Tables of Shape Attributes & Shape Generation Capabilities

Uniform Regular
Depress- Uniform Axis of Captured Enclosed No
cross- cross-
ions wall rotation cavity cavity draft
section section

Shape Att. (Yes / No)

1 Sand casting Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
2 Investment casting Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
3 Die casting Y Y Y Y Y N N N
4 Injection molding Y Y Y Y Y N N N
5 Structural foam Y Y Y Y Y N N N
6 Blow molding (extr) Y M N Y Y M Y N
7 Blow molding (inj) Y M N Y Y M N N
8 Rotational molding Y M N Y Y N M N
9 Impact extrusion Y Y N Y Y N N Y
10 Cold heading Y Y N Y Y N N Y
11 Closed die forging Y Y Y Y Y N N N
12 Power metal powder parts Y Y Y Y Y N N Y
13 Hot extrusion Y Y M Y Y N N Y
14 Rotary swaging N N N M N N N N
15 Machining (from stock) Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
16 ECM Y Y Y Y Y N N N
17 EDM Y Y Y Y Y N N Y
18 Wire-EDM Y Y Y Y Y N N Y
19 Sheet metal stamp/bend Y M Y Y Y N N N
20 Thermoforming Y M N Y Y N N N
21 Metal spinning N M N M N Y N N

Note:
Y – this process is CAPABLE to produce this attribute
Y – this process is CAPABLE and also EASIER to produce this attribute
N – this process is NOT CAPABLE of producing this attribute
M – this process is FOR SURE WILL produce this attribute
Materials and Processes Compatibility

