of
counselling.

In simple terms, Sigmund Freud's theory suggests that human behavior is influenced by
unconscious memories, thoughts, and urges. This theory also proposes that the psyche
comprises three aspects: the id, ego, and superego. The id is entirely unconscious, while the
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ego operates in the conscious mind. The superego operates both unconsciously and
consciously.

Psychology students spend a fair amount of time learning about Freud's theory. Even those
outside the psychology field often have some awareness of Freudian psychoanalysis, the
school of thought created by Sigmund Freud.

Knowing more about Freudian psychology, along with the key concepts in psychoanalysis—
like the unconscious, fixations, defense mechanisms, and dream symbols—can help you
understand the influence Freud's theories have had on contemporary psychologists.

Freud's Theory of Talk Therapy

One of Freud's greatest contributions to psychology was talk therapy, the notion that
simply talking about problems can help alleviate them. It was through his association with
his close friend and colleague Josef Breuer that Freud became aware of a woman known in
the case history as Anna O.

The young woman's real name was Bertha Pappenheim. She became a patient of Breuer's
after suffering a bout of what was then known as hysteria. Symptoms included blurred
vision, hallucinations, and partial paralysis.

Breuer observed that discussing her experiences provided some relief from her symptoms.
It was Pappenheim herself who began referring to the treatment as the "talking cure." 2

While Anna O. is often described as one of Freud's patients, the two never actually
met.3 Freud often discussed her case with Breuer, however, and the two collaborated on an
1895 book based on her treatment titled Studies in Hysteria.

Freud concluded that her hysteria was the result of childhood sexual abuse, a view that
ended up leading to a rift in Freud and Breuer's professional and personal relationship.
Anna O. may not have actually been Freud's patient, but her case informed much of Freud's
work and later theories on therapy and psychoanalysis.

Freud's Theory of Personality

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According to Freud's theory, there are a few different factors that affect personality. They
include cathexis and anticathexis, along with life and death instincts.

Cathexis and Anticathexis

According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, all psychic energy is generated by libido. Freud
suggested that our mental states were influenced by two competing forces: cathexis and
anticathexis.

 Cathexis was described as an investment of mental energy in a person, idea, or

object.4
 Anticathexis involves the ego blocking the socially unacceptable needs of the id.
Repressing urges and desires is one common form of anticathexis, but this involves a
significant investment of energy.

If you are hungry, for example, you might create a mental image of a delicious meal that
you have been craving. In other cases, the ego might harness some energy from the id (the
primitive mind) to seek out activities related to the desire in order to disperse excess
energy from the id. Sticking with the same example, if you can't actually seek out food to
appease your hunger, you might instead thumb through a cookbook or browse through
your favorite recipe blog.

According to Freud's theory, there is only so much libidinal energy available. When a lot of
energy is devoted to suppressing urges via anticathexis, there is less energy for other
processes.

Life Instincts and Death Instincts

Freud also believed that much of human behavior was motivated by two driving
instincts: life instincts and death instincts.

 Life instincts (Eros) are those that relate to a basic need for survival, reproduction,
and pleasure. They include such things as the need for food, shelter, love, and sex.
 Death instincts (Thanatos) are the result of an unconscious wish for death, which
Freud believed all humans have.5 Self-destructive behavior was one expression of the
death drive, according to Freud. However, he believed that these death instincts
were largely tempered by life instincts.

Freud's Theory of the Psyche

17
In Freudian theory, the human mind is structured into two main parts: the conscious and
unconscious mind. The conscious mind includes all the things we are aware of or can easily
bring into awareness. The unconscious mind, on the other hand, includes all of the things
outside of our awareness—all of the wishes, desires, hopes, urges, and memories that we
aren't aware of, yet continue to influence behavior.

Freudian psychology compares the mind to an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg that is actually
visible above the water represents just a tiny portion of the mind, while the huge expanse
of ice hidden underneath the water represents the much larger unconscious.

There is some question as to whether the iceberg metaphor came from Freud himself or
one of his biographers, as some researchers indicate that there was no mention of an
iceberg in Freud's writings.6

Freudian theory also divides human personality into three major components: the id, ego,
and superego.

 The id is the most primitive part of the personality that is the source of all our most
basic urges. The id is entirely unconscious and serves as the source of all ill energy.
 The ego is the component of personality that deals with reality ad helps ensure that
the demands of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe, and socially
acceptable.

