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ER_EKQL@KEQ ]EQ_HØHQ

Ed `rlgek oe dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs

Grhk phrte oe dh j`oh y ed estld` j`oerk` tleke ukh dhrgh e lktereshkte blst`rlh.

Ed jhqulddhfe, ed auloho` oed ahnedd` y d`s trua`s oe neddezh se rej`kthk slgd`s

htrès y bhk slo` ukh phrte oe dh s`aleoho juab` jès tlejp` oe d` que dh jhy`rêh
oe dh gekte pleksh. Dh blst`rlh oe dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs es espealhdjekte
lktereshkte, y se rej`kth jès def`s oe d` que dh jhy`rêh areej`s.
Dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs ek ed Qlgd` RLR
Dh loeh oe hdhrghr dhs pesthøhs a`j` ukh i`rjh oe jef`rhr dh hphrlekalh k` es
kuevh. Ql nlek t`ohvêh k` se bhnêh oeshrr`ddho` ukh tìaklah phrh bhaerd` ek ed
j`jekt`, juab`s dlnr`s y pundlahal`kes s`nre j`oh h ilkhdes oed slgd` RLR
ha`ksefhnhk s`nre dh i`rjh oe hdhrghr dhs pesthøhs. Jìt`o`s ha`ksefho`s ek

hqued j`jekt` lkaduêhk a`rthr d`s extrej`s oe sus pesthøhs phrh i`jekthr uk
jhy`r arealjlekt`. @tr`s jìt`o`s oe trhthjlekt` oeaêhk que phrh jef`rhr ed
arealjlekt` bhnêh que ushr ukh p`jhoh y ed dhvho` oe dhs pesthøhs a`k ukh
jezadh oe b`fhs oe k`ghd y hguh. Ek 822> se pundlañ ek dh preksh que d`s
resloektes oe ]hrês bhnêhk a`jekzho` h a`ser ped`s ek sus pèrpho`s phrh arehr
pesthøhs p`stlzhs. Esth o`d`r`sh preaurs`rh oe exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs thjnlìk
hphrealñ pundlahoh ek 82<< ek dh preksh esa`aesh.
Dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs ek ed slgd` RR
Ek 8<=> uk ihj`s` peduquer` e lkvekt`r ddhjho` Chrd Kessder phtektñ uk
jìt`o` ek ed ^elk` Uklo` phrh tefer dhs pesthøhs hrtlilalhdes y dhs aefhs. Ek 8<=1
yh esthnh vekoleko` dhs pesthøhs hrtlilalhdes ek su shdñk oe neddezh ek D`kores.
Ek d`s Estho`s Uklo`s dh phtekte phrh dhs pesthøhs p`stlzhs se ddevñ h ahn` p`r dh
ahkholekse Hkkh _hyd`r ek 8<88. Qlk ejnhrg`, a`j` juabhs `trhs a`shs, serêh dh
audturh p`pudhr dh que a`kouf` h uk us` jès gekerhdlzho` oe dhs exteksl`kes oe
pesthøhs ihdshs. Ek 8<89 ed olreat`r oe alke O. W. Grliiltb esthnh trhnhfhko` ek su
pedêaudh Lkt`derhkae y querêh que dh hatrlz Qeekh @wek tuvlerh dhs pesthøhs
dhrghs y bhaer oesthahr sus `f`s. Blz` us` oe pesthøhs p`stlzhs que erhk ahnedd`
bujhk` teflo` h trhvìs oe uk jhterlhd oe ghsh ilkh.
Dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs ek ed slgd` RRL
Ek ed slgd` RRL jìt`o`s jès hvhkzho`s oe extekslñk oe pesthøhs a`jekzhr`k h
ushrse. H olierekalh oe dhs pesthøhs hrtlilalhdes hkterl`res, ìsths s`k juab` jès
prealshs. Qe olae que iuer`k oeshrr`ddhohs ek A`reh ek d`s prljer`s hø`s oe dh
oìahoh oed >=== (nhshohs ek tìaklahs hktlguhs) est`s jìt`o`s hdahkzhr`k uk us`
gekerhdlzho` ek >==?, sleko` juy usho`s p`r aedenrlohoes y estreddhs oed alke
que ihv`realer`k su p`pudhrloho.
Dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs j`oerkhs se a`jp`kek oe ped`s lkolvlouhdes uklo`s
h dhs pesthøhs exlstektes a`k uk hobeslv` oe grho` jìola`. Esths exteksl`kes oe
pesthøhs vlekek ek ukh hjpdlh vhrleoho oe estld`s, a`d`res y jhterlhdes. D`s
jhterlhdes lkaduyek ahnedd` bujhk`, seoh slktìtlah, p`dlìster y pledes oe vlsñk oe
Qlnerlh. Dhs exteksl`kes hatuhdes s`k dlgerhs, añj`ohs y juab` jef`res que dhs
oe d`s hktlgu`s jìt`o`s que vlj`s ek ed phsho`.
A`j` se pueoe ver dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs tlekek ukh blst`rlh lktereshkte.
Qe ushk tìaklahs que jef`rhk oêh h oêh. Oesoe d`s jìt`o`s hktlgu`s que
utldlzhnhk olseø`s juy prljltlv`s, phshko` p`r dhs pesthøhs jès eieatlvhs per`
t`ohvêh oe hspeat` ihds` ek dh oìahoh oe d`s 9=, h dhs pesthøhs oe pes` dlger` y
a`k estld` oed slgd` RRL . Es ukh phrte juy ljp`rthkte oe dh lkoustrlh oe dh j`oh
y que slgue ev`dual`khko` y arealeko` ek p`pudhrloho.
 ]EQ_HØHQ KH_U^HDEQ