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

No Process Part Size
Weight: 0.2 lb–450 ton
Minimum wall: 0.125 in.
1 Sand casting
Weight: 1 oz–110 1b
Investment Major dimension: To 50 in.
2 than 4:1 and 1:1, respectively
casting Minimum wall: 0.025
(ferrous), 0.060 (nonferrous)
Minimum wall (in.): 0.025
(Zn), 0.05 (Al, Mg)
Minimum hole diameter
3 Die casting (in.): 0.04 (Zn), 0.08 (Mg),
0.1 (Al)
Maximum weight (lb): 35
(Zn), 20 (Al), 10 (Mg)
Injection
molding Envelope: 0.01 in.3–80 ft3
4 Increase tolerance 5%
(thermo- Wall: 0.03–0.250 in.
plastics)
Structural
Weight: 25–50 lb
5 foam Wall: 0.09–2.0 in.
molding
Table of Manufacturing Process Capabilities Range
Shapes
Surface Produced
Tolerances a Process Limitations Typical Application Material Comments
Finish Competitively
b
Secondary machining usually required
General: ±0.02 (1 Production rates often lower than that for other casting
Large parts with walls and
in.), ±0.1 (24 in.) processes Engine blocks 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, Very flexible manufacturing process in
internal passages of complex
For dimensions Tolerances, surface finish coarser than other casting Engine manifolds 7d, 8, 12 terms of possible geometries, part size,
across parting line
500–1000 μin. geometry requiring good
processes Machine bases and possible materials
vibration damping
add ±0.03 (50 in.2), Requires generous draft (approximately 3 deg) and radii Gears pulleys Pattern in reusable and mold expendable
characteristics
±0.04 (200 in.2) (approximately equal to thickness)
Expendable pattern and mold
Turbine blades Greater flexibility in material choices or
Most investment castings are less than 12 in. long and Burner nozzles part geometry than die casting, but much
Small intricate parts
less than 10 1b L/D ratio of through or blind holes less Armament components higher production costs
General: ±0.002 (1 63–25 μin. requiring good finish, good 2, 3, 4d,5, 6, 8,
Lock components Less susceptible to porosity than most
in.) ±0.004 (6 in.) dimensional control, and
Tooling cost and lead time generally greater than for Sewing machine
9d, 12
casting process
high strength
other casting processes except die casting components Multiple parts may be cast simultaneously
Industrial handtools bodies around central sprue
Produces thin-set walls of all casting
process
General: ±0.002 (1
Production rate approximately 100 parts
in.) ±0.005 (6 in.) Trimming operations required for flash and overflow Similar to injection molding in
per h in alum and approximately 200 parts
(Zinc) ±0.003 (1 in.), removal part geometry, but particularly
per h in zinc
±0.006 (6 in.) 32–85 μin. Similar to injection molding Porosity can be present suited where higher mechanical 5, 6d, 7, 8
Tooling cost and lead time similar to that
(Alum, Mg) Add Die life limited to approximately 200k shots in Al or Mg properties or the absence of
for injection molding but trimming and
±0.004 across parting or 1 million in Zn creep are required
surface treatment can make process less
line or moving core
economic
General ±0.003 (1
in.), ±0.008 (6 in.)
Hole diameter: Typical cycle time 20–40 s
±0.001 (1), ±0.002 (1 Details such as living hinges, insert
diameter) molding, and snap features allow
Flatness: ±0.002 in.
Tooling is costly and requires greater lead time than
significant opportunity for part
per in. Small-to-medium sized parts Numerous applications, often consolidation
most alternative processes
8–25 μin. with intricate detail and replacing the die casting or 10, 11 Injection molding of thermoset materials
for each additional good surface finish
Poor design can result in high levels of molded-in stress,
sheet metal assemblies also possible: Longer cycle time, no
resulting in warpage or failure
mold cavity reprocessing of waste, generally harder,
Increase tolerance: more brittle, but more stable material
±0.004 for which can be used at higher service
dimensions across temperatures
parting line
Tooling approximately 20% less than for
injection molding
Large, somewhat intricate Solid skin approximately 0.03–0.8 in.
Poor; paint parts, requiring high Details as sharp as those of injection molding not thick; entire wall cross section has
generally required stiffness and/or thermal or possible densities between 50% and 90% of solid
Approximately that of Pallets, housing, drawers, TV 10
injection molding properties acoustical insulating Cycle time is long (2–3 min) cabinets, fan shrouds
weight
Process generates a low level of internal
properties
stress RIM is a similar foaming process
utilizing thermosets (generally
polyurethane)
 Injection blow molding: Smaller parts,
General: ±0.02 (1 more accurate necks
With extrusion blow molding, some geometries produce
Blow Envelope: Up to 800 gal
in.), ±0.04 (6 in.)
Hollow, well-rounded thin- a high level of material scrap
Most polymer containers to 5 Extrusion blow molding: More
Wall: ±50% of gal asymmetrical parts, less costly tooling
6 molding containers (105 ft3)
nominal wall
250–500 μin. walled parts with low degree Integral handles possible with extrusion blow molding
Toys
10
High production rates, particular for
Wall: 0.015–0.125 in. of asymmetry only
(extrusion) Neck: ±0.004
Poor control of wall thickness
Auto heater ducting injection blow molding (as low as 10 s per
(injection only) cycle)

Injection blow molding: Smaller parts,

General: ±0.02 (1 more accurate necks
With extrusion blow molding, some geometries produce
Blow Envelope: Up to 800 gal
in.), ±0.04 (6 in.)
Hollow, well-rounded thin- a high level of material scrap
Most polymer containers to 5 Extrusion blow molding: More
Wall: ±50% of gal asymmetrical parts, less costly tooling
7 molding containers (105 ft3)
nominal wall
250–500 μin. walled parts with low degree Integral handles possible with extrusion blow molding
Toys
10
High production rates, particular for
Wall: 0.015–0.125 in. of asymmetry only
(injection) Neck: ±0.004
Poor control of wall thickness
Auto heater ducting injection blow molding (as low as 10 s per
(injection only) cycle)

Cycle time 8–20 min

General: ±0.025 (1 Inserts for securing or stiffening are
Envelope: Up to 5000 gal
Rotational in.) ±0.05 (6 in.), Poor; parts Large containers with Abrupt wall changes, long, thin projections, and small Toys possible
8 Containers: (670 ft3) 10
molding Wall: 0.06–0.40 in.
±0.01 (24) generally textured minimal detail separations between opposing part surfaces not possible Containers Less detail possible than with blow
Wall: ±0.015 molding

Outer diameter Approximately, 1–2 in.