 The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals
and standards that we acquire from our parents, family, and society at large.

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

Freudian theory suggests that as children develop, they progress through a series
of psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido's pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a
different part of the body.

The five stages of psychosexual development are:

1. The oral stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the mouth.
2. The anal stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the anus.

3. The phallic stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the penis or clitoris.

4. The latent stage: A period of calm in which little libidinal interest is present.
18
 5. The genital stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the genitals.

The successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality as an adult. If,
however, a conflict remains unresolved at any particular stage, the individual might remain
fixated or stuck at that particular point of development.

A fixation can involve an over-dependence or obsession with something related to that

phase of development. For example, a person with an "oral fixation" is believed to be stuck
at the oral stage of development. Signs of an oral fixation might include excessive reliance
on oral behaviors such as smoking, biting fingernails, or eating.8

Freud's Theory of Dream Analysis

The unconscious mind played a critical role in all of Freud's theories, and he
considered dreams to be one of the key ways to take a peek into what lies outside our
conscious awareness.

He dubbed dreams "the royal road to the unconscious" 9 and believed that by examining
dreams, he could see not only how the unconscious mind works but also what it is trying to
hide from conscious awareness.

Freud believed the content of dreams could be broken down into two different types:

 The manifest content of a dream included all the actual content of the dream—the
events, images, and thoughts contained within the dream. The manifest content is
essentially what the dreamer remembers upon waking.
 The latent content, on the other hand, is all the hidden and symbolic meanings within
the dream. Freud believed that dreams were essentially a form of wish fulfillment. By
taking unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires and transforming them into less
threatening forms, people are able to reduce the ego's anxiety.

Freud often utilized the analysis of dreams as a starting point in his free association
technique. When working with a client, he would focus on a particular dream symbol, then
use free association to see what other thoughts and images immediately came to the
client's mind.

Freud's Theory of Defense Mechanisms

19
Even if you've never studied Freud's theories before, you have probably heard the term
"defense mechanisms." When someone seems unwilling to face a painful truth, you might
accuse them of being "in denial." If they try to look for a logical explanation for
unacceptable behavior, you might suggest that they are "rationalizing."

For instance, rationalizations for smoking might include "one cigarette won't hurt me" or "if
I quit, I'll just gain weight."

Denial and rationalization represent different types of defense mechanisms, or tactics that
the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety. Some of the best-known mechanisms of defense
include denial, repression, and regression, but there are many more.

Common Defense Mechanisms People Use

Freud's Theory of Female Psychology

Freud's perspective on women was, and continues to be, one of his most controversial. One
of his theories relating to female psychology is known as the Electra complex, also
sometimes referred to as penis envy.

According to Freud, females start out close to their mothers. But once they realize they
don't have a penis, they start to hate their moms for mutilating them, then become close to
their dad. At the same time, females start to imitate their mom because they fear the loss
of her affection.10

The Electra complex is the opposite of the Oedipus complex, which Freud contended is
when a male child develops a sexual attachment to his mother, viewing his father as a
sexual rival.

Freud's Theory of Religion

Freud theorized that religious beliefs are essentially delusions, and also that turning away
from these types of ideologies is preferable because religion does not lead to happiness and
fulfillment; in fact, it is a belief structure not based on evidence. 11

Freud felt that a person's religious views were, at least in part, a result of their relationship
with their father. He believed that people tend to depict their idea of a "God" based on the
qualities and traits of the father figure in their life and that these qualities changed as their
relationship with their father changed.
20
It is believed that Freud's theory of religion was influenced by his relationship with his own
father. Freud had a Jewish upbringing, which he said he had no desire to change, yet he
also stated that he was "completely estranged from the religion of his fathers—as well as
from every other religion."11

Impact of Freudian Theory

While Freud's theories have been widely criticized, they are still important because his work
has made contributions to psychology as we know it today.

Psychotherapy

Many contemporary psychologists do not give credence to Freud's ideas, but the theories
remain important. And research has validated the effectiveness of various forms of talk
therapy, such as one finding that psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavioral
therapy were both effective for treating anxiety in college-age students. 12

Freud's belief that mental problems could be resolved by actually talking about them
helped revolutionize psychotherapy.

Freud's theories have also sparked a major change in how we view mental illness by
suggesting that not all psychological problems have physiological causes.