Dh prlkalphd iukalñk oe dhs pesthøhs es dh oe pr`teger d`s `f`s. @trh oe dhs
iukal`kes es ohr expreslvloho h dh jlrhoh. Dhs pesthøhs s`k ahoh uk` oe d`s
ahnedd`s que bhy ek d`s n`roes oe d`s pèrpho`s (I`dêaud` pld`senèae`) phrh
oeieksh oe d`s `f`s. Hyuohk h pr`teger ed `f` oe auerp`s extrhø`s pr`aeoektes
oed exterl`r y s`k hdthjekte sekslndes hd that` auhdquler a`kthat` a`k eddhs
oesekahoekh uk j`vljlekt` reidef` que alerrh lksthktèkehjekte d`s pèrpho`s.
ALAD@ OE
DH ]EQ_HØH KH_U^HD
Ed ped` khturhd oe dhs pesthøhs areae aêadlahjekte. A`ksth oe tres ihses
olierektes6
- HKHGEKH6 ihse oe i`rjhalñk oed ped` h phrtlr oe dhs aìdudhs oe dh jhtrlz oektr`
oed i`dêaud`. Qe de oek`jlkhrêh dh ihse oe fuvektuo oed ped`. Aerah oed >=% oed
vedd` a`rp`rhd se jhktleke ek esth ihse.
-AH_HGEKH6 ihse oe rep`s` ` esthnldloho oed ped`, o`koe aesh dh hatlvloho
aedudhr. Qe de oek`jlkhrêh dh ihse houdth oed ped`.
- _ED@GEKH6 ihse oe ahêoh oed ahnedd`. Ed kuev` ped` ejpufh hd vlef`, pr`v`ahko`
su ahêoh. Este pr`aes` aêadla` oed ped` oe dh pesthøh, ourh ektre > y 1 jeses.
_ekleko` t`o` est` ek auekth, bhy que shner que ahoh ped` se ekauektrh ek ukh
ihse olierekte a`k d` que ek 1 ` ? sejhkhs a`j` jèxlj` bhy que hauolr hd aektr`
phrh dh rehdlzhalñk oe uk jhktekljlekt` pertlkekte oe Exteksl`kes pesthøhs
Est` qulere oealr que dh extekslñk oe pesthøhs oene lr s`d` ek dh ahtegekh, que sl
olvlolj`s ed tlejp` ourh ektre 1 h ? sejhkhs, p`r es` es loehd bhaer ed
jhktekljlekt` ahoh tres sejhkhs phrh ghrhktlzhr dh shduo oe dhs pesthøhs
khturhdes, y k` ekt`rpeaer este pr`aes` oe arealjlekt`.
 ]H_@D@GLHQ @AUDH^EQ H _EKE^ EK AUEK_H
Auhko` dh adlekth tleke hdgukh oe dhs slgulektes pht`d`gêhs se rea`jlekoh K@
rehdlzhr ed servlal` oe exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs oenlo` h p`slndes rehaal`kes
hovershs.
- GDHUA@JH6 Es uk trhst`rk` ek ed auhd hujekth dh preslñk oektr` oed gd`n`
`audhr, ohøhko` ed kervl` ñptla` y ahushko` pìroloh oe vlslñk. Ed Gdhua`jh
seaukohrl`, se pr`ouae p`rque ed `f` bh slo` ohøho` p`r ukh lkieaalñk,
lkidhjhalñk, tuj`r ` ukh grhk ahthrhth. _ekleko` ek auekth su trhthjlekt` a`k,
a`k ukh a`ksthkte blorhthalñk oed gd`n` `audhr, pueoe pr`v`ahr dh ahêoh
hktlalphoh oe dhs exteksl`kes.
- AH_H^H_HQ6 Es ukh kun`sloho ek ed arlsthdlk` oed `f` que olilaudth dh vlslñk.
]r`ouae ukh pìroloh oe dh vlslñk pr`greslvh e lko`d`rh. Qu `rlgek k` se a`k`ae,
per` pueoe ohrse p`r6 ekierjeohoes `audhres lkidhjht`rlhs, hdguk`s ièrjha`s,
a`jpdlahalñk oe `trhs ekierjeohoes, a`j` dh olhnetes. Es ukh ekierjeoho
a`jök ek d`s hkalhk`s, hukque hdguk`s nenes pueoek khaer a`k eddh.
- DHG^LJHD QEA@6 Ahush o`d`r y jhdesthr ek dh z`kh `audhr, p`r dh ihdth oe
dègrljh. Qe suede rea`jekohr dh hpdlahalñk oe dègrljhs hrtlilalhdes phrh hdlvlhr
d`s sêkt`jhs.
- ERAEQ@ OE DHG^LJH6 Qe pr`ouae auhko` exlste oeilalekalh oe ukh dègrljh
k`rjhd, lkidhjhalñk, lkieaalñk ` p`r jeterse uk auerp` extrhø` ek ed `f`.
- A@KFUK_LYL_LQ6 Es dh lkidhjhalñk oe dh phrte ndhkah oed `f`. Qe ha`jphøh oe
uk hujekt` oe searealñk. Quede ser a`kthgl`sh, p`r d` auhd k` se oene jhklpudhr
dh z`kh. Ek ed ahs` oe que dh adlekth qulerh rehdlzhrse ed servlal`,
oenerè exljlr oe resp`kshnldloho h dh pr`iesl`khd. ]hrh edd` es a`kveklekte
reddekhr uk i`rjudhrl` a`k dh ilrjh oe dh adlekth, hsê a`j` dh oe dh pr`iesl`khd h
rehdlzhr ed servlal`. ]hrtes oed `f` que pueoek suirlr ukh pht`d`gêh Exteksl`kes
pesthøhs
 A@K_^H_@ OE HAE]_HAL@K OE ]@QLNDEQ ]H_@D@GLHQ
\`PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP, a`k olreaalñk ek dh
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP k¶PPPP, oe PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP A.]PPPPPPP y
tedìi`k`PPPPPPPPPP, a`kilrj` que je bhk lki`rjho` oe t`ohs dhs
ahrhaterêstlahs oed pr`aes` oe dhs Exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs, hsê a`j` su

