FST 223- FOOD PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY

WHAT IS PACKAGING?
Packaging is an essential part of processing and distributing foods. Packaging has
been defined as a socio-scientific discipline which operates in society to ensure
safe delivery of goods to the consumer of those products in the best possible
condition in relation to their use.
Packaging is important because it aids food distribution, and rapid and reliable
distribution helps remove local food surpluses, allows consumers more choice in
the foods available and helps to reduce malnutrition. Packaging also reduces post
harvest losses, which together with giving access to larger markets, allows
producers to increase their incomes. Therefore, adequate packaging in
developing countries has profound effects on both the pattern of food
consumption and the amount of food consumed.
There are many ways of defining packaging reflecting different area including
• A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound condition
at optimum cost.
• A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage,
retailing and end-use.
• A techno-commercial function aimed at optimising the costs of delivery while
maximising sales (and hence profits).
The technical purposes of packaging are:
 To contain foods (to hold the contents and keep them clean and secure
without leakage or breakage until they are used).
 To protect foods against a range of hazards during distribution and storage
(to provide a barrier to dirt, micro-organisms and other contaminants, and
protection against damage caused by insects, birds and rodents, heat,
oxidation, and moisture pickup or loss).
 To give convenient handling throughout the production, storage, and
distribution system, including easy opening, dispensing, and re-sealing, and
being suitable for easy disposal, recycling or re-use.
  To enable the consumer to identify the food, and give instructions so that
the food is stored and used correctly.
Food packaging is defined as a co-ordinated system of preparing food for
transport, distribution, storage, retailing, and end-use to satisfy the ultimate
consumer with optimal cost (Coles et al., 2003). Food packaging is an essential
part of modern society; commercially processed food could not be handled and
distributed safely and efficiently without packaging.

SCOPE OF FOOD PACKAGING

The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from outside
influences and damage, to contain the food, and to provide consumers with
ingredient and nutritional information (Coles 2003). Traceability, convenience,
and tamper indication are secondary functions of increasing importance. The goal
of food packaging is to contain food in a cost-effective way that satisfies industry
requirements and consumer desires, maintains food safety, and minimizes
environmental impact.

FUNCTIONS/ REASONS OF PACKAGING FOODS

 Containment: The term “containment” means, simply, to contain products
to enable products to be moved or stored. The choice of material used
depends on the product’s physical form and nature. For example, a
hygroscopic free-flowing powder or a viscous and acidic tomato
concentrate. All products must be contained for delivery from their point of
production to their ultimate destination. Even items that consumers
consider as “not a packaged product,” such as bulk produce, must be
packaged for transportation. Without packaging, products are likely to be
lost or contaminated by the environment. Packaging reduces total waste by
extending the shelf-life of foods, thereby prolonging their usability.

