Unit 1

Nature of counseling
Counseling is the application of mental health, psychological, or human development principles,
through cognitive, affective, behavioral or systemic intervention strategies, that address
wellness, personal growth, or career development, as well as pathology.
Depending on the needs of the client and the availability of services, counseling may range
from a few brief interactions in a short period of time, to numerous interactions over an
extended period of time. Brief interventions, such as classroom discussions, workshop
presentations, or assistance in using assessment, information, or instructional resources, may
be sufficient to meet individual needs. Or, these brief interventions may lead to longer-term
counseling interventions for individuals with more substantial needs. Counseling may be
delivered by a single counselor, two counselors working collaboratively, or a single counselor
with brief assistance from another counselor who has specialized expertise that is needed by
the client.

Scope of Counseling

Counseling has proven effectiveness in dealing with human concerns and strengthening
capacities of individuals.
 The major functions of counseling include promotion, prevention, remediation,
restoration and accelerating growth of individuals.
 Counselors address educational needs, vocational needs and personal needs
of individuals.
 Counseling develops ability of persons to adjust with situations and develop the ability to
face problems and resolve them.
 Counseling provides necessary information for taking effective decisions in life.
 Counseling helps in developing positive mental health of individuals.
 Professional counseling is provided within the context of individual, couples,
family and group formats. Some counselors define their work on the basis of
developmental life stages (i.e., child counseling, adolescent counseling, and geriatric
counseling). Counseling can also be distinguished temporally, whether it is intended to be
very short term crisis counseling, brief counseling or long-term counseling.
 Distinct sub specialties in the profession of counseling include school counseling,
career counseling, mental health counseling, industrial counseling etc. Counseling also
could be viewed in terms of the distinct theoretical orientations followed by the counselor
(e.g., Solution focused counseling, person centered counseling, existential counseling etc
 Counselling can be educational, personal/social, and/or vocational. Educational counselling
assists students in making right decisions about their educational choices such as the
courses they want to take up, and decide on what interests and skills they want to develop
Definitions of Guidance:
Guidance involves personal help given by someone; it is designed to assist the individual to
decide where he wants to go, what he wants to do and how best he can accomplish his
purpose”. —Jones
“Guidance is a term with many meanings. It is a point of view a group of services, a field of
study which we should be required to choose one of the emphasized service would pre-
dominate”. —Moser and Moser

“Guidance is a process of enabling each individual to understand his abilities and interest to
develop them as well as possible and to relate them to life goals and finally to reach a state of
complete and matured self-guidance as a desirable human element of the social order.” —
Traxler

“Guidance is the process of helping a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate
picture of himself and of his role in the world of work, to test this concept against reality and to
convert it into reality with satisfaction to himself and benefit to the society”. —National
Vocational Guidance Association (USA)

“Guidance is a means of helping individuals to understand and use wisely the educational,
vocational and personal opportunities they have or can develop and as a form of systematic
assistance whereby students are aided in achieving satisfactory adjustment to school and in
life”. —Dunsmoor and Miller

Nature of Guidance 

1. Guidance Stands for the Process of Education as a Whole:

It is response to the need of the hour. It attends the all round growth and development of
children. In this age of overcrowded classes, guidance is a ray of hope to provide personal
attention to the children or students very much need. The reason is that it helps them to keep
pace with the classroom teaching in schools. Besides, they learn from guidance how to maintain
physical health and enjoy a sound mental health.

2. The Guidance is Meant for All the Children:

The guidance is needed by all the children. It means guidance is meant for one and all
irrespective of differences, if any. To justify it we can visualize here that the gifted on one end
and the mentally retarded on the other end need more guidance or assistance than it is needed
by an average child. So it is not only in quantum but also varies in kind. The dumb and deaf,
blind and crippled children need guidance assisted by a trained guidance worker. He is called as
the resource person. The children who are socially disadvantaged also need guidance. So
guidance is meant for one and all and is highly acceptable now.
3. Guidance is Attainment of Self-Direction by an Individual:
At any level or stage, guidance implies that the individual attains self-direction. Just at first and
as far as his mental, social and emotional abilities permit, guidance of the younger or less
mature individual, calls for closer direction than does guidance of the older or more mature
individual. So the term guidance, aptly applies to working with an individual all along the lines
from early childhood to adulthood.

4. Guidance as a Continuous Process:

Man has to adjust with every situation of the society whenever it demands. Otherwise he or
she wouldn’t able to have successful existence in this cosmic figure. So adjustment is a
continuous process for every individual. Like this, guidance is also a continuous process.
According to Mathewson, guidance is a, “continuous and pervasive process as a favourable, a
directional influence upon appropriate social behaviour, personal effectiveness in every-day
affairs, academic competence and progress and assimilation of right values and attitudes”.

5. Guidance is both a Science and an Art:

Guidance is a science as it has built up its own standardized tools and techniques to work with.
These are meant for a team of guidance personnel. Guidance has a scientific process as a hole.
This is only one way of looking at the things. On the other hand guidance is also accepted as an
art. By itself, it is an art to have personal rapport with students and prevail upon them to
respond to guidance they have in schools. In this perspective a skillful handling of students in
itself is an art that paves the way for the scientific process of guidance. Guidance by nature, is
thus both a science and an art.

6. Guidance is a Process of Learning, Helping and Effective for an Individual:

Being contextual in our approach here the opinion given by Knapp has been cited here. “To him
learning about the individual student helping him to understand himself, effecting changes in
him and in his environment which will help him to grow and develop as much as possible. These
are the elements of guidance”.

7. Guidance is a Team Work:

Being practical in our approach we can say that the guidance programme in any educational
institution or in schools is learnt under the leadership of a trained worker who is known as a
counselor. Of course, he heads the team of guidance personnel. The head of the educational
institution or school acts as the head of this team. All the teachers are the other members of
this team.

The teacher’s teaching is full of guidance for the children. Besides the school medical officer,
the resource person and the social worker have to play a role in giving guidance to the children
as they need in schools. In addition to this, the career master is also counted and responsible
for giving one type of guidance, that is i.e. vocational guidance to the children. The
psychologist, even if not being the permanent member of this team but he stands by as may be
needed by the guidance team in schools. So guidance is a team work while it is organised in an
educational institution or school.

8. Guidance as the Promotion of the Growth of the Individual in Self Direction:

According to Jones, “Guidance involves personal health given by someone; it is designed to
assist a person in deciding where he wants to go, what he wants to do or how he can best
achieve his purposes; it assists him in solving problems that arise in his life. It doesn’t solve
problems for the individual, but helps him to solve them. The focus of guidance is the
individual, not the problem; its purpose is to promote the growth of the individual in self
direction”.

9. Guidance is Functional by Nature:

Guidance gives guidelines and suggestions to the children or students to think wise. They
decide after getting guidelines and suggestions from the guidance. For which they are known to
act like intelligent persons. As a whole, they are motivated for a healthy pattern of life. Of
course, guidance shows the path of life that the children find satisfying to them and useful for
all in the society they leave. In practical situation or life, guidance keeps the children on the
right track. It prevents them going astray in life.

10. Guidance is a Process of Assisting an Individual to Find His Place:

This nature of guidance indicates the fact that every individual has a place in the society. In
order to keep and maintain his position in the society he has to do his duty for himself as well
as for the society. He has to perform such activities that will result in his betterment as well as
of the society. For this it is the function of guidance programme of an educational institution or
the school to assist the individual to perform his duties in a socially desirable and acceptable
manner. As a result of this, the individual becomes able to find an appropriate place in the
society.