Science

Freud's contributions have also impacted the foundational science of what we know about
psychology today. His idea that our thoughts are largely unconscious has withstood
scientific scrutiny, for instance, retaining their importance in understanding human
development and behavior.13

Culture

Freud has even influenced thoughts about how society has formed into what it is today.
Some believe that his theories help explain some of the successes of modern society while
also explaining some of its failures.14

A Word From Verywell

To understand where psychology is today, it is essential to take a look at where we've been
and how we got here. Freud's work provides insight into an important movement in
21
psychology that helped transform how we think about mental health and how we
approach psychological disorders.

By studying Freud's theories and those that came after, you gain a better understanding of
psychology's fascinating history. Many terms such as defense mechanism, Freudian
slip, and anal retentive have become a part of our everyday language. By learning about his
work and theories, you can understand how these ideas and concepts became woven into
the fabric of popular culture.

Reference: HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHIES

An Overview of Sigmund Freud's Theories

By

Kendra Cherry

Updated on November 14, 2022

Fact checked by Emily Swaim. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/freudian-

theory2795845#:~:text=In%20simple%20terms%2C%20Sigmund%20Freud's,operates%2n
%20the%20conscious%20mind.

In the 1960s, Aaron Beck developed cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) or cognitive therapy.
Since then, it has been extensively researched and found to be effective in a large number
of outcome studies for psychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety disorders, eating
disorders, substance abuse, and personality disorders. It also has been demonstrated to be
effective as an adjunctive treatment to medication for serious mental disorders such as
bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. CBT has been adapted and studied for children,
adolescents, adults, couples, and families. This activity reviews the efficacy of CBT in both
psychiatric and non-psychiatric disorders and the role of the interprofessional team in using
it to improve patient outcomes.

Objectives:

 Identify the key concepts of cognitive-behavioral therapy.

 Describe the indications for cognitive behavioral therapy.
 Outline the structure of cognitive behavioral therapy sessions.

22
  Review the clinical significance of cognitive-behavioral therapy and its efficacy in
treating common psychiatric illnesses.

Introduction

In the 1960s, Aaron Beck developed cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) or cognitive therapy.
Since then, it has been extensively researched and found to be effective in a large number
of outcome studies for some psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders,
eating disorders, substance abuse, and personality disorders. It also has been demonstrated
to be effective as an adjunctive treatment to medication for serious mental disorders such
as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. CBT has been adapted and studied for children,
adolescents, adults, couples, and families. Its efficacy also has been established in the
treatment of non-psychiatric disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, chronic fatigue
syndrome, fibromyalgia, insomnia, migraines, and other chronic pain conditions.
Origins of Cognitive Behavior Therapy
The idea for developing this form of psychotherapy took root when Aaron Beck began to
notice that his patients with depression often verbalized thoughts that were lacking in
validity and noted characteristic “cognitive distortions” in their thinking. His empirical
observations led him to start viewing depression not so much as a mood disorder but as a
cognitive disorder. Based on his clinical observations and empirical findings, Beck outlined a
new cognitive theory of depression. He published Cognitive Therapy for Depression (Beck,
Rush, Shaw, and Emery, 1979) after having published a study that evaluated and
demonstrated the efficacy of cognitive therapy. The combination of a detailed treatment
protocol manual with outcome research was an innovation in psychotherapy practice that
had only previously been attempted by behavior therapists in treating discrete behavioral
problems. By accomplishing the same feat with a more complex set of clinical interventions
that included cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components, Beck pioneered a model
for what psychologists many years later defined as an “empirically validated psychological
treatment.”
Other clinicians and researchers became interested and began developing CBT treatment
protocols and evaluating their efficacy. Specific treatment protocols were developed for
some psychiatric disorders. As behavioral strategies were incorporated, the term cognitive
therapy changed to cognitive behavior therapy. Today CBT is the most extensively
researched of all psychotherapies with several evidence-based treatment protocols.
Cognitive Model