(O.D.): ±0.002 (0.5 diameter
in) Part with a closed end Generally chosen over screw machined
Flat inner bottom requires additional operation
Impact Inner diameter (I.D.): thicker than side walls
Tooling costs are high Fasteners part if material savings are significant
±0.003 (5 in.) (backward) (approximately 25% or more)
extrusion Diameter: 0.075–2.5 in. 20–63 μin. Maximum L/D ratio for backward extrusion is 10 (in Sockets for socket wrench 2, 3d, 5, 6, 7, 8
9 Length: 3–4 in.
Bottom diameter: Headed parts with large L/D
some aluminum alloys) Gear blanks with shank Significant improvement in mechanical
(forward and ±0.005 (5 in.) ratio and zero draft (forward properties due to cold working, allowing
L/D ratio almost unlimited in forward extrusion
backward) Tolerances extrusion)
Tolerances not as good as machining
further material reduction
approximately 50% Combination of forward/ Limited asymmetry possible
greater for backward common
rectangular parts
Head height: ±0.006
(0.025 shank
diameter) ±0.008 Seldom used for diameters greater than 1.25 in.
Small symmetrical, or near Nails Minimization of shank diameter and upset
(0.50 shank diameter) Must allow much more generous radii than with 2, 3, 4d, 5, 6,
Shank diameter: 0.03–2.0 symmetrical, headed Fasteners volume important
Head diameter ±0.01 machining
10 Cold heading in.
(0.25 shank diameter,
32–85 μin. cylindrical parts, with shank
Significant asymmetry difficult
Spark plug pot 12d Production rates 35–120 parts per min
Length: 0.6–9.0 in. length greater than shank Ball Joint Process can also be carried out warm
±0.018 (0.50 shank
diameter Shafts (800–1200°F)
diameter)
Length: ±0.03 (1 in.)

By controlling material flow, grain

structure may be applied with the
Perpendicular to die
direction of principal stress
motion: ± 0.7% of Parts of moderate Holes may not be produced directly Crankshafts
Closed die dimension complexity, in a wide range Flash must be removed and secondary machining is often Airframe components 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, Closed die forgings nearly always pass
through series of impressions before
11 forging (Hot Weight: 0.1–500 lb Parallel to die 125–250 μin. of sizes, whose failure in required Tools 9, 12d
completion
motion: ±0.03 (10 service would be Die wear and die mismatch can be significant Nuclear components
forging) in.2 area), ±0.12 (100 catastrophic Generous draft angles and radii are suggested Agricultural components
In decreasing order of forgability: A1,
Mg, steel, St Steel, titanium, high-
in.2 area)
temperature

Production rates approximately 700 parts

per h
Minimum wall: 0.06 in. Perpendicular to press
Generally lower mechanical properties than wrought Small gears Impregnation with lubricants gives self-
Minimum hole diameter: direction: ±0.15% of
Powder 0.06 in. dimension (±0.05% if Small parts of uniform
metals Lock mechanisms 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, lubrication properties
Undercuts, off-axis holes, and threads cannot be components Density range 75%–95% (compared to
12 metal Maximum length (in repressed) 8–50 μin. height with parallel, but
produced directly Small arms parts
9d, 12d
raw material)
direction of press): 4.0 in. Parallel to press fairly intricate walls
processing Maximum projected area: direction: ±0.30% of
Thin sections and feature edges should be avoided Filters Maximum compression ratio (powder
Maximum L/D ratio approximately 3 Bearings volume before and after pressing and
40 in.2 dimension
sintering) approximately 2.5:1