ourhnldloho y pr`aeoljlekt`s h segulr trhs dh hpdlahalñk

h pdlahalñk oe dhs jlsjhs. Hsê
thjnlìk a`kilrj` que k` tekg` klkgukh oe dhs pht`d`gêhs slgulektes.
GDHUA@JH QL PP K@ PP
OLHNE_EQ QLPP K@ PP
DHG^LJHD QEA@ QL PPK@ PP
A@KFUK_LYL_LQ QL PPK@ PP
ERAEQ@ OE DÈG^LJH QLPP K@ PP
U_LDLVHALÑK OE A@DL^L@ BHNL_UHDJEK_E QL PPK@ PP
AH_H^H_HQ QLPP K@ PP
LK_E^YEKAL@KEQ @]_LAHQ ^EALEK_EJEK_E QL PPK@ PP
HDE^GLH HD DH_ER QLPP K@ PP
HDE^GLH HD ALHKHA^LDH_@ QL PPK@ PP
DEK_EQ OE A@K_HA_@ @ DEK_LDDHQ QL PPK@ PP
Ek ed ahs` oe phoeaer hdgukh oe eddhs, exlj` oe t`oh resp`kshnldloho h
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP (k`jnre oed aektr`). Je a`jpr`jet` h veklr h
d`s seguljlekt`s y segulr dhs rea`jekohal`kes p`st-servlal`, estlpudhohs p`r dh
pr`iesl`khd que je rehdlzh ed servlal`. PPPPoe PPPPPPPPPoe PPPPP

IL^JH ADLEK_ H IL^JH OE DH ]^@IEQL@KHD

 JH_E^LHDEQ OE IHN^LAHALÑK
OE DHQ ER_EKQL@KEQ OE ]EQ_HØHQ
Exlstek tres tlp`s oe jhterlhd oe exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs
8. ]ed` Qlktìtla`6 s`k beabhs h jhk`, oepekoleko` oe dh jhrah que edlfhs
a`jprhr duae h veaes juy khturhd, hukque pueoes eka`ktrhr hdguk` que
duae juy ihds`, es ljp`rthkte que auhko` edlfhs uk pr`veeo`r oe
jhterlhd, plohs ukh juestrh phrh pr`nhr hktes a`j` duaek, y hsê esthr
segurh oe trhnhfhr a`k hdg` oe ahdloho.
>. ]ed` oe vlsñk6 beabhs h jhk` ljlthalñk oed ped` oe vlsñk ` jlkc s`k dhs
a`ksloerhohs jef`res, ek su ihnrlahalñk ed ped` es s`jetlo` h hdths
tejperhturhs, d` que bhae dh pesthøh idexlnde, hsê auhko` p`r efejpd` ed
adlekte ouerje y se o`ndhk, dueg` a`k s`d` pelkhrdhs vuedvek h su estho`
khturhd, s`k super rea`jekohndes phrh trhnhf`s oe v`dujek rus`
1. ]ed` oe seoh6 estè ihnrlaho` oe seoh, es uk ped` que rea`jleko` h d`s
pr`iesl`khdes p`rque es nhsthkte suhve, y hns`rne juy nlek ed
peghjekt`, slk ejnhrg`, tleke ukh oesvekthfh y es que sl se o`ndh k`
vuedve h su i`rjh khturhd a`j` dhs jlkc
 _L]@Q
OE AU^YH_U^HQ
AU^YH_U^H F
tleke uk èkgud` oe 1= ½ ed loehd auhko` tlekes uk adlekte b`jnre, yh que k` se de
vh h k`thr que ddevh exteksl`kes, per` sl vh h reshdthr su jlrhoh
AU^YH_U^H N
_leke uk èkgud` oe ?5½ y iue juy p`pudhr ek ed hø` >=== auhko` ejpezñ dh j`oh
oe exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs, pues s`d` bhnêh esth aurvh hd prlkalpl`, a`k dh
ev`dualñk oe dhs tekoekalhs bh queoho` `ns`deth p`rque es ukh aurvh ahsl
ljperaeptlnde, Aurvhturh loehd phrh t`ohs hqueddhs adlekths que qulerhk dualr
ukhs pesthøhs khturhdes y sutldes. - y` a`j` ektrekho`rh k` d` rea`jleko` ed
adlekte slejpre vh h teker `trh expeathtlvh
AU^YH_U^H A
^ea`jekohoh phrh pesthøhs a`k aurvh khturhd tleke uk èkgud` oe 9=½ y oh jhy`r
expreslvloho h dh jlrhoh, tlekek ukh aurvh suilalekte phrh ohr expreslñk slk ser