 Protection/preservation: protection against mechanical damage due to the

hazards of distribution. There are two broad types of damage that fresh
and processed foods sustain during storage and transportation. One is
physical damage such as shock, vibration, compressive forces, etc. The
other is environmental damage that occurs due to exposure to water, light,
gases, odors, microorganisms, etc. A good packaging system will protect or
reduce these types of damage to the package contents. Food packaging can
 retard product deterioration, retain the beneficial effects of processing,
extend shelf-life, and maintain or increase the quality and safety of food. In
doing so, packaging provides protection from3 major classes of external
influences: chemical, biological and physical.
Chemical protection minimizes compositional changes triggered by
environmental influences such as exposure to gases (typically oxygen), moisture
(gain or loss), or light (visible, infrared, or ultraviolet). Many different packaging
materials can provide a chemical barrier. Glass and metals provide a nearly
absolute barrier to chemical and other environmental agents, but few packages
are purely glass or metal since closure devices are added to facilitate both filling
and emptying.
Biological protection provides a barrier to microorganisms (pathogens and
spoiling agents), insects, rodents, and other animals, thereby preventing disease
and spoilage. In addition, biological barriers maintain conditions to control
senescence (ripening and aging). Such barriers function via a multiplicity of
mechanisms, including preventing access to the product, preventing odor
transmission, and maintaining the internal environment of the package.
Physical protection shields food from mechanical damage and includes
cushioning against the shock and vibration encountered.
 Information about the product: Packaging also provides information to the
consumer. For example, package labeling satisfies legal requirements for
product identification, nutritional value, ingredient declaration, net weight,
and manufacturer information. Additionally, the package conveys
important information about the product such as cooking instructions,
brand identification, and pricing. All these enhancements may impact waste
disposal.
 Convenience: Convenience features such as ease of access, handling, and
disposal; product visibility; resealability; and microwavability greatly
influence package innovation. It is important for the pack handlers and
user(s) throughout the packaging chain. These convenience features add
value and competitive advantages to products but may also influence the
amount and type of packaging waste requiring disposal.
 Presentation: material type, shape, size, colour, merchandising display
units etc.
 Brand communication: e.g. pack persona by the use of typography,
symbols, illustrations, advertising and colour, thereby creating visual
impact
 Promotion (Selling and marketing): free extra product, new product,
money off etc.
 Economy: for example, efficiency in distribution, production, and storage
 Environmental responsibility: in manufacture, use, reuse, or recycling and
final disposal.
 Traceability: The Codex Alimentarius Commission defines traceability as
“the ability to follow the movement of a food through specified stage(s) of
production, processing and distribution” (Codex Alimentarius Commission
2004). Traceability has 3 objectives: to improve supply management, to
facilitate trace-back for food safety and quality purposes, and to
differentiate and market foods with subtle or undetectable quality
attributes (Golan and others 2004). Food manufacturing companies
incorporate unique codes onto the package labels of their products; this
allows them to track their products throughout the distribution process.
Codes are available in various formats (for example, printed barcodes or
electronic radio frequency identification [RFID]) and can be read manually
and/or by machine.
 Tamper indication: Willful tampering with food and pharmaceutical
products has resulted in special packaging features designed to reduce or
eliminate the risk of tampering and adulteration. Although any package
can be breeched, tamper-evident features cannot easily be replaced.
Tamper-evident features include banding, special membranes, breakaway
closures, and special printing on bottle liners or composite cans such as
graphics or text that irreversibly change upon opening. Special printing also
includes holograms that cannot be easily Duplicated. Tamper-evident
packaging usually requires additional packaging materials, which
exacerbates disposal issues, but the benefits generally outweigh any
drawback. An example of a tamper-evident feature that requires no
additional packaging material is a heat seal used on medical packaging that
is chemically formulated to change color when opened.
HISTORY OF FOOD PACKAGING (READ UP)
FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS IN NIGERIA

1. Leaves, vegetable fibres and textiles

Leaves are cheap and readily available, and are used as wrappers for products
such as cooked foods that are quickly consumed. In Nigeria some foods such
as bean pudding “moinmoin” are cooked in leaves. Some foods are stored and
wrapped in leaves as packaging such as locust beans, kolanuts etc. leaves
however dry out fast and deteriorate easily.
2. Wood:
Wooden containers protect foods against crushing, have good stacking
characteristics and a good weight-to-strength ratio. Wooden boxes, trays and
crates have traditionally been used as shipping containers for a wide variety of
solid foods including fruits, vegetables and bakery products. Wooden
containers have been largely replaced by plastics because of their weight that
may add to shipping costs, lack of flexibility etc. Wooden barrels have been
traditionally used as shipping containers for a wide range of liquid foods,
including cooking oils, wine, beer and juices. They continue to be used for
some wines and spirits because flavour compounds from the wood improve
the quality of the products, but in other applications have been replaced by
aluminium, coated steel or plastic barrels.
3. GLASS SIDED BOXES:
These are boxes made from wood and a side of it covered in glass. It is
popularly used to display food products in Nigeria such as puffpuff, buns,
akara, groundnut and popcorn etc. some boxes are constructed to have bulb
in them to keep food warm. Constant opening and closing however defeats
this purpose and also allow for entry of contaminants from the environment
and from handling as well as insects.
4. EARTHENWARE:
Earthen pots were popularly used to store water and cook and keep foods. It
is not as popular as it used to be but still well in use. Corks, wooden lids, wax
or plastic stoppers, or combinations of these are used to seal the pots. If they
are glazed and well sealed, they prevent oxygen, moisture and light from
entering the food and they are therefore suitable for storing oils and wines.
They also restrict contamination by micro-organisms, insects and rodents.
Unglazed earthenware bowls or pots are porous and the evaporating moisture
makes them suitable for products that need cooling.