11. Guidance Establishes an Effective Relationship:

Any guidance programme organised in the school is regarded as a vital mean of establishing a
relationship between total educational experiences of the student or child and his personal
needs and potentialities on one hand. On the other hand, it is also accepted as a vital mean of
establishing effective relationship among the personnel more or less involved in the
organisation of the school. They are the headmaster, teachers, guidance workers, counselors,
career masters and community members who play their respective role in establishing
relationship.

12. Guidance is Regarded as a Professional Process:

To justify this nature of guidance the definition given by Mathewson on guidance has been
cited here. According to him, “Guidance is the systematic professional process of helping the
individual through education and interpretative procedures to gain a better understanding of
his own characteristics and potentialities and, to relate himself more satisfactorily to social
requirements and opportunities in accordance with social and moral values.
13. Guidance is Individual and Grouped in Nature:
The guidance is individual in nature means it may be organised only for one individual to assist
one in his/her personal, vocational and educational sphere. In other words, it is a matter of
giving the message face-to-face. It is a personal counselling to each student. It is education for
him that he needs it for his all round growth and development. So individual guidance is meant
for one but the group guidance is organised or meant for a group of children or students.

It means it is given to a pure group of children all at a time. It deals with their common needs.
In group like situations, things are discussed and a third person answers the questions that each
and every child has in his mind.

14. Guidance as a Systematic Phase of the Educative Process:

In the words of Lefever, “Guidance is that systematic, organised phase of the educational
process which helps youth in his power to give point and direction to his own like, to the end
that he may gain richer personal experiences while making his own unique contribution to our
democratic society”.

15. Guidance is a Process of Assisting to Adjust:

According to Brewer, the word guidance should be used whenever an important activity is to be
learnt and assistance is needed by the individual to learn that activity and adjust himself,
whether that activity is the choice of leisure time activity or habit of eating or behaviour
towards the opposite sex.

Scope of guidance 
The following factors are responsible for the expansion of the scope of guidance.

1. Complex nature of personality. Industrialisation brings with it a number of tensions such as

adjustment with the job, with the place of work, with the physical and social environment, and
also with the advancements of technology and modernisation. To cope with all these, guidance
is essential. So the scope of guidance in the field of adjustment with almost all spheres of life
has increased.
2. Complexity of Occupation. In the process of industrialisation, automation and cybernetics,
many new occupations are coming up and a few old occupations are dying. In U.S.A., an
average man changes seven occupation through his life. The trend is bound to effect as the
process of development will need very complex sophisticated and complicated occupations for
which higher educational background and intensive training will be necessary. This complexity
is bound to increase the scope of guidance in so many ways.
3. Complexity of Training. For the new jobs, new type of training, new courses of studies, use of
new types of machines and above all to prepare oneself for employment in the changing world
are some of the problems which will have to be tackled in an effective way, with the help of
guidance. The scope of guidance will be to put right man in the right job.
4. Increasing Areas. With the passing of time and complexity of circumstances, scholars like
Brewer have prepared about 10 areas of guidance i.e., educational, vocational, religious, home
relationship, citizenship, leisure time and recreation, personal well-being, right doing,
cooperation and cultural action. The fact remain that more complex the society, more will be
the need for guidance.
5. Migration. Because of industrialisation process, people move from one state to other states.
In India, the states are quite different in their religion, culture, mode of living, dress, eating
habits and marriages. When they move from one social set up to another one, the problem of
adjustment becomes serious for which guidance is needed.
The similar types of adjustment problems are found when the people from one country migrate
to another country for employment, education or training, for which guidance if required.

6. The Expansion of Education. The days are gone when only a few privileged were to be
educated. Now, education has become asset for the nation and right placement of persons
need a lot of guidance.
7. Areas of guidance. The Scope of guidance is classified into several areas where and individual
needs guidance. These areas can be classified into educational guidance, vocational guidance,
personal guidance, social guidance, avocational guidance and Health guidance.
Thus guidance is a continuous, complex, dynamic and comprehensive process. Guidance is
concerned with educational, vocational and other problems along with personal problems.
Guidance work can occur anywhere and can be provided even through magazines, books and
correspondence.

Contributing to educational problems

The link between neighbourhood and school effects for educational outcomes

The school is often perceived as an important context mediating the effects of neighbourhood
socioeconomic disadvantage and affluence. There are several ways in which the
neighbourhood and school contexts can be perceived to be interrelated in influencing
educational outcomes (Kirk, 2005).

First, the school is often conceptualised as the most important institutional

mechanism through which neighbourhoods affect educational outcomes (Ainsworth,
2002; Sykes and Musterd, 2011). Neighbourhoods differ in the availability of and access to
educational facilities (Butler and Hamnett, 2007). An unequal distribution of educational
provision might result in a relative advantage in educational opportunities for children
residing in well-served neighbourhoods over children living in more poorly-served areas
(Sykes and Musterd, 2011). Neighbourhoods differ in the quality of available schools (e.g.
school resources and teacher performance), affecting a child’s educational opportunities
(Ainsworth, 2002). Internal school processes might in turn be influenced by the composition
of neighbourhoods; the challenging context of disadvantaged neighbourhoods makes it for
instance more difficult for schools to achieve high-quality education (Lupton, 2004). Areas
furthermore differ in their provision of types of education; children residing in areas with
limited educational programmes available (e.g. higher educational tracks) might be
disadvantaged in their educational opportunities (Sykes and Musterd, 2011).
Secondly, the neighbourhood plays an important role in selecting children into schools, hence
informing school compositions and social processes (Kauppinen, 2008). This is especially
important since the school is identified as one of the most important local sites where social
interactions between young people take place (Sykes and Musterd, 2011). Social processes
identified in neighbourhood effects research might partially be taking place in the school
context (Sykes and Musterd, 2011). Two social mechanisms can be argued to be especially
important in the school context: the influence of peers’ attitudes and behaviour in school; and
collective socialisation, with adults (e.g. school teachers) who serve as role models and
exercise social control. The competences of teachers may in turn be related to the
neighbourhood in which the school is located, since schools in disadvantaged neighbourhoods
may be unable to attract qualified teachers (Lupton, 2004) and teachers might adjust their
practices according to the composition of pupils in the school, which is in turn informed by
neighbourhood composition (Kauppinen, 2008). Besides this, lower-class and ethnic minority
children might be disadvantaged due to the white Eurocentric pedagogical climate in schools,
which might contribute to discrimination and exclusion in the educational system (Stam,
2018).

Although it is now widely recognised that neighbourhood and school contexts are interrelated
in affecting educational outcomes, only a few studies have examined the effects of these
contexts for educational outcomes simultaneously. Schools and neighbourhoods may work
together in intricate ways in which the relative advantage or deprivation of pupils depends on
the interaction between school and neighbourhood (Owens, 2010). Wodtke and Parbst
(2017), who analyse school and neighbourhood characteristics simultaneously, find no
evidence that neighbourhood effects are mediated through school poverty, and suggest that
other mechanisms must be at work, such as ‘neighborhood subcultures, violent crime and
environmental health hazards’ (Wodtke and Parbst, 2017: 1672). Ainsworth (2002), on the
other hand, finds that the positive effect of neighbourhood high socioeconomic status (SES)
for educational achievement is partially mediated through school atmosphere. Similarly, Pong
and Hao (2007) find that neighbourhood SES is positively related, and the proportion of
foreign-born negatively, to the grade-point average of secondary school students – and that
this association is mediated by school conditions.