extrejh, loehd phrh hahnho`s jeolhkhjekte khturhd. ^ea`jekohnde phrh

auhdquler tlp` oe `f`s.
AU^YH_U^H AA
Esth extekslñk tleke jès aurvh ek dh pukth oe dh pesthøh es p`a` jhs expreslvh
que dh A per` slk ddeghr h ser ukh aurvh extrejh a`j` dh O
AU^YH_U^H O
aurvhturh extrejh, tleke uk èkgud` oe 7=½ loehd phrh `f`s grhkoes y
pr`kukalho`s lktekslilahko` dh jlrhoh. k` se rea`jlekoh ek `f` pequeø` kl
bukolo`.
AU^YH_U^H D
Esth aurvh se bh areho` bhae p`a` tlejp`, hpr`xljhohjekte ek ed >=87, peksho`
phrh ped` khturhd slk aurvh ` ped` ahêo`. Ddhjhoh —D‚ p`r su i`rjh, iue arehoh
p`rque a`k dhs aurvhs que bej`s jekal`kho` hkterl`rjekte auhko` dh pesthøh
oed adlekte es juy pdhkh bhaêh oliêald ed trhnhf` slk ejnhrg` es tekoekalh oe
j`oh hb`rh ddevhr dh aurvh D
Ek ed >=82 y >=8< bhk shdlo` kuevhs vhrlhal`kes a`j` aurvh OO y aurvh J per`
s`k p`a`s pr`veeo`res a`k esths aurvhs
]EQ_HØHQ AU^YH D
AUHO^@ OE AU^YHQ \ OLHJE_^@Q
 OLHJE_^@Q @ G^@Q@^EQ OE DHQ ER_EKQL@KEQ OE ]EQ_HØHQ
Bhy olvers`s olèjetr`s ` gr`s`res oe dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs, ahoh uk` estè
olseøho` phrh tìaklahs espeaêilahs, es oealr, oenes a`kthr a`k t`o`s d`s
olèjetr`s phrh `ireaer uk hnhkla` oe p`slnldlohoes h tu adlekte, espealhdjekte
p`rque ek este `ilal`, vhs h teker juab`s adlektes que te ohrèk ukh i`t` oe
reierekalh y p`orès bhaer hdg` lguhd ` phrealo` sl auekths a`k d` keaeshrl` phrh
bhaerd`
A`jekthrl`6 k` rea`jleko` a`j` pr`iesl`khd, nhf` klkgukh alrauksthkalh ed us`
oed olèjetr` =,>=, dh pesthøh khturhd es ilkh y sl se qulere oìnld, esth extekslñk oe
pesthøh es juy peshoh, terjlkh p`r gekerhr dh ahêoh oed ped` khturhd, a`k ed phs`
oe d`s oêhs suede ser j`desth, se oespelkh y se o`ndh, ahushko` esa`z`r, y bhsth
lkidhjhalñk oe dh z`kh, y ed adlekte k` vh h repetlr ed servlal`, dueg` oe esth
experlekalh
D@KGLK_UOEQ @ DH^G@Q OE DHQ ER_EKQL@KEQ OE ]EQ_HØHQ
Dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs vleke oe o`s i`rjhs, ek nhkoefhs JLR ` nhkoefhs a`k
ukh s`dh d`kgltuo, dh nhkoefh JLR k`rjhdjekte vleke oesoe 7jj bhsth 85jj ek
ukh ahfh, ek este ahs` s`d` tlekes que edeglr dh aurvh A, AA ` O, ` pueoes `pthr p`r
a`jprhr ukh nhkoefh oe ahoh d`kgltuo (rea`jekohnde sl tlekes ukh hjpdlh
ahrterh oe adlektes), hquê p`r efejpd` tekorêhs que ushr ? ahfhs p`r aurvh, hsê
tekorêhs ? jeolohs p`r ahoh aurvh, oenes teker a`j` jêklj` tres olèjetr`s, D`s
thjhø`s jès utldlzho`s s`k d`s que vhk oesoe d`s 7 bhsth d`s 8? jldêjetr`s phrh
dhs exteksl`kes 8O, y oe 2 h 81 jldêjetr`s phrh dhs exteksl`kes 1O y 5O. Oe 7 h 8=

jldêjetr`s se a`ksloerh uk dhrg` estèkohr juy khturhd. Oe 88 h 8? jldêjetr`s se

a`ksloerh uk dhrg` lkteks` phrh p`oer ohr i`rjh
i`r jh y fughr jès a`k dh jlrhoh.

JH_E^LHDEQ KEAEQH^L@Q ]H^H ED QE^YLAL@

]EGHJEK_@ @ HOBEQLY@
Exlstek olvershs jhrahs y tlp`s, oe seaho` rèplo`, phrh pledes sekslndes, d`s jès
rea`jekohndes s`k d`s oe seaho` rèplo` y d`s que s`k jek`s lrrlthktes, es
ljp`rthkte reshdthr que t`o`s s`k lrrlthktes per` bhy uk`s jès iuertes que
`tr`s,
dee dh ilabh, hsegörhte que olgh que es p`a`s vhp`res, slk ejnhrg` sl k` tlekes
oestrezh phrh trhnhfhr, bhsth que dh hoqulerhs a`jprh uk` que k` seque thk
rèplo`, phrh teker uk tlejp` oe jhrgek oe err`r y p`oer a`rreglr d` que te bhyh
phsho`.
]LKVHQ
]LKVH ]H^H ER_EKQL@KEQ ^EA_H AH^HA_E^ÊQ_LAHQ6 ]lkzh dhrgh, a`k pukth
hildhoh. Qe utldlzh phrh hlsdhr dhs ]esthøhs khturhdes. Es oe haer` y kêqued
ar`jho`.
 ]LKVH ]H^H ER_EKQL@KEQ AU^YHOH AH^HA_E^ÊQ_LAHQ
]lkzh dhrgh a`k pukth aurvhoh. Lkolahoh phrh hpdlahr dhs Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs
s`nre dhs pesthøhs khturhdes. Es oe haer` y kêqued ar`jho`.
]LKVH ]H^H ER_EKQL@KEQ
EK I@^JH OE D AH^HA_E^ÊQ_LAHQ
]lkzh dhrgh, a`k pukth aurvhoh ek i`rjh oe D, oe esth plkzh bhy vhrlhal`kes que
estèk lkolahohs phrh hrjhr d`s hnhkla`s oe v`dujek rus`, sleko` espeaêilahs
phrh ahoh tìaklah, es oealr hdgukhs s`k p`r efejpd` phrh ?O, y k` slrvek phrh
t`ohs dhs tìaklahs slk ejnhrg` exlstek o`s ahsl gekìrlahs. (ver i`t`).
 .]H]ED ]^@_EA_@^ ]H^H ER_EKQL@KEQ OE ]EQ_HØHQ (]H^ABEQ)
]hped lkolaho` phrh hpdlahr ek dh phrte lkierl`r oed `f`, que evlth que ed
]eghjekt` oe Extekslñk oe ]esthøhs jhkabe dh pled y que ed Esphrhorhp` se
hoblerh ek exaes` ek dh pled, sleko` j`dest` phrh retlrhrd`. Ed ]hped pr`teat`r es
oe uk s`d` us`.