5. GLASS BOTTLES:
Discarded bottles are used to store different types of foods both liquids and
solids. Foods like palmoil, vegetable oil, groundnut etc are some food stored
and even sold using these materials. However, when not handled under good
hygiene conditions can lead to contamination and they can cause bodily harm
if broken.
6. WOVEN BASKETS:
Baskets made from rafia are used to store and transport fresh farm produce
like pepper, tomatoes, yams etc. These baskets come in different sizes usually
lined with leaves before use. These baskets however get damaged easily and
can spill the content of the produce in them. Also it doesn’t prevent attacks
from insect and rodents and other environmental factors such as rain and
sunlight and so the produce in them can easily get damaged. Also handling
can cause bodily harm if not careful. They are however cheap, easy to
produce, readily available and light weight.
7. PAPER:
Discarded newspapers, old prints etc are some examples of papers used in
food packaging in Nigeria for foods such as groundnuts, akara etc. some of
these foods are sold in papers. rom the point of view of sanitation, the quality
of paper is generally poor. Any old newspaper, multi -wall Portland cement
sacks, magazine and old stationary from schools and offices are used. The
Paper is not stored properly and cannot be cleaned. Such poor hygienic
practices coupled with the harmful effect of printing ink make the use of
paper for wrapping food a health hazard. The product packaged in paper
includes Akara, fish (smoked or fried), pastries such as doughnuts, meat
pies, cakes, puff-puff etc, bread, yam (fried or roasted) groundnut etc. The
foods that are wrapped in paper are normally displayed in a pan, tray or
transparent glass box and are wrapped in paper when purchased. The
paper facilitates handling of the product but provides very little protection
from damage or spoilage. Parcels may be loose and the food can easily spill
out.
8. Plastic bags.
Transparent plastic films formed into bags are becoming increasingly
important in the packaging of a variety of foods. Low density polyethylene
(commonly called polyethylene) is the best known. The adoption of these
bags in packaging has significantly improved the display of ready-to-eat
foods from aesthetic and hygienic point of view. Unfortunately, many food
vendors are not familiar with the suitability or otherwise of the various
types of plastic films for different products. This can however lead to
deterioration in quality of the food during storage. Foods such as bread,
pastries, and drinks like zobo and kunu are common foods packed in plastic
bags in Nigeria. Heavier-weight polyethylene film wraps have limited
application for food except for bulk packaging or covering such items as
cooked rice, boiled yam, boiled corn, porridge and others that require
heat and moisture to be retained.
9. Sacks.
The commonly used sacks in Nigeria are the jute and poly sacks. They are used
to packaged crops such as cocoa, groundnuts, maize, guinea corn, rice, beans,
Gari among others. They are locally manufactured or obtained from
discarded stock. It makes bulk packaging and transportation of crops easy.
However, it gets easily torn due to continuous handling and re-uses leading to
losses of products during storage and transportation.

TYPES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS

Packaging materials come in different shapes with various functions relative
to their properties. It is essential for the packaging material to have a balance
between its shape and its function. Given the packaging’s main purpose of
preservation, containment, and protection of food, the packaging material can
be rigid, flexible, or semi-flexible.