Examining educational attainment in a school district in Scotland, Garner and Raudenbush

(1991) find that neighbourhood deprivation is still significantly related to lower educational
attainment after taking into account individual ability, family background and variation in the
schools attended. For the Swedish context, Brännström (2008) finds that secondary school
characteristics explain more of the variance in educational achievement than neighbourhood
characteristics (SES and immigrant density). Furthermore, the variance explained at the
neighbourhood level was strongly reduced after inclusion of the school context, indicating
that neighbourhood effects are mainly transmitted through the school context.
Similarly, Kauppinen (2008) finds for the Finnish context that the relation of neighbourhood
composition to secondary school choice is in large part mediated by the socioeconomic
composition of the school. For the Dutch context, Sykes (2011) finds that the association
between neighbourhood SES and educational achievement is largely transmitted through the
 secondary school. These empirical findings all seem to indicate that the school is an important
pathway through which neighbourhood effects on educational outcomes are transmitted.

Finally, it is important to realise that neighbourhood (and school) effects do not work in the
same way for everyone. Sharkey and Faber (2014) called for a more flexible and sensitive
analysis of when, why and for whom the context becomes salient. This also resonates in the
work of Sampson, who in a recent paper reiterates his critique of too narrow and
dichotomous definitions of neighbourhood effects, explicitly including sorting mechanisms of
who lives where as part of the broader contexts that shape life chances

Unit 2
LEARNING STYLES

Learning style has to do with how people bring new information into their knowledge base.
Knowing your learning style enables you to use your strengths as you study for courses. One of
many instruments for determining learning style is the VARK questionnaire, developed by Neil
Fleming. The VARK system categorizes learners into four styles: Visual, Aural, Reading/Writing,
and Kinesthetic. Many learners show strength in more than one learning style

Visual learners learn best from visual images that do not include writing. Graphs and diagrams
are easy for them to understand. They remember faces and places and tend to recall
information by picturing it in their minds. If you want to invite a visual learner to come to your
house, draw a map. In college, a visual learner is going to find it relatively easy to “read” a pie
chart in a business class or perceive differences between artists’ painting styles.

Aural or auditory learners do well with hearing information. They remember words to songs
and can recall conversations in detail by hearing them in their minds. If you want an aural
learner to come to your house, just tell him or her how to get there. In college, an aural learner
will remember lecture material in a variety of classes and may be skilled at memorizing things
like music or lines for a theatrical production

Reading/Writing learners are at home with written material. They comprehend and remember
what they read, and they often enjoy writing. If you want a reading/writing learner to come to
your house, provide written directions. College classes have traditionally been geared to the
reading/writing learning style; these learners can take notes in most classes and will benefit
from reading them as a method for study.

Kinesthetic learners learn by doing. Hands-on activities and real-life experiences help them
remember. If you want a kinesthetic learner to come to your house, the simplest way is to take
him or her there yourself or get someone else to do so. Another way to give directions to a
kinesthetic learner would be to provide details about what to look for on the way there, making
your directions as experiential as possible. College classes like science labs, acting, or sports
teach to the strengths of kinesthetic learners
Learning Styles Tips and Strategies

VISUAL

 Doodle diagrams of your written information in the margins

 Create a flowchart for the progression of your notes and ideas

 Make flashcards that include pictures or diagrams as visual clues

 Highlight key information in your texts or notes  Create a chart or a series of boxes to remind
you how to complete math equations  Use a computer to convert data and notes into charts,
tables, graphics, pictures, etc.  Vocabulary mnemonics  Hangman game  Timelines

AURAL/AUDITORY

 Use a computer to record your notes read aloud. Convert this information to download for
iPod using iTunes

 Read your notes aloud when studying (mind your surroundings!)

 Work with a regular study partner to review out loud

 Work in a group where you can discuss the information

 Tape lectures. If available, set the counter to zero when it begins and note the number at
difficult times during lecture. Review these recorded times later for extra review.

 When learning new material, especially equations, talk your way through the material. 
Singing/ creating a song  Use of metaphors/similes to compare and remember (as long as they
are voiced)  Use Internet resources like YouTube.com  Invent acronyms  Mnemonic devices

READING/WRITING

 Re-write your notes after class.  Use colored pens and highlighters to focus in on key ideas 
Write notes to yourself in the margins  Write out key concepts and ideas  Compose short
explanations for diagrams, charts, graphs  Write out instructions for each step of a procedure
or math problem  Print out your notes for later review  Post note cards/post-its in visible
places (when doing dishes, on the bottom of the remote, etc.)  Vocab mnemonics  Organize
your notes/key concepts into a Powerpoint slideshow  Compare your notes with someone
else’s  Repetitive writing  Hangman game

KINESTHETIC

 Type your notes after class -Create a YouTube video as a group to study later individually 
Write your notes onto flashcards - Scrabble -Make posters  Review flashcards while walking, at
gym, etc.  Dog-ear pages in the reading where you can find critical information  Sit near the
front of the room  Walk back and forth, move in some way, when studying notes  Read your
notes out loud  As much as possible, create models for the information at hand  Use the
internet to research your subject material  When possible, visit locations for your material
(library, museum, historical sites, etc.)  To learn a sequence or equation, use one note card for
each step.  Highlight material when reviewing/studying  Use a dry-erase or chalk board to
study or review  Taboo-type game/ charades  Correlate physical movements with ideas/terms

Time Management
Most students start out each new semester of school with high expectations. They envision
themselves being successful in their studies and school work but they fail to put together a
realistic plan, or establish a routine, that will enable them to achieve academic success. There
are only so many hours in a day, days in a week, and weeks in a term. And if you don't pay
attention, the end of the semester will arrive before you know it – catching you by surprise. To
achieve academic success, you must carefully manage your study time on a daily, weekly, and
semester basis. The following is a time management strategy for doing exactly that.

Step 1. Prepare a Term Calendar

At the start of each new term, before you get heavily involved in your studies or other activities,
prepare a calendar that covers the entire term. Your term calendar can look like a regular
monthly calendar, or it can employ a different format. Whichever format you choose, your term
calendar should outline the following:

 Assignments with their due dates

 Tests with their dates
 All school activities
 All out-of-school and extra-curricular activities

Step 2. Prepare a Weekly Schedule

Unlike your term calendar, which is planned out in its entirety at the beginning of each term,
your weekly schedule is prepared at the beginning of each new week. Each Sunday sit down
and prepare your weekly schedule. Although you'll prepare your weekly schedule each Sunday,
you should update your schedule as the week progresses and new items arise. To prepare your
weekly schedule do the following:

 Write down on your calendar each class you have for each day of the week
 Take a look at your term calendar and write down on your weekly calendar items that need
to be completed, or are occurring that week (i.e. assignments, tests, events, etc.)
 Go back and review all your class notes and your schedule from the prior week to see if
there is anything you need to add to this week's schedule that is carrying over.
 Add to your weekly schedule any out-of-school and extra-curricular activities you'll be
participating in during the upcoming week.
 Note down the day and time for each assignment, study session, work group or project
you'll be completing during the week. These may be occurring in the evening, after school,
or during school.

Step 3. Prepare a Daily Schedule

You'd think a term calendar and weekly schedule would be sufficient to effectively manage your
time, but they aren't. You also need to prepare a daily schedule. Each evening, prepare a daily
schedule for the next school day. Place a check mark next to each item to be completed as it is
completed. To prepare your daily schedule do the following:
 Jot down everything from your weekly schedule that you need to do for the coming day.
 Write down everything from your previous daily schedule that wasn't completed and needs
to be completed the next day.
 Check your daily schedule for the current day to see if there are any other school activities
that you need to include for the following day.
 Include any other activities from your weekly schedule that need to be included in your next
day's schedule
You'll notice that one of the keys to effectively managing your study time is to start with the big
picture and then work down to the detail. Your term calendar provides direction and instruction
for accomplishing the big picture. Your weekly and daily schedules provide the detail required
to accomplish everything in your term calendar, enabling you to accomplish your term goals
one day and week at a time.