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CBT is based on a straightforward, common-sense model of the relationships among
cognition, emotion, and behavior.
Three aspects of cognition are emphasized:
1. Automatic thoughts
2. Cognitive distortions
3. Underlying beliefs or schemas
Automatic Thoughts
An individual’s immediate, unpremeditated interpretations of events are referred to as
automatic thoughts. Automatic thoughts shape both the individual’s emotions and their
actions in response to events. For example, a friend may cross you in the hallway and not
say hello to you. If you were to have an automatic thought of “he hates me,” or “I have
done something to anger him,” it is likely to impact your mood and cause you to feel upset
and also to behave in an avoidant manner when you see him next. On the other hand, if
you had the automatic thought, “he is in a hurry,” you would not be too concerned, and
you would not be avoidant when you were to see him next.
CBT is based on the observation that dysfunctional automatic thoughts that are
exaggerated, distorted, mistaken, or unrealistic in other ways, play a significant role in
psychopathology.
Cognitive Distortions
Errors in logic are quite prevalent in patients with psychological disorders. They lead
individuals to erroneous conclusions. Below are some cognitive distortions that are
commonly seen in individuals with psychopathology:
 Dichotomous thinking: Things are seen regarding two mutually exclusive categories
with no shades of gray in between.
 Overgeneralization: Taking isolated cases and using them to make wide
generalizations.
 Selective abstraction: Focusing exclusively on certain, usually negative or upsetting,
aspects of something while ignoring the rest.
 Disqualifying the positive: Positive experiences that conflict with the individual’s
negative views are discounted.

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  Mind reading: Assuming the thoughts and intentions of others.
 Fortune telling: Predicting how things will turn out before they happen.
 Minimization: Positive characteristics or experiences are treated as real but
insignificant.
 Catastrophizing: Focusing on the worst possible outcome, however unlikely, or
thinking that a situation is unbearable or impossible when it is just uncomfortable.
 Emotional reasoning: Making decisions and arguments based on how you feel rather
than objective reality.
 “Should” statements: Concentrating on what you think “should” or “ought to be”
rather than the actual situation you are faced with or having rigid rules which you
always apply no matter the circumstances.
 Personalization, blame, or attribution: Assuming you are completely or directly
responsible for a negative outcome. When applied to others consistently, the blame
is the distortion.
Underlying Beliefs
Underlying beliefs shape the perception and interpretation of events. Belief systems or
schemas take shape as we go through life experiences. They are defined as templates or
rules for information processing that underlie the most superficial layer of automatic
thoughts. Beliefs are understood at two levels in CBT:
Core Beliefs
 The central ideas about self and the world
 The most fundamental level of belief
 They are global, rigid, and overgeneralized
Examples of dysfunctional core beliefs:
 “I am unlovable”
 “I am inadequate”
 “The world is a hostile and dangerous place”
Intermediate Beliefs
 Consist of assumptions, attitudes, and rules
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  Influenced in their development by the core beliefs
Examples of dysfunctional intermediate beliefs:
 “To be accepted, I should always please others.”
 “I should be excellent at everything I do to be considered adequate.”
 “It is best to have as little as possible to do with people.”
Overview - Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that can help you manage your
problems by changing the way you think and behave.

It's most commonly used to treat anxiety and depression, but can be useful for other
mental and physical health problems.

How CBT works

CBT is based on the concept that your thoughts, feelings, physical sensations and actions
are interconnected, and that negative thoughts and feelings can trap you in a negative
cycle.

CBT aims to help you deal with overwhelming problems in a more positive way by breaking
them down into smaller parts.

You're shown how to change these negative patterns to improve the way you feel.

Unlike some other talking treatments, CBT deals with your current problems, rather than
focusing on issues from your past.

It looks for practical ways to improve your state of mind on a daily basis.

Uses for CBT

CBT has been shown to be an effective way of treating a number of different mental health
conditions.

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In addition to depression or anxiety disorders, CBT can also help people with:

 bipolar disorder
 borderline personality disorder

 eating disorders – such as anorexia and bulimia

 obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

 panic disorder

 phobias

 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

 psychosis

 schizophrenia

 sleep problems – such as insomnia

 problems related to alcohol misuse

CBT is also sometimes used to treat people with long-term health conditions, such as:

 irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

 chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)

 fibromyalgia

 chronic pain

Although CBT cannot cure the physical symptoms of these conditions, it can help people
cope better with their symptoms.

What happens during CBT sessions

If CBT is recommended, you'll usually have a session with a therapist once a week or once
every 2 weeks.

The course of treatment usually lasts for between 6 and 20 sessions, with each session
lasting 30 to 60 minutes.
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During the sessions, you'll work with your therapist to break down your problems into their
separate parts, such as your thoughts, physical feelings and actions.