Alkth hobeslvh oe us` jìola` que ihaldlth dh hobeslñk oed ]hped pr`teat`r phrh
Exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs y sufeth dhs pesthøhs lkierl`res, phrh evlthr dh hpdlahalñk
oe Exteksl`kes s`nre dhs pesthøhs lkierl`res.
AE]LDD@ _L]@ JÈQAH^H OE ]EQ_HØHQ.
]elke phrh pelkhr ed ped` oe dhs pesthøhs y dhs Exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs. Es oe uk
s`d` us`. Hd terjlkhr ed trhnhf` ektreghs hd adlekte ed que bhs utldlzho` phrh su
us` pers`khd y jhkteker dhs pesthøhs pelkhohs.
NHQ_@KALDD@Q OE ER_EKQLÑK OE ]EQ_HØHQ (JLA^@ N^UQBEQ)
]hdlt`s que ek uk extrej` ddevh uk hns`rnekte. Ilkhdlzh ek pukth. ]`r su olseø`,

phrh dh hpdlahalñk oed prljer, ihaldlth ed seddho` oe dh Extekslñk oe ]esthøhs, hsê

a`j` ed etlrho` oe dhs jlsjhs.
_LFE^H
_lferh hildhoh, phrh a`rthr ed Esphrhorhp`. Es oe haer` y kêqued ar`jho`.
YÈDYUDH QEAHO@^H EQ]EALHD ER_EKQL@KEQ @ YEK_LDHO@^ OE
AH^GH
Yèdvudh oe pdèstla`, que ihaldlth ed seaho` oe ed ]eghjekt` oe Exteksl`kes oe
]esthøhs
.
_@HDDL_HQ OEQJHXULDDHK_EQ
Oesjhqulddho`r phrh prephrhr dh z`kh `audhr hktes oe rehdlzhrse ed trhthjlekt`
oe exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs. Quhve y dlnre oe haeltes hyuoh h pr`d`kghr dh
ourhnldloho oe dhs exteksl`kes, evlthko` que se estr`peek y se ahlghk a`k
hktedhalñk.
HKLDD@ ER_EKQLÑK OE ]EQ_HØHQ
]hrh ihaldlthr dh a`d`ahalñk oe dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs, Hkldd`s oeseabhndes
phrh a`d`ahr ed peghjekt` (hobeslv`), y t`jhr dh ahktloho keaeshrlh.
 ^EJ@YEO@^ OE ER_EKQL@KEQ OE ]EQ_HØHQ

Este es uk pr`ouat` sujhjekte ljp`rthkte, pues tekorès juabhs adlektes que

p`r olstlkths rhz`kes querrèk rej`ver dhs pesthøhs, ` ek hdguk`s ahs`s ddeghrè h
tl ukh pers`kh a`k trhnhf` oe `tr` aektr` que qulere ahjnlhr sus exteksl`kes, d`s
be pr`nho` t`o`s. Bhy s`d` tres presekthal`kes ek ged, dêqulo` y ek arejh, y` te
rea`jleko` d`s o`s ödtlj`s, per` te v`y h a`kthr dhs rhz`kes, ed pr`ouat` ek ged
aujpde a`k dh iukalñk oe rej`ver dhs pesthøhs, per` p`r su jlsjh a`jp`slalñk
es oliêald oe jhkefhr y terjlkh ektrhko` ek d`s `f`s oed adlekte, ahushko` esa`z`r
(plahzñk), a`j` pr`iesl`khd k` d` rea`jleko`3 ed pr`ouat` ek arejh es juy
jhkefhnde sl vhs h rej`ver uk trhnhf` a`jpdet` este pr`ouat` es loehd es ièald oe
jhkefhr y rejueve a`k rhploez, p`r ser ek arejh k` se auedh ek d`s `f`s oed
adlekte y k` lrrlth, ed teraer` y ödtlj`, es oe jls ihv`rlt`s, ed rej`veo`r dêqulo`,
es loehd phrh rej`ver hdgukh pesthøh que j`desth, p`r ser dlqulo` pueoes bhaer
retlr`s hlsdho`s.

JH_E^LHDEQ A@J]DEJEK_H^L@Q
Q`dualñk Blglìklah ]rephrho`rh hktlnhatrlhd phrh kuestrhs jhk`s y jhterlhd oe
trhnhf` (preierlndejekte hkte dh adlekth). - Jhsahrlddh nuahd. - G`rr` phrh dh
adlekth. - Ahjlddh ` slddñk t`thdjekte readlkhnde. - Qlddh regudhnde ek hdturh phrh dh
pr`iesl`khd (ljp`rthkalh oe trhnhfhr ek ukh p`slalñk erg`kñjlah).