Other Time Managements Skills

Once you've developed a term calendar, weekly schedule, and daily schedule, there are several
other strategies that will help you accomplish more and make the most effective use of your
time. These include:
 Prioritize your assignments. As you progress through your education, you'll find the topics of
study become more complex, the work load more demanding and the material more
challenging. By the time you arrive at college, there just isn't enough time in the day to get
everything done. Start the habit of beginning your studying with the most difficult, or
important, subject or task first. Tackling the hardest subjects first, while you're still fresh and
energized, will make the remainder of your studies much easier.
 Find a dedicated study space. Some students will spend the first 20 minutes of their study
time just looking for somewhere to study. A key to ongoing time management is to find a
dedicated study space free from distractions where you can concentrate. If you want to
change up your study space, that's fine, just make sure to find a study space that works and
stick with it.
 Create blocks of study time. Not only should you have a dedicated study space, you should
have dedicated study time–blocks of time where you focus on your studies. Blocks around 40
to 50 minutes are ideal, but may be longer or shorter based on the subject and your ability to
focus. It's okay to take study breaks during your blocks for a snack, or just to get up and walk
around, but make sure to return to your studies.
 Schedule activities for after your school work. One of the most difficult, yet important,
elements of effective time management is to put your school work first. It's easy to say you'll
get your school work done later, or just before you go to bed. It's just as easy to say you'll do
it tomorrow when bedtime arrives and you no longer have the disposition or energy to get it
done. Complete your school work as soon as possible. Putting off less important activities
until after you complete your school work will allow you stay on track and focus on your
"fun" activities without the pressure looming school work.
 Use helpful resources. The old adage, if at first you don't succeed, try, try, try again, while
useful for many of life's situations, isn't always the best philosophy when you're strapped for
time and can't figure out your chemistry homework. As you progress through middle school,
high school and then into college, it's wise to rely on the help, expertise and knowledge of
others to assist you with the learning process. Smart friends, tutors, study groups, and even
the Internet, are useful resources for tackling complex subjects and making the most
effective use of your time.
 Join a study group. Study groups offer several advantages to students, least of which is the
ability to cover more material faster. Working in a study group makes it possible to research
and learn about various topics quickly. Each member is assigned a topic and then provides a
summary to the group.
 Get exercise. Eat right. Get plenty of sleep. Yeah, you've heard this before, but let us say it
again. Get exercise, eat right and get plenty of sleep. If you're not at your peak, you won't be
able to focus or concentrate, nor will you have the energy or stamina to get your studies
completed efficiently. Going to bed an hour earlier can make all the difference the next day in
your ability to make the best use of your time.
 Be flexible. You can't plan for everything. Unforeseen obstacles are bound to pop up, so plan
accordingly and be flexible. Just want sure to get back on track as soon as possible and
maintain your monthly, weekly and daily schedule.

Cognitive issues

 attention
What is attention?
Attention could be defined as the ability to generate, select, manage and maintain an adequate
level of stimulation to process the relevant information. Said in another way, attention is a
process that takes place on a cognitive level (cognitive process), and that allows us to orientate
ourselves towards the stimuli that are relevant, ignoring those that are not, in order to act in
consequence.

Types of Attention
Classification of Attention by Ross: According to Ross, attention can be classified into Non-
Volitional (Involuntary attention) and Volitional (Voluntary attention).
Non-Volitional (Involuntary Attention): This type of attention does not involve any role of will;
instead it is aroused either by instincts and hence called enforced attention or is produced by
our sentiments and therefore called as spontaneous non-volitional attention. Examples of non-
volitional attention could be attention paid to the members of the opposite gender or a
mother’s attention on noticing her crying child.
Volitional (Voluntary Attention): Volitional attention exercises the will and demands our
conscious effort for arriving at a solution or achieving certain goals. Unlike Non Volitional
attention, Volitional attention is less spontaneous or automatic. Examples of volitional attention
could be paying attention while solving maths problem or attention focused on while answering
examination questions.
Attention can further be categorized on the basis of needs or circumstances which we may be
faced with:
Sustained Attention: It is the ability to pay attention to only one task by consciously
concentrating on that task only for a long time enough and by avoiding all other forms of
distractions or deviations. This kind of attention requires a good deal of focus as well as
determination for being able to concentrate on a given task by keeping away all the
distractions. Sustained attention examples could be reading a book, memorizing a chapter or
following a classroom lecture.
Selective Attention: In this case, the listener chooses to pay attention to only a specific stimulus
which is present in the environment while ignoring the other stimuli. This kind of attention does
not depend on the stimulus but depends essentially on the attentive capabilities of an observer.
Divided Attention: In case of divided attention, the user pays attention to two or more tasks at
the same time and is also sometimes regarded as Multi-tasking which involves juggling between
two or more than two tasks at the same time. Its examples could be texting somebody while
attending a meeting. Divided attention uses mental focus on a very large scale; hence because
of divided attention the user may get exhausted very quickly.
Alternating Attention: Though this attention can be closely related to divided attention, but is
different as in case of divided attention we split our attention between two tasks, while in case
of alternating attention, the entire attention is shifted from one task to another or is done
alternately.
Visual Attention: Visual attention makes use of the sensory organ eyes for paying attention to
certain details. Visual attention pays attention to the details or inputs which are received by the
eyes only and blurs out all the other stimuli which is present in the environment. Visual
attention is put to use in case of advertising and reading.
Auditory Attention: This form of attention pays attention only to the sense of hearing only.
Paying attention to an important announcement can be an example of auditory attention.
Auditory and visual attention both function in conjunction with each other.
Concentration

Concentration is one of the most influential decisive factors in student’s learning quality. The
higher the student's level is, the less concentration they pay in class, especially university
students. Owing to this low level of concentration ability, many lecturers find it hard to
 maintain their enthusiasm when teaching students from this level, and also those students find
it hard to achieve the best outcome when graduating from university. For that reason, this
article will provide an understanding of all the distractions that undergraduate students may
have during their class. Also, the roles of a teacher will be put into a discussion so that readers
as teachers from all levels can have a better and deeper look into this academic job, with the
hope that they may find it useful for any of their changes later if they think it is necessary so
that their learners can have better experiment with them in class. And after all the analysis, this
article will suggest some good and applicable solutions that can be applied to improve the
situation. Hopefully, this would advance the teaching and learning quality in the university
environment.

The effectiveness of your study time is only as good as your ability to focus and concentrate
while studying. Choosing a quality study environment, decreasing any internal or external
distractions, and limiting your multitasking can help make your study time even more
productive and effective.

1. Choosing a study environment

The environment you study in can have a huge impact on your ability to concentrate, and
choosing an environment conducive to concentration is a proactive step towards monitoring
possible distractions. Consider the following factors when evaluating a potential study location:
 Are you unlikely to be interrupted or distracted?
 Is the environment (lighting, temperature, etc.) comfortable enough to work within, but not
so comfortable that you'll fall asleep?
 Are you able to either tune out the ambient noise, or do you have control over the noise
levels?
 Can you take productive breaks — is there space for you to walk around,windows for you to
look out of, water for your to access, etc.?
 Distractions and interruptions

Distractions come in all shapes, sizes and sounds. External distractions can include things like
general noise, other peoples' conversations, TV or movies, music, phone alerts, app alerts, and
anything else that diverts your attention from the task at hand. Internal distractions like hunger,
fatigue, illness, stress, worries, other distracting thoughts (things you should be doing instead,
things you’d rather be doing,  etc.) can interrupt your concentration as much as external
distractions.
As much as we may sometimes like to, we can't just shut our brains off or put them in a drawer
so they can't disturb us. And every time that we're distracted, it takes precious energy (that we
should be using to study, memorize, and master content) to refocus and return to our work.
To minimize this energy suck, and to make the most of your study time, do what you can to
remove your external distractions. Take time to recognize what those distraction triggers are
 for you, and then take action to remove them from your workspace. Shut off those alerts. Turn
your phone to do not disturb mode. Let your friends know that you'll be working and unable to
reply until the time that you're finished.