You and your therapist will analyse these areas to work out if they're unrealistic or
unhelpful, and to determine the effect they have on each other and on you.

Your therapist will then be able to help you work out how to change unhelpful thoughts
and behaviours.

After working out what you can change, your therapist will ask you to practise these
changes in your daily life and you'll discuss how you got on during the next session.

The eventual aim of therapy is to teach you to apply the skills you have learnt during
treatment to your daily life.

This should help you manage your problems and stop them having a negative impact on
your life, even after your course of treatment finishes.

Pros and cons of CBT

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is effective in treating some mental health

problems, but it may not be successful or suitable for everyone.

Some of the advantages of CBT include:

 it can be completed in a relatively short period of time compared with other talking
therapies
 the highly structured nature of CBT means it can be provided in different formats,
including in groups, self-help books and online

 it teaches you useful and practical strategies that can be used in everyday life, even
after the treatment has finished

 it focuses on the person's capacity to change themselves (their thoughts, feelings and
behaviours)

 it can be as effective as medicine in treating some mental health problems and may
be helpful in cases where medicine alone has not worked
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Some of the disadvantages of CBT to consider include:

 you need to commit yourself to the process to get the most from it – a therapist can
help and advise you, but they need your co-operation
 attending regular CBT sessions and carrying out any extra work between sessions can
take up a lot of your time

 it may not be suitable for people with more complex mental health needs or learning
difficulties

 it involves confronting your emotions and anxieties – you may experience initial
periods where you're anxious or emotionally uncomfortable

 it does not address any wider problems in systems or families that may have a
significant impact on someone's health and wellbeing

Some critics also argue that while CBT addresses current problems and focuses on specific
issues, it does not address the possible underlying causes of mental health conditions, such
as an unhappy childhood.

Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT) by Albert Ellis

REBT started in 1955 when Dr. Albert Ellis created the therapy as an action-oriented type
of CBT.

REBT focuses attention on the present and helps a person develop a new way of thinking
about events to prevent maladaptive behaviors and negative emotions.

The approach may help a person achieve their goals and learn how to overcome adversity
by addressing the underlying beliefs and thoughts that can lead to self-defeating or self-
sabotaging actions.

This article discusses REBT in more detail, including the principles behind it, its
effectiveness, and more.

REBT is a type of CBT that first appeared in the mid-20th century. It is an action-based
therapy that requires a person to focus on present events.

29
The guiding principles of the therapy state that an activating event triggers a person’s
irrational thoughts or beliefs. Their beliefs can then result in consequences, including
negative emotions or maladaptive behaviors, such as procrastination.

The goal of REBT is to challenge a person’s negative thoughts and beliefs before the person
experiences an adverse outcome due to their beliefs. This approach may help a person
develop better coping skills and improve their overall quality of life.

Research has shownTrusted Source that REBT can be an effective form of therapy with
correct use. A therapist can help a person understand that the activating event does not
cause the consequences. Rather, it is the person’s beliefs, thoughts, and feelings about the
event that lead to their negative reaction.

When a therapist uses the technique effectively, REBT can help a person realize that they
have more control over their reactions than they previously believed, which can lead to an
improved quality of life.

CBT VS REBT

The main differenceTrusted Source between REBT and other forms of CBT is that REBT
focuses on irrational thoughts and beliefs, proposing that:

 Irrational beliefs are extreme, illogical, and rigid.

 Rational beliefs are logical, flexible, and non-extreme.

Therapists specializing in REBT work to help a person replace the irrational beliefs
surrounding an event with rational beliefs.

How effective is REBT?

Research has shown that REBT can be an effective form of therapy.

In a 2017 reviewTrusted Source, researchers analyzed 50 years’ worth of studies and

metadata pertaining to REBT. They conclude that REBT provides a valid intervention for
people by helping them restructure how they respond to events.

30
A 2016 studyTrusted Source looked at how REBT could help the mental health of athletes.
The authors note that REBT can help an athlete perform better and improve their overall
mental health.

Another 2016 study showed that REBT could be an effective tool for social workers. After a
year of use, people working with their social workers visited their doctors less frequently
and reduced their use of prescription medications.

Although REBT can be an effective therapy, not everyone will respond to it in the same way.
Anyone who is finding it ineffective should talk with their therapist or a doctor about other
potential options.