Rigid packages include bottles, trays, cans, jars, and caps. These packaging
features heavier and often stronger materials used in producing them. They
are mainly used as secondary or tertiary package systems for food produce.
They are made from wood, metal, steels, glass etc.
Pros:
Superior strength - Made from hard plastics and other materials.
Gives an impression of quality - Glass for example suggests luxury.
Unlikely to affect the flavor of food - This is due to the lack of soft plastics.
Often made from easy to recycle materials
They are however more expensive to produce, incur higher shipping costs, If
not recycled, takes up more space in landfills
 Flexible packages: Generally, these packaging materials are used for retail
individual or family packs as wrappers, pouches, preformed bags etc.
Presently,
plastic films are most widely used flexible packaging materials. They include
bags, cling wraps, bubble wraps, shrink wraps, squeezable tubes, foam trays,
stand-up packets, and vacuum bags. They form a major part of primary and
secondary package systems. They have the advantages of being
environmentally friendly, easy to use, lower costs, branding and aesthetic
abilities. However, may affect the flavor of food or liquids, Low resistance to
extreme temperatures and Difficult to recycle.

Semi-flexible packages: A semi-rigid container is intended to maintain a

definite form or shape and is not influenced by the bulk of the contents.
include caps and closures, boxes, and tetra packs often made from
paperboards, PET plastics, Aluminium etc

Food packaging types differ in various ways, such as weight, size, durability,
and barrier properties.

RIGID PACKAGES:
Glass:
The production of glass containers involves heating a mixture of silica (the glass
former), sodium carbonate (the melting agent), and limestone/calcium carbonate
and alumina (stabilizers) to high temperatures until the materials melt into a thick
liquid mass that is then poured into molds. Recycled broke glass (cullet) is also
used in glass manufacture and may account for as much as 60% of all raw
materials. Glass containers used in food packaging are often surface-coated to
provide lubrication in the production line and eliminate scratching or surface
abrasion and line jams. Glass coatings also increase and preserve the strength of
the bottle to reduce breakage. Improved break resistance allows manufacturers
to use thinner glass, which reduces weight and is better for disposal and
transportation.
Glass bottles and jars have some of the advantages: they are impervious to micro-
organisms, pests, moisture, oxygen and odours; they do not react foods or have
chemicals that migrate into foods; they can be heat processed; they are
recyclable, and (with new lids) they are re-useable; they are rigid, to allow
stacking without damage; and unlike metal cans, they are transparent to display
the contents. The main disadvantages of glass are: the higher weight than most
other types of packaging, which incurs higher transport costs; containers are
easily broken, especially when transported over rough roads; they have more
variable dimensions than metal or plastic containers; and there are potentially
serious hazards from glass splinters or fragments that can contaminate foods.