3. Multitasking

When it comes to studying, multitasking is ineffective, and a myth. While it may seem like
multitasking would be a good thing, research has shown that people who are multitasking are
actually not doing two things at the same time. Instead, they're switching back and forth quickly
between tasks. The result is that performance on both tasks suffers, and those who do this
task-switching are less likely to remember information later on (Dzubak, 2008). While there
may be other areas of our lives where multitasking is useful, studying and problem solving are
not one of these. Learning and mastery require deep concentration, and the interruptions and
distractions that come from trying to do more than one thing at once make it harder to focus
and decrease your chances of recalling that information later.
what concentration tips resonate for you?

 Evaluate your study locations.  If one location isn't working effectively, make adjustments to
that location or investigate other locations as options for studying.
 Identify your distractions. Whether they are internal or external distractions, note on a piece
of paper what distracts you from studying. If there are consistent distractions, ask yourself
how you can limit those and if any personal choices or adjustments could be made to keep
that distraction to a minimum.
 Put away obvious distractions. If you know your phone or laptop is a distraction for you or
that the alerts on it will interrupt your studying, turn these off.  Make a choice or
commitment to a certain period of time studying without those distractions.
 Make a list. If you consistently have random thoughts pop into your head about other tasks
you need to do or other commitments, keep a list as you study.  Don't dwell on the other task
you thought of, but write it down so that you do not forget it but can refocus on your
studying. Set up your study time so you minimize internal distractions. Get enough sleep, eat
healthy food, exercise, monitor caffeine intake, and monitor mental fatigue.
 Schedule breaks. Unfocused studying can be a sign that you need a short break prior to
trying to refocus. Having breaks scheduled reduces the chances of your getting off track
between the breaks.
 Vary your study strategies. If you lose focus when studying in one way for a long time, vary
the ways you study.  Try studying in one way for 20-30 minutes and then study using a
different strategy. The variety can help refresh your focus.
 Use rewards to motivate yourself. Make small goals for concentrating for a specific amount
of time, or accomplishing a task, and reward yourself when you complete it

Remembering and forgetting

Types of Forgetting:
1  Decay through disuse or Theory of Decay:

Forgetting is a process of fading of the learnt matter withpassage of time. According to this
view, the vivid impressions created in the cerebral cortex fade away as time passes. Such fading
or decay could be theresult of the normal metabolic processes of the brain. As time passes,
these processes might cause the traces of material once learnt to disintegrate gradually and
eventually to disappear altogether.

The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade automatically as a function of
time. Under this theory, you need to follow a certain pathway, or trace, to recall a memory. If
this pathway goes unused for some amount of time, the memory decays, which leads to
difficulty recalling, or the inability to recall, the memory. Rehearsal, or mentally going over a
memory, can slow this process. But disuse of a trace will lead to memory decay, which will
ultimately cause retrieval failure. This process begins almost immediately if the information is
not used: for example, sometimes we forget a person’s name even though we have just met
them

2)Interference of Association or Theory of Interference:

Here we see that forgetting is not caused just by fading away of traces, but by influence of the
intervening activities.

It is easier to remember recent events than those further in the past. ” Transience ” refers to
the general deterioration of a specific memory over time. Under interference theory, transience
occurs because all memories interfere with the ability to recall other memories. Proactive and
retroactive interference can impact how well we are able to recall a memory, and sometimes
cause us to forget things permanently.

a.    Retroactive interferences: Here new learning works backward & interferes with old
learning. Proactive interference occurs when old memories hinder the ability to make new
memories. In this type of interference, old information inhibits the ability to remember new
information, such as when outdated scientific facts interfere with the ability to remember
updated facts. This often occurs when memories are learned in similar contexts, or regarding
similar things. It’s when we have preconceived notions about situations and events, and apply
them to current situations and events. An example would be growing up being taught that
Pluto is a planet in our solar system, then being told as an adult that Pluto is no longer
considered a planet. Having such a strong memory would negatively impact the recall of the
new information, and when asked how many planets there are, someone who grew up thinking
of Pluto as a planet might say nine instead of eight.

b.    Proactive Inhibition or Interference: Here what we have learnt previously interferes with
the new learning. Forgetting in our daily life is more due to proactive interference; our ability to
recall what we have learnt is reduced by experiences previously
learnt. Retroactive interference occurs when old memories are changed by new ones,
sometimes so much that the original memory is forgotten. This is when newly learned
information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information. The
ability to recall previously learned information is greatly reduced if that information is not
utilized, and there is substantial new information being presented. This often occurs when
hearing recent news figures, then trying to remember earlier facts and figures. An example of
this would be learning a new way to make a paper airplane, and then being unable to
remember the way you used to make them.

3.    Theory of Repression or Motivated Forgetting

The two earlier theories are physiological process of affecting mental trace or interference in
learning. But here the person is not
given importance. For some people, forgetting is a psychological process, where by will the
unpleasant or conflicting experiences are repressed & pushed into the unconscious & forgotten.
Thus repression is done because it may cause anxiety to remember the experiences e.g.
remembering loved ones whom we will never see again, we want to forget those people who
hurt us.

Repression is a defensive mechanism. As stated by Freud in the theory of psychoanalysis,

painful experiences and forbidden desires are pushed into the unconscious and the person does
not want to remember them. Although they try to come to the level conscious, they are pushed
back or deliberately avoided.

According to Correspondence Early Childhood Education,  there are times when an incident or

any action is so painful that we cannot cope with its memory, so we completely repress the
memory. Teachers of Early Childhood Education argued that very dangerous or anxiety-
stimulating content is often unable to gain access to awareness. By pressing memory in the
subconscious and actively repressing it, we are unable to remember the memory. 
Motivated forgetting is purposeful forgetting, even if it is not purposeful at a conscious level.
Unable to remember the casualty patients, what happened in the time of the accident was
because the painful memories of the traumatic incident are probably repressed.

CAUSES OF FORGETTING
1.    Inadequate impression at the time of learning: Inadequate or improper learning is likely to
be forgotten. Sometimes we do not care to learn a thing or pay least attention to it. This type of
inadequate learning in most of the cases can be a real cause of forgetting.

2.    Lapse of time: With the passage of time what we learn, gets weaker and finally fade away.

3.    Poor health and defective mental state: A sound body is said to have a sound mind.
Deterioration in health makes an individual less confident. He remains in a state of tension and
 thus is unable to concentrate upon a thing. He is unable to learn it effectively nor can he recall
it.

4.    Repression: Repression is the active process of forgetting an experience because one wants

to forget it. This kind of forgetfulness is wishful. Actually we forget the things which we don‘t
want to remember. e.g. we forget to attend the marriage party which we don‘t want to attend.

5.    Emotional Disturbance: Fear, anxiety, stage fright may paralyze recall. Rise in emotions like
fear or anger
or love lead to forget the learned experiences e.g. a student afraid of a teacher may forget what
has been learnt.

6.    Alteration of stimulus condition: Sometimes forgetting occurs when we have alteration of

the stimulating conditions between the time of learning and the time of recall. e.g. a child who
learns the meaning of words like cat, rat etc. with the help
of pictures feel a great difficulty in naming them in the absence of such pictures.