Cross-sectional area: 0.1–
225 in.2 (Alum), 0.5–4.0
Hot
13 in.2 (LC steel)
extrusion Minimum wall: 1.5% of
circumscribed diameter
Plastic working produces favorable grain
General: ±0.01 (1 in.)
structure
±0.03 (6 in.) (±0.005
Dimensional accuracy and part-to-part consistency Maximum extrusion ratios are 40: 1
if cold drawn after Straight part with constant
63 μin. (Alum), generally not an high as competing processes. Warp and Heatsinks (Alum), 5: 1 (LC steel)
extrusion) cross section that is fairly
125 Micro twist can be troublesome Structural corner and edge 2, 3d, 4d, 5, 6, Shorter setup time than rolling, but a
Angles ±2 deg. complex, but balanced,
Twist: 1° per foot for
includes (LC
without extreme change in
Use of materials other than aluminum and copper alloys members 7d, 8, 9d lower production rate (1–8 ips) crossover
steel) can cause some shape restrictions Decorative trim point at approximately 50,000 ft
width less than 2 in. wall thickness
Avoid knife edges and long, unsupported projections Low tooling costs, therefore short runs
Flatness: 0.004 in. per
can often be justified if part consolidation
in.
and integral fastening is considered.

Tooling costs are generally less than those

for cold extrusion or cold heading
Tube: Gold club shafts, table
Rotary 20% of original Tapper should be 6° or less included angle for manual Noncylindrical part can be swaged in
Diameter: 0.01–5.0 in. (bar), Diameter: ±0.003 (1 Tapered cylindrical rod or legs, exhaust pipes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
14 stock finish (five- feeding and up to 14° for power feed stationaly die machines
swaging 14 in. (tubing) in.)
fold improvement)
tubing
Shoulders perpendicular to part axis not possible
Bar: Punches, screwdriver 7d, 8d, 12
Production rates can range from 100–3000
blades
parts per h
Shapes like splines can be produced

Turning ±0.001,
boring ±0.0005,
Rotational: Axisymmetrical
Milling ±0.002,
Turning 63–125 part with L/D ratio of 3 or
Drilling ±0.008– Little opportunity for part consolidation
Boring 32–125 less and major diameter of 2
0.002, Most parts produced by a sequence of several operations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Closer to true CAD/CAM link than most
Machining Limited only by machine Milling 63–125 in. or less
15 Broaching ±0.005, and machines Widely varied applications 7d, 8, 9d, 10d, other processes
(from stock) capability
Grinding +0.002
Drilling 63–250 Nonrotational: Rectangular
Need for multiple operations can impact part quality 11d, 12d Most flexible of manufacturing processes
Grinding 8–32 part with all feature parallel
(diameter); ±0.008 Tool wear is significant
Reaming 63 and open in the same
(surface), Reaming,
direction
±0.001 (all for
dimensions of 1 in.)

Highly accurate complex, or Material removal rates much greater than

finely detailed shapes in EDM (approximately 5 in. 3 per min.)
Electrochemi Minimum hole diameter:
hardened materials or those although tooling, equipment, and energy
susceptible to damage due to Some taper of walls costs are much higher
cal 0.01 in
16 General: ±0.001 8–63 μin. heat build-up Minimum radius of 0.002 all around Various jet engine parts 1d, 3, 6d, 9, 12 Surface finish not nearly as closely tied to
machining Maximum hole depth: 50 ×
Production of high aspect or Material most be electrically conductive removal rates as with EDM
diameter
(ECM) bur-free holes and Generally more cost-effective than
processing of flimsy precision machining and grinding for all
materials but the most easily machined materials

Due to low production rates,

Eectrical Minimum hole diameter:
Electrode wear impacts accuracy and requires periodic
EDM is generally used in
discharge 8–250 μin. replacement
0.002 toolmaking rather than part 2d, 3d, 5d, 6, These components are often used in
17 General ±0.001 (dependent on Same as ECM Material removal rate is extremely slow (0.01–0.5 in. 3
machining Minimum slot width: 0.002
removal rate) per h)
production, or for deburring, 9d, 12d drawing, extruding, or stamping dies
in. where other methods are not
(EDM) Additional limitations identical to ECM
satisfactory