]HQ@ H ]HQ@ ER_EKQL@KEQ

EDEAALÑK OE DH _ÌAKLAH \ EQ_LD@ OE QE^YLAL@Q H ^EHDLVH^
HA@^OE A@K ED OEQE@ \ ER]EA_H_LYHQ OE DH ADLEK_H
.
Hktes oe dh rehdlzhalñk oed prljer servlal` oe Exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs se
rea`jlekoh rehdlzhr uk olhgkñstla` oe dhs pesthøhs oe dh adlekth6
I@^JH OED ]ED@6 Oeterjlkhr que aurvhturh oe extekslñk keaeslth3 (A, O ` D ).
D@KGL_UO OED ]ED@6 Ha`rohr a`k dh adlekth ed dhrg`, slejpre hoeauhko` ed
resudtho` jès ñptlj` y rea`jekohko`.
 kht urhd
AHK_LOHO OEQEHOH6 Qerh keaeshrl` teker ek auekth dh ahktloho oe ped` khturhd
ek redhalñk h d`s ped`s hrtlilalhdes, yh que sl tleke p`ah ahktloho oenej`s
rea`jekohr uk servlal` Y`dujek ek 1O ` 5O phrh ohr jhy`r espes`r y seh
vlslnde. Oe este j`o` se p`orè rehdlzhr uk servlal` a`k ukhs ghrhktêhs y uk jef`r
resudtho`. Es rea`jekohnde phrh dh pr`iesl`khd ddevhr uk a`ktr`d hd respeat` oe
t`ohs dhs jeolohs utldlzhohs segök ahoh adlekth. A`k d`s ödtlj`s hvhkaes ek dh
tìaklah oe extekslñk oe pesthøhs se `ireae uk grhk jekö oe servlal`s, o`koe ed
adlekte pueoe esa`ger segök sus gust`s y keaeslohoes. Ìsths s`k hdgukhs oe dhs
que estèk jhrahko` tekoekalh ek dh hatuhdloho
]^EAHUAL@KEQ6 Estè t`thdjekte a`ktrhlkolaho` ddevhr dektlddhs ourhkte ed
servlal`, ed vhp`r oed peghjekt` pueoe ohøhrdhs y ahushr ukh deslñk ek d`s `f`s -
K` hpdlahrse a`kt`rk` oe `f`s >? b`rhs hktes oed servlal`. - ^ea`jekohr k`
utldlzhr jhqulddhfe ed oêh oe dh puesth phrh hsegurhr ukh jef`r prephrhalñk oed
ped`. - Olsp`slalñk oed tlejp` requerlo`, puest` que es uk servlal` ek ed auhd dh
adlekth k` p`orè rehdlzhr klkgök j`vljlekt` y ek t`o` j`jekt` se jhktekorè

a`k d`s `f`s5? aerrho`s.

]^E]H^HALÑK OE DH V@KH @AUDH^
.
Oesjhqulddhr dh z`kh `audhr a`k t`hddlths oesjhqulddhktes Qe rea`jlekoh
rehdlzhr ed oesjhqulddho` slejpre que se rehdlae ed servlal`, phrh retlrhr t`o`
tlp` oe ljpurezhs ek dh z`kh y uk nuek oesekgrhsho` oe dhs jlsjhs. - ]r`tefh y
aunrh dhs pesthøhs lkierl`res a`k ed phrabe hobeslv`, k` oene oe oefhr klkgukh
pesthøh oed phrpho` lkierl`r slk aunrlr. A`k d`s `f`s hnlert`s y jlrhko`
olreaalñk hd teab` se a`d`ah ek phrabe, ukh vez terjlkhoh dh a`rreath a`d`ahalñk
oe hjn`s phrabes dh adlekth aerrhrè d`s `f`s bhsth dh ilkhdlzhalñk oed servlal`.
Qerh ljp`rthkte que ourhkte t`o` ed servlal` se jhktekghk d`s `f`s aerrho`s
phrh evlthr j`destlhs. - A`k hyuoh oe uk Nrusb bujeoealo` ek Oesjhqulddhkte
espealhd oe exteksl`kes hpdlahrej`s s`nre d`s pedlt`s phrh prephrhr y
oesekgrhshr dh z`kh h trhnhfhr.
 ^EA@JEKOHAL@KEQ ]^E-QE^YLAL@
Hktes oe lklalhr auhdquler servlal` es iukohjekthd bhaer uk estuol`
pers`khdlzho` oed adlekte y trhthr su ahs` oe jhkerh phrtlaudhr, lki`rjhrd`
a`kveklektejekte oe d` que se vh h rehdlzhr, reddekhr ukh ilabh tìaklah a`k t`o`s
d`s oht`s.
8. Ukh vez sedeaal`khohs dh jeoloh oe dhs Exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs que vhj`s h
utldlzhr ek ahoh z`kh, a`jekzhr a`k ed pr`t`a`d` oe hpdlahalñk.
>. ]hrh oealolr ed thjhø` a`rresp`kolekte phrh ahoh z`kh, rehdlzhr dh pruenh a`k
d`s olierektes thjhø`s oe exteksl`kes. A`ger dh Extekslñk a`k dh ]lkzh Aurvhoh ñ
]lkzh ek i`rjh oe D y a`jpr`nhr que dh Extekslñk s`nrephsh 8/1 oed dhrg` oe dh
]esthøh khturhd.
1. A`ger dh ]lkzh phrh Exteksl`kes ^eath a`k dh jhk` lzquleroh y dh ]lkzh Aurvh `
]lkzh ek i`rjh oe D a`k dh jhk` oereabh. (H dh lkversh sl eres Vuro`).
?. A`k dh ]lkzh phrh Exteksl`kes Aurvh ` ek i`rjh oe D, sedeaal`khr ukh
Extekslñk oe ]esthøhs oed thjhø` que se areh hoeauho`, a`ger dh Extekslñk oe