7.    Forgetting due to interference of association: It means we forget something because what

we have learned previously interferes with the remembering of what we learn afterwards. The
interfering effects of associations can work both ways, forward and backward. In retroactive
inhibition later learning interferes with earlier learning. In proactive inhibition earlier learning
interferes with later learning.

8.    Change of stimulus conditions: we may have learnt in a specific environment, but we

forget in the changed environment e.g. we can say the speech well at home but in front of the
audience, we are unable to speak.

9.    Poor Health: this prevents us from remembering  learnt material.

10. Defective mental state, fatigue, lack of interest or willingness all lead to forgetting

Remembering
As a professor of cognitive psychology, I teach about memory, especially about when and
why our memories often fail us. Students are excited to apply this material to their
everyday lives.
During a recent class, a student asked whether other faculty were familiar with this
research and remarked that it would be helpful if everyone structured their lessons with
this knowledge in mind.
I offer the following tips taken from basic memory research. All of these findings can be
easily applied to how you teach your classes and advise students.
1. Attend to information. How often are your students checking text messages while
listening to your lecture, arguing that they are really good at multitasking? Remind your
students that most failures of memory are not problems with retrieval but with encoding.
 Most of the time we do not have difficulty pulling information out; the problem is that we
never got it in to begin with. To make this point, I use the classic Nickerson and Adams
(1979) penny task and ask students to draw the head of a penny from memory. They
quickly realize that they have “forgotten” which direction Lincoln is facing or are unsure
which phrases are on the heads or tails side. Explain to your students that they
didn’t forget what a penny looks like. The truth is that they never bothered to encode the
information. To remember something, they need to engage in controlled processing. They
have to block out other distractions and focus on the task at hand.
2. Engage in deep processing and self-reference. Deep processing involves thinking about
the meaning of the information and connecting it to personal experiences. To make this
point, I use a modified version of Craik and Tulving’s (1975) study and present students
with a list of adjectives, such as “creative,” “methodical,” or “serious.” For some of the
words they are asked a question about how it is spelled; for example, “Does the word
contain the letter T?” For other words, they are asked, “Does the word describe you?”
Later, students are asked to recall as many of the words as possible. Students are
significantly more likely to recall words from the “describe list” because they had to think
about the meanings and apply the words to themselves. Simply reading over a paragraph
of text or listening to a lecture does not guarantee encoding it into memory. What one
thinks about while listening or reading is what matters.
3. Generate cues. Students often request that I provide more examples of the concepts we
are discussing. Although instructor-provided examples and explanations are important, I
teach my students that it is more important that they come up with their own examples
and cues. Research by Mäntylä (1986) reveals that participants recalled 36 percent more
concepts when using self-generated cues than when using cues developed by someone
else.
4. Create context. Instructors know that students often come to class unprepared. Students
argue that they prefer to hear the lecture before reading the chapter. To explain why
skimming the chapter before class is important, I read my students an oddly worded
passage from a study by Bransford and Johnson (1972). First, I show half of the class a
picture that creates context for what they are about to hear. For this half of the group,
the strangely worded passage is clear, and they find they are able to recall large portions
of it after hearing it just once. The group not shown the picture fails to make sense of
what they have heard and have difficulty recalling details. Without looking at material
before class to create context, it is difficult for new material to make much sense.
5. Test frequently. This is the easiest strategy and can have the most impact on students.
Contrary to expectation, Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found that seeing a passage only
once and then forcing yourself to recall it from memory leads to better retention than
repeatedly reading the passage. Incorporate brief tests or quizzes into your course, and
encourage your students to self-test as they study. Reading a passage and then stopping
to ask yourself what you just read is going to be more effective than reading it twice.
Students may have heard much of this advice before. However, taking the time to put
students through these demonstrations will allow them to experience how these small
adjustments can influence their recall. They will then see the value of changing the way
they study.
Classroom Discipline
Discipline is defined as the practice of teaching others to obey rules or norms by using
punishment to correct unwanted behaviors. In a classroom, a teacher uses discipline to ensure
routine is maintained, school rules are enforced, and the students are in a safe learning
environment. While the word discipline seems negative, the goal of using discipline is to teach
students boundaries and limits to help students achieve personal and academic life goals.
Without discipline, learning cannot be accomplished. If students constantly disrupt the teacher,
the others in class are affected. If a student does not follow the rules and does not complete
classwork or homework, that student is missing out on valuable learning opportunities. The
goal of discipline is to ensure each student receives the most from their education. Let's take a
look at some strategies teachers can use in the classroom.
Systems and Preemptive Tools
When thinking about classroom discipline, we usually think about punishment. Instead, let's try
and stop the negative behaviors before they start. To do this, we need to think about classroom
management. What tools are you putting in place before the school year begins to manage
your classroom? What types of routines or systems will you use to ensure a consistent and safe
classroom environment? Let's start with expectations.
Expectations
Before you can enforce rules and norms, you have to clearly establish your expectations. Our
students need to know what is expected of them and how to behave.
Teachers should have class rules. It is important to have a list of expectations, such as class
rules, either posted on a wall or in a syllabus to ensure students understand what is expected of
them. It's also imperative that the teacher explains these rules so students have the ability to
ask questions.
Daily routines are also important. Having a routine students commit to every day is a great way
to help reinforce good behavior, responsibility, and best practice. Depending on age level, this
could look a few different ways. For younger students, hanging up coats and bags, getting
materials to tables, and putting lunches away are a few great ways to help kids get settled and
reinforce routine and responsibility. For the older students, having a worksheet or assignment
on the board for kids to start right away is an excellent way to refocus students and get them
settled while the teacher takes attendance and/or checks homework. This puts the student in
charge of starting the learning process.
Expectation and routine are necessary for proper classroom management, but these strategies
alone will not equal success. You must enforce these rules and routines at all times. The more
consistent you are, the more consistent your students will be.

Listening
Active Listening

Active listening is a particular communication technique that requires the listener to provide
feedback on what he or she hears to the speaker, by way of restating or paraphrasing what
they have heard in their own words. The goal of this repetition is to confirm what the listener
has heard and to confirm the understanding of both parties. The ability to actively listen
demonstrates sincerity, and that nothing is being assumed or taken for granted. Active listening
is most often used to improve personal relationships, reduce misunderstanding and conflicts,
strengthen cooperation, and foster understanding.

When engaging with a particular speaker, a listener can use several degrees of active listening,
each resulting in a different quality of communication with the speaker. This active listening
chart shows three main degrees of listening: repeating, paraphrasing, and reflecting.

Active listening can also involve paying attention to the speaker’s behavior and body language.
Having the ability to interpret a person’s body language lets the listener develop a more
accurate understanding of the speaker’s message.

The Receiving Stage

The first stage of the listening process is the receiving stage, which involves hearing and
attending.

Hearing is the physiological process of registering sound waves as they hit the eardrum. As
obvious as it may seem, in order to effectively gather information through listening, we must
first be able to physically hear what we’re listening to. The clearer the sound, the easier the
listening process becomes.

Paired with hearing, attending is the other half of the receiving stage in the listening process.
Attending is the process of accurately identifying and interpreting particular sounds we hear as
words. The sounds we hear have no meaning until we give them their meaning in context.
Listening is an active process that constructs meaning from both verbal and nonverbal
messages.