METALS:
There are various forms of metal food packaging, such as cans, tubes, containers,
films, caps and closures. Cans are generally made of aluminium or steel, and they
are the most used metal packages of food and beverages. They are highly
recyclable and are usually coated with a layer of organic material to prevent any
interaction between the food and the metal.
Aluminium
Aluminium is generally used for beverage cans, foils, tubes, trays, pouches, and
coffee capsules. It has good resistance to temperature fluctuations and acts as an
excellent gas barrier, which extends the food’s shelf-life. It has outstanding
malleability and formability and can be easily embossed. It is relatively harmless,
lightweight, and can be recycled indefinitely. Alloying elements, such as
magnesium and manganese, are sometimes added to aluminium to enhance its
strength. Aluminium can be used in rigid, flexible, and semi-flexible packaging. It
helps maintain the freshness and aroma of the foods and is good for protection
from radiation, oxygen, moisture, oils, and microorganisms. Soft drinks, seafood,
and pet food are commonly enclosed by aluminium packages. The main
disadvantages of aluminum are its high cost compared to other metals (for
example, steel) and its inability to bewelded, which renders it useful only for
making seamless containers.
Some aluminium grades used in food packaging include AA 3003 (O, H22, H24),
AA 8006, AA 8011, AA 8079, and AA 1235.
Aluminum foil:
Aluminum foil is made by rolling pure aluminum metal into very thin sheets,
followed by annealing to achieve dead-folding properties (a crease or fold made
in the film will stay in place), which allows it to be folded tightly. Moreover,
aluminum foil is available in a wide range of thicknesses, with thinner foils used to
wrap food and thicker foils used for trays. Like all aluminum packaging, foil
provides an excellent barrier to moisture, air, odors, light, and microorganisms. It
is inert to acidic foods and does not require lacquer or other protection. Although
aluminum is easily recyclable, foils cannot be made from recycled aluminum
without pinhole formation in the thin sheets.
Laminates and metallized films.
Lamination of packaging involves the binding of aluminum foil to paper or plastic
film to improve barrier properties. Thin gauges facilitate application. Although
lamination to plastic enables heat sealability, the seal does not completely bar
moisture and air. Because laminated aluminum is relatively expensive, it is
typically used to package high value foods such as dried soups, herbs, and spices.
A less expensive alternative to laminated packaging is metallized film. Metallized
films are plastics containing a thin layer of aluminum metal (Fellows and Axtell
2002). These films have improved barrier properties to moisture, oils, air, and
odors, and the highly reflective surface of the aluminum is attractive to
consumers. More flexible than laminated films, metallized films are mainly used
to package snacks. Although the individual components of laminates and
metallized films are technically recyclable, the difficulty in sorting and separating
the material precludes economically feasible recycling.
Steel
Steel is used for cans, containers, caps, and closures. Organic coatings are also
required to resist corrosion. Steel cans are fabricated from tinplate, which is tin-
coated steel, or from electrolytic chromium coated steel (ECCS) also known as tin-
free steel. Steel, being a permanent material, can be recycled open-endedly while
retaining its quality. Tinplate is a remarkable barrier to gases, water vapour, light,
and odours. It has good ductility and formability, and is convenient for sterile
products for it can undergo heat treatment and hermetic sealing. It is light with
significant mechanical strength and is suitable for expressive decoration. Common
applications of tinplate include drink cans, processed foods, and powdered foods.
Plastics
Plastics are the most common and most wide-ranging materials used for food
packaging. Some of their widespread uses are bottles, trays, bags, foils, cups,
pots, pouches, and bowls. The volume of plastic allocated to food packaging
amounts to around 40% of plastics. The convenience and widespread use of
plastic in food packaging is owed to its low cost, ease of processability,
formability, chemical resistance, lightweight, and a variety of physical properties.
However, plastic suffers from permeability to gas, vapour, and light.
Plastics can be classified into two main categories: thermosets and
thermoplastics.
Thermosets are polymers that irrevocably solidify upon heat and are non-
reformable, which makes them unsuitable for food packaging. Thermoplastics, on
the other hand, soften when heated and can retain their initial conditions at room
temperature. This renders them perfect for food packaging. Besides, despite
certain functional restrictions, thermoplastics are recyclable via melting,
reproduction and reuse as new products.
Despite the health and safety concerns regarding residual components from
plastic, plastic use continues to grow compared to the other materials because of
its inexpensiveness, thermosealability, microwaveability, and ease of fabrication
into countless shapes and sizes.
Polyolefins.
Polyolefin is a collective term for polyethylene and polypropylene, the 2 most
widely used plastics in food packaging, and other less popular olefin polymers.
Polyethylene and polypropylene both possess a successful combination of
properties, including flexibility, strength, lightness, stability, moisture and
chemical resistance, and easy processability, and are well suited for recycling and
reuse. The simplest and most inexpensive plastic made by addition polymerization
of ethylene is polyethylene. There are 2 basic categories of polyethylene: high
density and low density.
High-density polyethylene is stiff, strong, tough, resistant to chemicals and
moisture, permeable to gas, easy to process, and easy to form. It is used to make
bottles for milk, juice, and water; cereal box liners; margarine tubs; and grocery,
trash, and retail bags.
Low-density polyethylene is flexible, strong, tough, easy to seal, and resistant to
moisture. Because low-density polyethylene is relatively transparent, it is
predominately used in film applications and in applications where heat sealing is
necessary. Bread and frozen food bags, flexible lids, and squeezable food bottles
are examples of low-density polyethylene. Polyethylene bags are sometimes
reused (both for grocery and nongrocery retail). Of the 2 categories of
polyethylene, high-density polyethylene containers, especially milk bottles, are
the most recycled among plastic packages.
Harder, denser, and more transparent than polyethylene, polypropylene has
good resistance to chemicals and is effective at barring water vapor. Its high
melting point (160 ◦C) makes it suitable for applications where thermal resistance
is required, such as hot-filled and microwavable packaging. Popular uses include
yogurt containers and margarine tubs. When used in combination with an oxygen
barrier such as ethylene vinyl alcohol or polyvinylidene chloride, polypropylene
provides the strength and moisture barrier for catsup and salad dressing bottles.