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy

(CBT) developed by psychologist Albert Ellis. REBT is an action-oriented approach that’s
focused on helping people deal with irrational beliefs and learn how to manage
their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in a healthier, more realistic way.

When people hold irrational beliefs about themselves or the world, problems can result.
REBT helps people recognize and alter those beliefs and negative thinking patterns in order
to overcome psychological problems and mental distress.1

How Rational Emotive Therapy Works

According to REBT, our cognition, emotions, and behavior are connected. 2 In order to
understand the impact of events and situations that people encounter throughout life, it’s
essential to look at the beliefs people hold about these experiences and the emotions that
arise as a result of those beliefs.

The main goal of REBT is to help people respond rationally to situations that would typically
cause stress, depression, or other negative feelings. When faced with this type of situation
in the future, the emotionally healthy response would be to realize that it is not realistic to
expect success in every endeavor. All you can do is learn from the situation and move on.

Main Beliefs

Rational emotive behavior therapy operates under a few main beliefs. The three main
beliefs of REBT are:3

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  You are worthy of self-acceptance no matter what even when you struggle or make
mistakes; there is no need for shame or guilt.
 Others are also worthy of acceptance, even when their behavior involves something
that you don’t like.

 Negative things will sometimes happen in life, and that doesn’t mean that things are
happening in a way they shouldn’t be. Life is not positive all of the time, and there’s
no rational reason to expect it to be.

ABC Model

A core concept of REBT is the ABC model. This model explains how, while we may blame
external events for our unhappiness, it is our interpretation of these events that truly lies at
the heart of our psychological distress.

"ABC" is an acronym for:1

 A: Activating event, which is when something happens in the environment around

you
 B: Belief, which describes your thoughts about the event or situation

 C: Consequence, which is your emotional response to your belief

During REBT, your therapist will help you learn how to apply the ABC model to your daily
life.

If you’re feeling depressed due to a conflict in your relationship, for example, a rational
emotive behavior therapist may help you identify the activating event for your problem
before encouraging you to figure out which beliefs led to your negative feelings. They
would then work with you to change those beliefs and, ultimately, your emotional response
to the conflict.

Common Irrational Beliefs Addressed With REBT

An important step in the therapeutic process is recognizing the underlying beliefs that lead
to psychological distress. In many cases, these are reflected as absolutes, as in "I must," "I
should," or "I can’t."

Some of the most common irrational beliefs addressed in rational emotive behavior
therapy include:
32
  Feeling excessively upset over other people’s mistakes or misconduct
 Believing that you must be perfectly competent and successful in everything to be
valued and worthwhile

 Believing that you will be happier if you avoid life’s difficulties or challenges

 Feeling that you have no control over your own happiness; that your contentment
and joy are dependent upon external forces

Holding unyielding beliefs like these makes it almost impossible to respond to activating
situations in a psychologically healthy way. Possessing rigid expectations of ourselves and
others only leads to disappointment, recrimination, regret, and anxiety.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Techniques

A couple of different techniques can be used during rational emotive behavior therapy.

Disputation

One step toward changing your beliefs is undergoing a process called disputation.
Disputation is meant to teach you life-long skills to help you manage your emotional
response and overall mental health.3

During disputation, your therapist will challenge your irrational beliefs using direct
methods. They may question your beliefs head-on, causing you to rethink them, or they
could ask you to imagine another point of view that you haven’t considered before.

While each therapist may approach disputation differently, challenging your beliefs is part
of the process. Ellis suggested that rather than simply being warm and supportive,
therapists need to be blunt, honest, and logical in order to push people toward changing
their thoughts and behaviors.

A therapist following the REBT framework may use one or more techniques to help a
person achieve their goals. The central technique is what practitioners call “disputing.”

Therapists can break disputing down into different types, including:

 Logical disputes: These question the logic of a person’s thinking process.

33
  Functional disputes: These question whether the belief will help a person achieve a
goal.

 Philosophical disputes: The person considers whether some pleasure can come
anyway despite the negative event.

 Empirical disputes: The person questions whether the facts of the event are accurate.

In addition to disputing, a therapist may use other techniques, which may include:

 reframing, or viewing an issue from a different point of view

 modeling, which means having a person copy the positive response to an event that
another individual might present

 humor

 encounter exercises

 therapist’s unconditional acceptance

 acting on rational beliefs

Targeting Emotional Responses

An important part of the REBT process is learning how to replace your irrational beliefs with
healthier ones. This process can be daunting and upsetting, and it’s normal to feel some
discomfort or to worry that you’ve made a mistake.