]esthøhs p`r dh jltho oe dh jlsjh, a`k dh pukth oe dh plkzh. A`k dh ]lkzh phrh
Exteksl`kes ^eath sephrhr dhs pesthøhs khturhdes sedeaal`khko` ukh oe eddhs ek
ed aektr` oe dh plkzh, h p`oer ser ek ukh ihse ahtègekh., _eker h olsp`slalñk 8h
g`th oe peghjekt` oektr` oed `rlilal` oed hkldd` phrh p`oer trhnhfhr dhs
exteksl`kes.
K@_H LJ]@^_HK_E6 _`o`s d`s uteksldl`s jetèdla`s a`j` dhs plkzhs serèk
hseptlzho`s y esterldlzho`s ek ahoh servlal` (pueoes bhaerd` a`k haet`kh), `
oenes teker uk esterldlzho`r.
ER_EKQL@KEQ ]EQ_HØHQ
5. Lktr`ouzah dh extekslñk oektr` oed hobeslv` bhsth p`a` jès oe dh jltho
perjltleko` que se hoblerh ukh g`th oe peghjekt` ek ed extrej` oe esth,
rejuevh ed exaes` dljplhko` dh extekslñk ek ed n`roe oed hkldd`, h a`ktlkuhalñk,
a`d`ahr dh Extekslñk s`nre ed ped` sedeaal`kho` rehdlzhko` vhrlhs (8 ` >) phshohs
s`nre dh pesthøh khturhd phrh rephrtlr ed peghjekt`, a`d`ahko` dh extekslñk h
8jj oe dh pled oed phrpho`.
9. ]resl`ke suhvejekte dh n`jnh seaho`rh phrh hyuohr hd seaho` y dh hoeauhoh
hobeslñk. LJ]@^_HK_E6 Ed peghjekt` kukah oene oe t`ahr dh pled, pues pueoe
pr`v`ahr lrrlthalñk ` lkidhjhalñk. Ek t`o` ed pr`aes` oe hpdlahalñk es ljp`rthkte
DEYHK_H^ OE JHKE^H QU_LD AHOH 85 / >= JLK
Uk jejnrete es ed ekahnezho` oe dh phrte superl`r oe ukh b`fh oe phped phrh
ahrths (ljpres`). Ese ehpr`xljhohjekte d`s phrpho`s phrh hsegurhrk`s oe que
dhs pesthøhs k` se bhyhk hoberlo` hd pr`teat`r ` hdgukh pesthøh lkierl`r. _eker
ek auekth que ukh pesthøh khturhd pueoe s`p`rthr uk pes` jèxlj` oe =.85jj.
_hkt` phrh ed servlal` oe adèslahs a`j` oe v`dujek 1O y 5O. Exteksl`kes
pesthøhs

]^@_@A@D@ EFEJ]D@ @F@ A@J]DE_@

Olvlolr ed `f` ek 1 phrtes6 Extrej` lkterk` (dhgrljhd), aektr` y extrej` exterk` -

Ek ed Dhgrljhd dhs jès pequeøhs. - oepekoleko` oed d``c que bhyhs edeglo` dhs
jès dhrghs vhk ek ed aektr` ` ek ed extrej` exterk`
8¶ Hpdlahr ek Extrej`s.
>¶ Hpdlahr ek Dhgrljhd. 1¶ Hpdlahr ek Aektr`.
?¶ Hpdlahr ek Extrej`-aektr`.

5¶ Hpdlahr ek Dhgrljhd-aektr`.

A@J@ A@D@AH^ DHQ ER_EKQL@KEQ J@O@ A@^^EA_@

Dh Extekslñk oe pesthøhs oene queohr a`jpdethjekte hoberloh h dh ]esthøh

khturhd. Qe hpdlah h 8jj hpr`x. oe dh rhêz. Es ljp`rthkte k` t`ahr dh pled a`k dh
Extekslñk p`rque ahushrêh j`destlhs h dh adlekth. Dh pesthøh khturhd k` tleke dh
aurvhturh hoeauhoh phrh dh Extekslñk oe pesthøhs, p`rque es juy reath. Hd
a`d`ahr dh Extekslñk k` bhy ukh hoberekalh a`jpdeth h dh pesthøh khturhd, y
suede queohr dh rhêz ` dh pukth oe dh pesthøh, oesprekoloh a`k respeat` h dh
Extekslñk. Est` pr`v`ah p`ah ourhnldloho y uk hspeat` p`a` khturhd y
pr`iesl`khd. ed us` oe dh aurvhturh D. Dh Extekslñk oe pesthøhs se a`d`ah ek dh
jltho oe dh ]esthøh khturhd. Est` pr`v`ah que pese ek exaes` dh Extekslñk y que
dh pesthøh se oesprekoh y que se aruae a`k ed rest` oe pesthøhs, ohko` dughr h
ukh jhdh hphrlekalh. Auhko` se hpdlahk dhs Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs, se oene oe
teker espealhd htekalñk ek dh a`d`ahalñk s`nre ed ped` khturhd. Ql dh pesthøh
khturhd tlekoe h6 - Olreaalñk bhalh dh oereabh6 se a`d`ah dh Extekslñk ek olreaalñk
a`ktrhrlh phrh j`olilahr dh olreaalñk lklalhd. - Olreaalñk bhalh dh lzquleroh6 se
a`d`ah dh Extekslñk ek olreaalñk a`ktrhrlh phrh j`olilahr dh olreaalñk. - Ql dh
pesthøh vh bhalh hnhf`, se oene a`d`ahr oenhf`
oenhf` oe dh khturhd, phrh a`ksegulr que
se queoe jès hrquehoh. - Ql dh pesthøh vh bhalh hrrlnh, se oene a`d`ahr s`nre dh
pesthøh. Exteksl`kes pesthøhs
 ^EA@JEKOHAL@K ]@Q_ QE^YLAL@
JHK_EKLJLEK_@Q OE DHQ ER_EKQL@KEQ OE ]EQ_HØHQ
Dh adlekth oenerè evlthr dh hpdlahalñk oe hguh s`nre dh z`kh `audhr ourhkte >?
b`rhs, phrh hsegurhr ed seaho` oe dh Extekslñk oe ]esthøhs. - K` se oene ir`thr d`s
`f`s - Evlthr plsalkhs, shukhs ` dughres a`k juabh bujeoho ` vhp`res. - ]elkhr
dhs pesthøhs a`k uk Aepldd` tlp` jèsahrh auloho`shjekte. - K` hpdlahr Jèsahrh
oe pesthøhs. - Ek ed ahs` oe teker que rehdlzhr uk oesjhqulddho` oe dh z`kh
`audhr, evlthr d`s oesjhqulddho`res grhs`s. - K` se p`orèk utldlzhr t`hddlths
oesjhqulddhktes. - K` utldlzhr rlzho`r oe pesthøhs. - ^ehdlzhr d`s servlal`s oe
ret`que auhko` dh pr`iesl`khd d` a`ksloere `p`rtuk`. - Ektreghr h d`s adlektes dhs
rea`jekohal`kes oe us`. Dhs Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs, phrh que tekghk ukh grhk
ourhnldloho, requlerek oe uk jhktekljlekt` a`ktlku`. Ed jhktekljlekt` se
rehdlzh ahoh 1 ` ? sejhkhs hpr`xljhohjekte, yh que ed arealjlekt` oe dh pesthøh
es olierekte phrh ahoh adlekth. Ek ed servlal` oe jhktekljlekt`, se ret`ahk dhs
Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs que bhk arealo` ek exaes` y dhs Exteksl`kes que bhk