Wire Due to low production rates, A very different variation of conventional

Electrode wear impacts accuracy and requires periodic
electrical Minimum hole diameter:
8–250 μin. replacement
EDM is generally used in EDM, wire EDM is used to cut highly
0.002 toolmaking rather than part 2d, 3d, 5d, 6, accurate, and sometimes complex profiles
18 discharge Minimum slot width: 0.002
General ±0.001 (dependent on Same as ECM Material removal rate is extremely slow (0.01–0.5 in. 3
production, or for deburring, 9d, 12d in hardened materials up to 6 in. thick
removal rate) per h)
machining in.
Additional limitations identical to ECM
where other methods are not These components are often used in
(EDM) satisfactory drawing, extruding, or stamping dies
 Mechanical reciprocating presses operate
at 35–500 strokes per min.
Punching or CNC Turret presses achieve 55–265 hits
Material thickness 0.001– Holes with diameter lest than stock thickness need to be
stamping: ±10% of per min. at 1 in. centers
Sheet metal 0.75 in. (normally 0.050–
material thickness For cold rolled
Moderate complexity parts drilled
Often when the cost of dies exceeds the
0.375 in.) of constant material Since 1/2–2/3 of material thickness is fractured, rather Numerous consumer and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
19 stamping/ Area: 80 ft2 with turret
(2.0 in.) sheet or coil: 32–
thickness with flanges in a than sheared, secondary operation or fineblanking is industrial applications 7d, 8d, 12d
total cost of parts, die sets are no longer
Press brake: ±2° On 125 μin. cost-effective (approximately 20,000 pcs
bending press and press brake, 10 ft2
bend, ±0.015 in. hole-
single direction needed for good edge finish or parallel sides
for common geometries)
with die sets Finishing and material scrap costs are often substantial
to-bend Progressive dies can often be justified if
they can save two or more secondary
operations on individual die sets

Tooling less expensive than other plastic

processing, methods
High production rates possible (drinking
Various consumer packaging
General: ±0.05% of Low degree of part complexity cups: 2000–3000 pcs.min.)
Thermo- Bus, aircraft interior panels
dimension Large, shallow, thin wall Low dimensional accuracy Material properties can be improved due
Area: 1 in.2–300 ft2 60–120 μin. Refrigerator linings 10
20 forming Wall: ±20% of parts with generous radii Minimal opportunity for integral fasteners or attachment
Signs
to molecular orientation
nominal points Reinforcing fibers may also be added to
Boat hulls
improve strength of several processes
available (vacuum, pressure, drape),
vacuum is most popular

Conventional spinning and displacement

spinning differ in that displacement
Stiffening beads should be formed externally rather than
spinning moves material back along
Diameter: 25 in.–26 ft internally
Cooking utensils forming member refining grain structure
Material thickness: (Alum), Diameter: ±0.01 (1 Thin-walled conical shape Cylindrical sections and reentrant angles are possible but
Metal 0.004–1.5 (LC steel), in.), ±0.03 (24 in.) 32–65 μin. with diameter greater than more costly
Lamp bases 2, 3d, 4, 5, 6, in ddirection of flow
21 spinning (0.025– 0.05 in. most Angle: ±3 deg twice depth Minimal radius 1.5 × thickness
Nose cones 7d, 8d, 12d Tooling costs are much less than for
Reflectors stamping or deep-drawing, very small
common) Maximum thickness for hand spinning: 0.25 in. (A1),
quantities may be economically produced
0.187 (LC steel), 0.125 (S steel)
Tube spinning reduced I.D., O.D., or
lengthens tubes or performs

a Limits shown represent fine tolerances. More stringent requirement will significantly increase cost.

b Part types that can be produced cost effectively in comparison to other processes.

c Materials.
Used on a limited basis: 1, cast iron; 2, carbon steel; 3, alloy steel; 4, stainless steel; 5, aluminum and alloys; 6,
d copper and alloys; 7, zinc and alloys; 8, magnesium and alloys; 9, titanium; 10, thermoplastics;11, thermosets; 12,
nickel and alloys.