While REBT uses cognitive strategies, it focuses on emotions and behaviors as well. 1 In
addition to identifying and disputing irrational beliefs, therapists and clients also work
together to target the emotional responses that accompany problematic thoughts.

Techniques that might be encouraged include:

 Meditation
 Journaling

 Guided imagery

34
Conditions REBT Can Help With

REBT has some data to support its benefit for a variety of conditions, including: 4

 Anxiety and distress

 Depression

 Disruptive behavior in children

 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

 Social anxiety disorder

 Psychotic symptoms

REBT has also shown promise in sports psychology, where it can be used to help athletes
overcome irrational beliefs that may be negatively impacting their mental health and
performance.1

Benefits of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

When developing REBT, Ellis’s goal was to create an action-oriented approach

to psychotherapy that produced results by helping people manage their emotions,
cognitions, and behaviors. Indeed, research suggests that REBT is effective at reducing
irrational beliefs and changing behavior.4

We see the same results in sports psychology, where REBT can decrease irrational beliefs
and reduce anxiety for athletes.5

Overall, REBT offers several behavioral benefits, like:4

 Reduced feelings of anger, anxiety, depression, and distress

 Improved health and quality of life

 Better school performance and social skills

Effectiveness of REBT

REBT has a wide range of potential applications. Because it’s focused on education and
taking action, it may be effective for a variety of situations and mental health conditions. It
may even lead to lasting change in those who undergo this form of therapy. 4
35
Burnout at School or Work

Researchers have studied the impact that REBT has on professional and academic
performance. One 2018 study showed that this approach was effective in
reducing symptoms of burnout for undergraduate students and continued to help even
months after therapy concluded.6

Another 2018 study showed similar results for nurses. Group REBT reduced their job-
related stress and burnout while increasing their job satisfaction and commitment to their
organization.7

What Is Group Therapy?

Depression and Anxiety

REBT may be effective in reducing symptoms for people with depression or anxiety. The
positive effects also appear to last even after therapy ends.4

REBT has also shown promising results for adolescents experiencing depression. This may
be due to its emphasis on teaching techniques like:8

 Identifying cognitive errors

 Challenging irrational beliefs

 Separating individuals from their behaviors

 Practicing acceptance

Sports-Related Issues

REBT is quickly gaining popularity as a treatment option for athletes who are experiencing
mental health issues. It can be used to restore and maintain athletes’ mental health,
helping them learn how to change their outlook and manage their emotions. This often
improves their athletic performance, though the goal of REBT in sports psychology is to care
for the athlete’s mental well-being first and foremost.1

Factors to Consider With REBT

REBT can be a daunting process. For some, disputation may feel aggressive or
confrontational, and facing irrational thought patterns can be difficult, as it’s not easy to

36
accept these beliefs as unhealthy. The process of changing these thoughts can be even
more challenging, as it may involve learning to let go of long-held beliefs.

REBT is meant to teach you life-long skills and, as such, it’s not a passive process. Your
sessions may involve reading assignments and homework, and you’ll likely have to step out
of your comfort zone to get the benefits of this form of therapy.

How to Get Started With Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

To begin REBT, check with your doctor for any recommendations of local therapists or
search for mental healthcare professionals who offer this approach either in person
or online.

During your first session, your therapist will likely discuss your goals and the activating
event (or events) that prompted you to seek treatment. They may want to delve into REBT
techniques right away; this form of therapy is very active and focused, so your therapist is
not likely to spend a lot of time on casual conversation.

Throughout your treatment, you will probably receive homework assignments to complete
and new behaviors to experiment with. Your willingness to try out new beliefs and different
behaviors will impact how beneficial REBT is for you.

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Suma P. Chand; Daniel P. Kuckel; Martin R. Huecker. (2022.) Cognitive Behavior Therapy.
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process

John Parankimalil (2015) The Reality of LonelinessNeed and Importance of Guidance

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https://www.verywellmind.com/rational-emotive-behavior-therapy-2796000

Dan Brennan, MD (2021) What is a Psychotherapist? Written by WebMD Editorial

Contributors Medically Retried from https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-
psychotherapist

Shayna Joubert |(2021), What is Multicultural Counseling & Why Is It Important?

Northeastern University Graduate Programme. Retried from:
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