ahêo` oenlo`6 - lka`rreath hpdlahalñk - jhd auloho` oe dhs Exteksl`kes oe

]esthøhs - hpdlahalñk ek pesthøhs que estèk ek ihse _edñgekh. Dhs Exteksl`kes oe
]esthøhs que bhk teklo` uk arealjlekt` exaeslv` y que se vek hrtlilalhdes, se
retlrhk y se rehdlzhrè uk kuev` servlal`. ]hrh `ireaer uk servlal` oe ahdloho,
rea`jleko` ahoh > jhktekljlekt`s bhaer ukh retlrhoh y puesth kuevh oenlo` h
dh ihse oe arealjlekt` oed ped` khturhd phrh ddevhr hsê h su vez dh jlsjh jeoloh
oe d`s ped`s ek t`o` ed servlal`. Exteksl`kes pesthøhs
 ^E_L^HO@ OE ER_EKQL@KEQ
]^EAHUAL@KEQ EK ED ]^@AEQ@ OE ^E_L^HOH OE ER_EKQL@KEQ
Dhs Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs se oenek retlrhr p`r6 - Ukh jhdh hpdlahalñk p`r phrte
oe dh pr`iesl`khd - Dhs pesthøhs khturhdes bhk arealo` y dh Exteksl`kes oe
]esthøhs pesh, d` que `rlglkh que se aruae y seh j`dest` phrh dh adlekth. - Dh
adlekth qulere retlrhr dhs Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs p`rque k` qulere a`ktlkuhr
a`k d`s servlal`s oe jhktekljlekt`. ]hrh rehdlzhr ed retlrho` oe dhs Exteksl`kes
oe ]esthøhs, se oenek segulr d`s slgulektes pr`aeoljlekt`s6 - ^ehdlzhr6 Dh
prephrhalñk oe dh z`kh oe trhnhf` y dh prephrhalñk oe dh z`kh oed `f` (prljer`s
phs`s oe dh hpdlahalñk oe Exteksl`kes). - A`k ed Aepldd` tlp` Jèsahrh oe ]esthøhs,
pelkhr dhs ]esthøhs, phrh `roekhr y sephrhr y ihaldlthr ed trhnhf`. - Qedeaal`khr dh
Extekslñk oe ]esthøhs que se vh h retlrhr. ]`slal`khr uk Nhst`kaldd` phrh
Exteksl`kes bujeoealo` a`k ed rej`veo`r y irlaal`khr repetlohs veaes s`nre dh
Extekslñk bhsth que se dlnere a`jpdethjekte. Evlthr tlrhr oe dh jlsjh. - ^epetlr
ed pr`aes` phrh ahoh ukh oe dhs Exteksl`kes oe ]esthøhs que se oeseh retlrhr. - Ql
es keaeshrl` retlrhr t`ohs dhs exteksl`kes, serè keaeshrl` ejphphr t`o`s d`s
ped`s a`k ed rej`veo`r y oefhr hatuhr 5 jlkut`s hpr`xljhohjekte, ukh vez
trhksaurrlo` ed tlejp` se pr`aeoe h aeplddhr a`k ed aepldd` tlp` jèsahrh.
]^EGUK_HQ I^EAUEK_EQ
°Auèkt` tlejp` rehdjekte ourhk dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs0 Auhko` se hpdlah
a`rreathjekte se pueoe ushr ourhkte t`o` ed hø` a`k uk jhktekljlekt`
jeksuhd jêklj`. Qu ourhalñk serè oe bhsth 2= oêhs °]ueoek dhs exteksl`kes oe
pesthøhs ohøhr pesthøhs khturhdes0 K` ohøh dh pesthøh khturhd oenlo` h que dh
a`kexlñk slejpre se rehdlzh h 8 j/j s`nre dh pesthøh khturhd, KUKAH s`nre pled
kl s`nre jua`sh. °Es rea`jekohnde rehdlzhr dlitlkg y tlkte phrh dh hpdlahalñk oe
dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs0
Qerh rea`jekohnde auhko` dh pesthøh khturhd tleke ukh i`rjh juy reath y ahêoh
phrh hsê ihv`reaer su aurvhturh y ed tlkte, hoejès oe ser uk trhthjlekt` grhalhs h
su i`rjudhalñk y que vlsuhdjekte hp`rth jhy`r espes`r. °Ql tekg` dhs pesthøhs
khturhdes juy adhrhs, per` tekg` aurvhturh, pueo` öklahjekte rehdlzhr ed tlkte
oe pesthøhs0 Ql, hp`rthrè jhy`r espes`r y es uk servlal` que se pueoe bhaer
servlr ed jlsj` oêh oe dh hpdlahalñk oe dhs exteksl`kes. °]ueo` rehdlzhr dlitlkg oe
pesthøhs ed jlsj` oêh oe dh hpdlahalñk oe dhs exteksl`kes oe pesthøhs0 K`,
oenlo` h que se bh j`olilaho` dh estruaturh oed ped` khturhd, ed auhd throh ukhs
>? b`rhs ek seddhrse