Polyesters.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE), polycarbonate, and polyethylene
naphthalate (PEN) are polyesters, which are condensation polymers formed from
ester monomers that result from the reaction between carboxylic acid and
alcohol. The most commonly used polyester in food packaging is PETE.

Polyethylene terephthalate.
Formed when terephthalic acid reacts with ethylene glycol, PETE provides a good
barrier to gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and moisture. It also has good
resistance to heat, mineral oils, solvents, and acids, but not to bases.
Consequently, PETE is becoming the packaging material of choice for many food
products, particularly beverages and mineral waters. The use of PETE to make
plastic bottles for carbonated drinks is increasing steadily (van Willige and others
2002). The main reasons for its popularity are its glass-like transparency,
adequate gas barrier for retention of carbonation, light weight, and shatter
resistance. The 3 major packaging applications of PETE are containers (bottles,
jars, and tubs), semirigid sheets for thermoforming (trays and blisters), and thin-
oriented films (bags and snack food wrappers). PETE exists both as an amorphous
(transparent) and a semicrystalline (opaque and white) thermoplastic material.
Amorphous PETE has better ductility but less stiffness and hardness than
semicrystalline PETE, which has good strength, ductility, stiffness, and hardness.
Recycled PETE from soda bottles is used as fibers, insulation, and other non food
packaging applications.
Polyamide
usually called Nylon film in the trade is inert, heat resistant and has excellent
mechanical properties. Nylon-6 is a tasteless and odourless film and thus ideal for
use in the packaging of fresh and processed foods. It can be sterilized by steam. It
is used for making laminates of good inertness and low permeability. It has
excellent gas barrier properties.
Polyvinyl chloride
is a plasticized film for packaging. This film has low folding endurance. So its use
has declined these days. Saran is produced with vinyl chloride. This is clear, non-
toxic, almost impervious to gas transmission and has very low water vapour
transmission rate. This is used for meat and meat product.
Polyvinylidene chloride.
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) is an addition polymer of vinylidene chloride. It is
heat sealable and serves as an excellent barrier to water vapor, gases, and fatty
and oily products. It is used in flexible packaging as a monolayer film, a coating, or
part of a co-extruded product. Major applications include packaging of poultry,
cured meats, cheese, snack foods, tea, coffee, and confectionary. It is also used in
hot filling, retorting, low-temperature storage, and modified atmosphere
packaging. PVdC contains twice the amount of chlorine as PVC and therefore also
presents problems with incineration.

Polystyrene.
Polystyrene, an addition polymer of styrene, is clear, hard, and brittle with a
relatively low melting point. It can be mono-extruded, co-extruded with other
plastics, injection molded, or foamed to produce a range of products. Foaming
produces an opaque, rigid, lightweight material with impact protection and
thermal
insulation properties. Typical applications include protective packaging such as
egg cartons, containers, disposable plastic silverware.
Ethylene vinyl alcohol
Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) is a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl alcohol. It is an
excellent barrier to oil, fat, and oxygen. However, EVOH is moisture sensitive and
is thus mostly used in multilayered co-extruded films in situation where it is not in
direct contact with liquids.