The Challenges of Reception

Listeners are often bombarded with a variety of auditory stimuli all at once, so they must
differentiate which of those stimuli are speech sounds and which are not. Effective listening
involves being able to focus in on speech sounds while disregarding other noise. For instance, a
train passenger that hears the captain’s voice over the loudspeaker understands that the
captain is speaking, then deciphers what the captain is saying despite other voices in the cabin.
Another example is trying to listen to a friend tell a story while walking down a busy street. In
order to best listen to what she’s saying, the listener needs to ignore the ambient street
sounds.

Attending also involves being able to discern human speech, also known as “speech
segmentation. “1 Identifying auditory stimuli as speech but not being able to break those
speech sounds down into sentences and words would be a failure of the listening process.
Discerning speech segmentation can be a more difficult activity when the listener is faced with
an unfamiliar language.

The Understanding Stage

 The second stage in the listening process is the understanding stage. Understanding or
comprehension is “shared meaning between parties in a communication transaction” and
constitutes the first step in the listening process. This is the stage during which the listener
determines the context and meanings of the words he or she hears. Determining the context
and meaning of individual words, as well as assigning meaning in language, is essential to
understanding sentences. This, in turn, is essential to understanding a speaker’s message.

Once the listeners understands the speaker’s main point, they can begin to sort out the rest of
the information they are hearing and decide where it belongs in their mental outline. For
example, a political candidate listens to her opponent’s arguments to understand what policy
decisions that opponent supports.

Before getting the big picture of a message, it can be difficult to focus on what the speaker is
saying. Think about walking into a lecture class halfway through. You may immediately
understand the words and sentences that you are hearing, but not immediately understand
what the lecturer is proving or whether what you’re hearing at the moment is the main point,
side note, or digression.

Understanding what we hear is a huge part of our everyday lives, particularly in terms of
gathering basic information. In the office, people listen to their superiors for instructions about
what they are to do. At school, students listen to teachers to learn new ideas. We listen to
political candidates give policy speeches in order to determine who will get our vote. But
without understanding what we hear, none of this everyday listening would relay any practical
information to us.

One tactic for better understanding a speaker’s meaning is to ask questions. Asking questions
allows the listener to fill in any holes he or she may have in the mental reconstruction of the
speaker’s message.
The Evaluating Stage

This stage of the listening process is the one during which the listener assesses the information
they received, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Evaluating allows the listener to form an
opinion of what they heard and, if necessary, to begin developing a response.

During the evaluating stage, the listener determines whether or not the information they heard
and understood from the speaker is well constructed or disorganized, biased or unbiased, true
or false, significant or insignificant. They also ascertain how and why the speaker has come up
with and conveyed the message that they delivered. This may involve considerations of a
speaker’s personal or professional motivations and goals. For example, a listener may
determine that a co-worker’s vehement condemnation of another for jamming the copier is
factually correct, but may also understand that the co-worker’s child is sick and that may be
putting them on edge. A voter who listens to and understands the points made in a political
candidate’s stump speech can decide whether or not those points were convincing enough to
earn their vote.

The evaluating stage occurs most effectively once the listener fully understands what the
speaker is trying to say. While we can, and sometimes do, form opinions of information and
ideas that we don’t fully understand—or even that we misunderstand—doing so is not often
ideal in the long run. Having a clear understanding of a speaker’s message allows a listener to
evaluate that message without getting bogged down in ambiguities or spending unnecessary
time and energy addressing points that may be tangential or otherwise nonessential.

This stage of critical analysis is important for a listener in terms of how what they heard will
affect their own ideas, decisions, actions, and/or beliefs.

The Responding Stage

The responding stage is the stage of the listening process wherein the listener provides verbal
and/or nonverbal reactions based on short- or long-term memory. Following the remembering
stage, a listener can respond to what they hear either verbally or non-verbally. Nonverbal
signals can include gestures such as nodding, making eye contact, tapping a pen, fidgeting,
scratching or cocking their head, smiling, rolling their eyes, grimacing, or any other body
language. These kinds of responses can be displayed purposefully or involuntarily. Responding
verbally might involve asking a question, requesting additional information, redirecting or
changing the focus of a conversation, cutting off a speaker, or repeating what a speaker has said
back to her in order to verify that the received message matches the intended message.

Nonverbal responses like nodding or eye contact allow the listener to communicate their level
of interest without interrupting the speaker, thereby preserving the speaker/listener roles.
When a listener responds verbally to what they hear and remember—for example, with a
question or a comment—the speaker/listener roles are reversed, at least momentarily.
Responding adds action to the listening process, which would otherwise be an outwardly
passive process. Oftentimes, the speaker looks for verbal and nonverbal responses from the
listener to determine if and how their message is being understood and/or considered. Based
on the listener’s responses, the speaker can choose to either adjust or continue with the
delivery of her message. For example, if a listener’s brow is furrowed and their arms are
crossed, the speaker may determine that she needs to lighten their tone to better
communicate their point. If a listener is smiling and nodding or asking questions, the speaker
may feel that the listener is engaged and her message is being communicated effectively.

The Remembering Stage

In the listening process, the remembering stage occurs as the listener categorizes and retains
the information she’s gathered from the speaker for future access. The result–memory–allows
the person to record information about people, objects, and events for later recall. This
happens both during and after the speaker’s delivery.

Memory is essential throughout the listening process. We depend on our memory to fill in the
blanks when we’re listening and to let us place what we’re hearing at the moment in the
context of what we’ve heard before. If, for example, you forgot everything that you heard
immediately after you heard it, you would not be able to follow along with what a speaker says,
and conversations would be impossible. Moreover, a friend who expresses fear about a dog she
sees on the sidewalk ahead can help you recall that the friend began the conversation with her
childhood memory of being attacked by a dog.

Remembering previous information is critical to moving forward. Similarly, making associations

to past remembered information can help a listener understand what she is currently hearing in
a wider context. In listening to a lecture about the symptoms of depression, for example, a
listener might make a connection to the description of a character in a novel that she read
years before.

Using information immediately after receiving it enhances information retention and lessens
the forgetting curve or the rate at which we no longer retain information in our memory.
Conversely, retention is lessened when we engage in mindless listening, and little effort is made
to understand a speaker’s message.

Because everyone has different memories, the speaker and the listener may attach different
meanings to the same statement. In this sense, establishing common ground in terms of
context is extremely important, both for listeners and speakers.

Effective Listening Strategies

Too many students try to get the grade just by going to class, maybe a little note taking, and
then cramming through the text right before an exam they feel unprepared for. Sound familiar?
 This approach may have worked for you in high school where tests and quizzes were more
frequent and teachers prepared study guides for you, but colleges require you to take
responsibility for your learning and to be better prepared.

Most students simply have not learned how to study and don’t understand how learning works.
Learning is actually a cycle of four steps:

 Preparing
 Absorbing
 Capturing
 Reviewing

When you get in the habit of paying attention to this cycle, it becomes relatively easy to study
well. But you must use all four steps.