Paper and paperboard

Paper is one of the oldest packaging materials, dating back to the 17th century.
Paper and paperboard are mostly used for packaging dry foods. Upon coating or
waxing, their applications extend to the packaging and serving of wet and fatty
foods. They are commonly used in corrugated boxes, milk cartons, folding
cartons, paper plates and cups, bags and sacks, and wrapping paper.
Paper is used for temporary food containment and protection due to its high
permeability and inability to be sealed with heat. When used as primary
packaging, waxes, resins, and lacquers are used as coatings and laminates to
enhance the paper’s protective and functional properties. Depending on its
method of production and packaging purpose, paper can be found as Kraft paper,
sulphite paper, greaseproof paper, Glassine, or parchment paper.
 Kraft paper is the strongest form of paper and is used in packaging flour,
sugar, and dried fruits.
 Sulphite paper is relatively weaker and lighter and is used to wrap biscuits
and sweets.
 Greaseproof paper and Glassine contain densely packed cellulose fibres –
Glassine being further hydrated – that improve the paper’s oil resistance,
thus making it suitable to package snacks, biscuits, fast foods, and greasy
foods.
 Parchment paper is acid-treated paper, which renders it impermeable to
fluids but not to air and vapour. It is used in packaging butter and lard.
Paperboard is a relatively thicker and heavier material than paper. It is widely
used as secondary packaging that is not in direct contact with the food. Boxes,
trays, and cartons used for shipping are the common usages of paperboard. Types
of paperboards vary between whiteboard, solid board, chipboard, and fibreboard.

 Whiteboard is the only paperboard advised for primary packaging.

 Solid board is a strong and durable paperboard, used to package milk, fruit
juices and soft drinks.
 Chipboard is the cheapest form of paperboard, made of recycled paper,
and is used as outer layers of food cartons, such as cereals and tea.
 Fibreboard is used to ship bulk food due to its strength and resistance to
impact scratching and crushing damage.
Another form of paper is paper laminates, which are coated or uncoated paper
based on Kraft and sulphite tissues. They have enhanced barrier properties, and
are used in packaging soups, spices, and herbs.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING PACKAGING MATERIALS

Mechanical Damage
Fresh, processed and manufactured foods are susceptible to mechanical damage.
The bruising of soft fruits, the break-up of heat processed vegetables and the
cracking of biscuits are examples. Such damage may result from sudden impacts
or shocks during handling and transport, vibration during transport by road, rail
and air and compression loads imposed when packages are stacked in
warehouses or large transport vehicles. Appropriate packaging can reduce the
incidence and extent of such mechanical damage. Packaging alone is not the
whole answer. Good handling and transport procedures and equipment are also
necessary. The selection of a packaging material of sufficient strength and rigidity
can reduce damage due to compression loads. Metal, glass and rigid plastic
materials may be used for primary or consumer packages. Fiberboard and timber
materials are used for secondary or outer packages. The incorporation of
cushioning materials into the packaging can protect against impacts, shock and
vibration. Corrugated papers and boards, pulp board and foamed plastics are
examples of such cushioning materials. Restricting movement of the product
within the package may also reduce damage. This may be achieved by tight-
wrapping or shrink-wrapping. Inserts in boxes or cases or thermoformed trays
may be used to provide compartments for individual items such as eggs and
fruits.
Permeability Characteristics

The rate of permeation of water vapor, gases (O2, CO2, N2, and ethylene) and
volatile odor compounds into or out of the package is an important consideration,
in the case of packaging films, laminates and coated papers. Foods with relatively
high moisture contents tend to lose water to the atmosphere. This results in a loss
of weight and deterioration in appearance and texture. Meat and cheese are
typical examples of such foods. Products with relatively low moisture contents
will tend to pick up moisture, particularly when exposed to a high humidity
atmosphere. Dry powders such as cake mixes and custard powders may cake and
lose their free flowing characteristics. Biscuits and snack foods may lose their
crispness. If the water activity of a dehydrated product is allowed to rise above a
certain critical level, microbiological spoilage may occur. In such cases a packaging
material with a low permeability to water vapor, effectively sealed, is required. In
contrast, fresh fruit and vegetables continue to respire after harvesting. They use
up oxygen and produce water vapor, carbon dioxide and ethylene. As a result, the
humidity inside the package increases. If a high humidity develops, condensation
may occur within the package when the temperature fluctuates. In such cases, it
is necessary to allow for the passage of water vapor out of the package. A
packaging material which is semipermeable to water vapor is required in this
case.