Peer relationship

High quality relationships with teachers and peers in the classroom form the foundation for the
development of students’ academic engagement, achievement, and motivational resilience.
This chapter offers teachers and researchers (1) a motivational framework that explains the
dynamics that sustain positive and negative relationships, and (2) a set of tools for creating
solutions to improve relationships. The motivational model, based on self-determination
theory, posits that students develop close and supportive relationships when teachers and
peers meet their fundamental needs for relatedness, competence and autonomy in school
through the provision of warmth and involvement, optimal structure, and autonomy support.
Relationships are undermined when teachers and peers thwart students’ basic needs through
neglect, or through interactions that are rejecting, chaotic or coercive. This conceptualization
provides teachers a set of tools they can use to “diagnose and treat” relationship problems in
the classroom. Teachers can use their observations of students’ disaffection to identify
underlying motivational issues, and shape their responses to disaffected students in ways that
are more likely to renew their intrinsic motivation. Awareness of these dynamics can help
teachers identify and initiate interactions likely to lead students toward more satisfying
relationships with their teachers and peers.
 Peer relationships provide a unique context in which children learn a range of critical social
emotional skills, such as empathy, cooperation, and problem-solving strategies.
 Peer relationships can also contribute negatively to social emotional development through
bullying, exclusion, and deviant peer processes.
 Universal, school-based, social emotional learning programs provide a strong foundation for
promoting healthy social emotional development and creating positive peer cultures.
 Children experiencing peer difficulties often need additional, systematic, and intensive social
skill coaching.
 Peers can be powerful forces that facilitate or alternatively undermine group programs.
 Peer Relationship Problems occur when students have trouble cooperating with others and
have trouble making friends. Peer relationship problems can lead to friendships with peers
who make poor choices, an inability to maintain quality friendships, being bullied, and later
development of internalizing concerns.
 Interventions and supports for Peer Relationship Problems focus on increasing relationship-
building skills, using effective communication, improving social skills, and enhancing problem-
solving skills.

Aggression

Prior research suggests that exposure to elementary classrooms characterized by high levels of
student aggression may contribute to the development of child aggressive behavior problems.
To explore this process in more detail, this study followed a longitudinal sample of 4,907
children and examined demographic factors associated with exposure to high-aggression
classrooms, including school context factors (school size, student poverty levels, and rural vs.
urban location) and child ethnicity (African American, European American). The developmental
impact of different temporal patterns of exposure (e.g., primacy, recency, chronicity) to high-
aggression classrooms was evaluated on child aggression. Analyses revealed that African
American children attending large, urban schools that served socioeconomically disadvantaged
students were more likely than other students to be exposed to highaggressive classroom
contexts. Hierarchical regressions demonstrated cumulative effects for temporal exposure,
whereby children with multiple years of exposure showed higher levels of aggressive behavior
after 3 years than children with primacy, less recent, and less chronic exposure, controlling for
initial levels of aggression. Implications are discussed for developmental research and
preventive interventions.

It also found that school violence had the following effects on learners: loss of concentration;
poor academic performance; bunking of classes; chaos and lost time; and depression. All
these causes of school violence have a negative impact on learning and teaching

by Gustavo Ramirez, Guidance Counselor / Education Consultant

Aggressive behavior by a student is unacceptable; it goes beyond the scope of schools’ normal
boundaries. Examples of defiant or hostile behavior by a student include: losing temper easily,
constantly arguing with teachers, deliberately engaging in activities that annoy others, blaming
others, acting annoyed or chronically touchy, always acting spiteful or vindictive. However,
responding to a student’s aggression with yelling or anger makes matters worse. It shows
students how not to control impulses and behave; it creates classroom tension. Students rely
on their teachers for cues on how to control impulses and behave in school. A loud and angry
teacher who tries to intimidate an angry student into behaving cannot build rapport with
students and remains totally distracted from teaching. So, how do we deal with a student who
is aggressive toward other students or teachers, or who frightens everyone by screaming in
class to get his/her way? It’s easier said than done. But, we can help him/her to
change/replace the behavior, and we can reinforce daily that aggressive and rude behavior at
school is unacceptable.
Many teenagers don’t know how to communicate their needs to parents or teachers and have
not learned non-aggressive ways to solve problems. For some, negative behavior is how they
get their point across because they have never learned appropriate, non-aggressive ways of
communicating when faced with a difficult situation. Aggressiveness in students may be
triggered by several things: as a self-defense reaction, being placed in a stressful situation, lack
of routine, extreme frustration or anger, inadequate speech development; over-stimulation,
lack of adult supervision, or to mirror aggressive behaviors of others who live with or around
them. Some students engage in aggressive play all the time; some act aggressively when
frustrated or angry, i.e. when they receive a failing grade. Those who are verbally aggressive
usually become physically aggressive when in conflict.

Once we narrow down the reasons why students behave aggressively we can intervene to limit
the aggressive behavior in several ways. Give students clear cut rules at the start of each school
term/semester, and “constantly” remind them of clear boundaries within which all students
must remain. Encourage them to be aware of their aggressive feelings and teach them how to
calm down and solve problems. Above all, always give the same immediate consequence to any
student who lashes out or is aggressive at school. A clear, uncomplicated, and consistent plan
teaches students that all behaviors, good or bad, have a consequence -- present and future.

Teenagers will not listen to long fire-breathing lectures of why their behavior was offensive or
to someone trying to “talk through” a problem. So, a firm statement and immediate
consequence works better than yelling at students and lecturing them about how angry they
make us. If a student cannot calm down, remove him/her from the classroom (without
showing anger) and let administration deal with the student. Also, show self-control and use
kind words to encourage students to do the same. Teenagers need and appreciate teachers’
tips on socializing -- some lash out at other students or teachers when they can’t navigate
through social circles at school. We calm students when they are angry by changing/lowering
the tone and volume of our voice. We give the immediate consequence to an aggressive
student calmly. An aggressor who’s not in class has no audience.

Anger is a human feeling. So, practice with students various ways to de-fuse anger. Adults and
teachers sometimes get angry, too. Practice with students counting to ten before reacting in
anger, and breathing deeply to calm down. Teach them words to replace violent behavior: “I
am very angry and upset now; I need to leave!” Help them to recognize anger as an emotion
and to learn ways to deal with it. Consequence to uncontrolled anger or aggression in class:
student(s) must leave the class! Talk to students regularly about aggression and unacceptable
behaviors at school. Repeat school rules often and be firm and consistent each time a student
becomes aggressive. Always have the same plan and consequence in place for any student who
is aggressive in the classroom. If a student tries to provoke a teacher to see what happens,
provide the same consequence.

Many Belizean teenagers do not have the communication skills necessary to help them through
stressful situations. For some, hitting someone is the only way they know to show that they are
upset; it gives them a false sense of power over classmates. Encourage and help students to
practice the art of diplomacy in tough situations, and show them how to be assertive when they
feel like acting aggressively. “Assertive” phrases that help students trade off aggressive
behavior in favor of acceptable behavior: “No!” said firmly gets a point across assertively, or
“No, it’s mine; you cannot have it!” or, “I don’t like that!” or, “Stop! You’re hurting me.”
Remind angry or frustrated students to use firm and assertive language instead of screaming
vulgarities or being aggressive. However, if a student persistently displays violent behaviors
that affect class functioning he/she may have other problems that require professional medical
help.

Certain situations in the classroom may cause a student to act aggressively i.e. working in a
group project; that’s when we stress to him/her to use assertive words. If we see students
getting frustrated, engage them in a different activity that avoids aggressive confrontations.
However, no student who targets another student during class should be allowed in that class
until he/she learns self-control. If a student is exhausted or over-stimulated (right after break
or lunch) perhaps low-key, slower-paced activities may make aggression less likely. Once in a
while, review with students those situations that make them angry, and try to come up with
solutions (always in accordance with school rules) to help them navigate through those times.
Praising good behavior motivates students to continue to behave well.

Teachers are human and may sometimes be tempted to show a student what it feels like to be
the victim of aggression; but we never show students that aggression resolves conflicts. We
maintain our composure always! TV and video violence influences students to act out
aggressively with their peers; however, schools and parents working together can help students
achieve good behavior. Teachers, if you get frustrated and angry at a student who is aggressive
in class, remember that his/her poor behavior is NOT a reflection of poor teaching skills.
Teaching an aggressive student is one of the greatest challenges any teacher will face, but
providing a “sound education” includes helping students to learn appropriate ways to interact
with other students and adults around them.