Grease proofness
In the case of fatty foods, it is necessary to prevent egress of grease or oil to the
outside of the package, where it would spoil its appearance and possibly interfere
with the printing and decoration. Greaseproof and parchment papers may give
adequate protection to dry fatty foods, such as chocolate and milk powder, while
hydrophilic films or laminates are used with wet foods, such as meat or fish.

Temperature

A package must be able to withstand the changes in temperature which it is likely

to encounter, without any reduction in performance or undesirable change in
appearance. This is of particular importance when foods are heated or cooled in
the package. For many decades’ metal and glass containers were used for foods
which were retorted in the package. It is only in relatively recent times that heat
resistant laminates were developed for this purpose. Some packaging films
become brittle when exposed to low temperatures and are not suitable for
packaging frozen foods. The rate of change of temperature may be important. For
example, glass containers have to be heated and cooled slowly to avoid breakage.
The method of heating may influence the choice of packaging. Many new
packaging materials have been developed for foods which are to be processed or
heated by microwaves.

Light

Many food components are sensitive to light, particularly at the blue and
ultraviolet end of the spectrum. Vitamins may be destroyed, colors may fade and
fats may develop rancidity when exposed to such light waves. The use of
packaging materials which are opaque to light will prevent these changes. If it is
desirable that the contents be visible, for example to check the clarity of a liquid,
colored materials which filter out short wavelength light may be used. Amber
glass bottles, commonly used for beer in the UK, perform this function. Pigmented
plastic bottles are used for some health drinks.

Chemical Compatibility of the Packaging Material and the Contents of the

Package
 It is essential in food packaging that no health hazard to the consumer should
arise as a result of toxic substances, present in the packaging material, leaching
into the contents. In the case of flexible packaging films, such substances may be
residual monomers from the polymerization process or additives such as
stabilizers, plasticizers, colouring materials etc. To establish the safety of such
packaging materials two questions need to be answered: (a) are there any toxic
substances present in the packaging material and (b) will they leach into the
product? Toxicological testing of just one chemical compound is lengthy,
complicated and expensive, usually involving extensive animal feeding trials and
requiring expert interpretation of the results.

Protection against Microbial Contamination

Another role of the package may be to prevent or limit the contamination of the
contents by microorganisms from sources outside the package. This is most
important in the case of foods that are heat-sterilized in the package, where it is
essential that post-process contamination does not occur. The metal can has
dominated this field for decades and still does. The reliability of the double seam
in preventing contamination is one reason for this dominance. Some closures for
glass containers are also effective barriers to contamination. It is only in relatively
recent times that plastic containers have been developed, which not only
withstand the rigors of heat processing, but also whose heat seals are effective in
preventing post process contamination. Effective seals are also necessary on
cartons, cups and other containers which are aseptically filled with UHT products.
The sealing requirements for containers for pasteurized products and foods
preserved by drying, freezing, curing, etc. are not so rigorous. However, they
should still provide a high level of protection against microbial contamination.

In-Package Microflora

The permeability of the packaging material to gases and the packaging procedure
employed can influence the type of microorganisms that grow within the
package. Packaging foods in materials that are highly permeable to gases is not
likely to bring about any significant change in the microflora, compared to
unpackaged foods. However, when a fresh or mildly processed food is packaged
in a material that has a low permeability to gases and when an anaerobic
atmosphere is created within the package, as a result of respiration of the
product or because of vacuum or gas packaging, the type of microorganisms that
grow inside the package are likely to be different to those that would grow in the
unpackaged food. There is a danger that pathogenic microorganisms could
flourish under these conditions and result in food poisoning. Such packaging
procedures should not be used without a detailed study of the microbiological
implications, taking into account the type of food, the treatment it receives
before packaging, the hygienic conditions under which it is packaged and the
temperature at which the packaged product is to be stored, transported,
displayed in the retail outlet and kept in the home of the consumer.