This chapter covers:

■ the structure of the Periodic Table

metals and non-metals in the Periodic Table
electron arrangement in the Periodic Table
■
trends in Group I - the alkali metals
■
trends in Group VI I - the ha logens
■
■
the noble gases
trends across a period
■
the transition elements
■
bonding in metals
■
bonding in covalent com pounds
■
bonding in ionic compounds
■
formu lae and names of ionic compounds
■
formu lae and names of cova lent compounds
■
alloys and their uses
■
the nature of ionic crystals
■
the structure of metal crystals and alloys
■
the nature of giant covalent structures
■
the d ifferent forms of carbon
■
■
■ macromolecules.
 .01 The Periodic Table -
I ssifying the elements
1 , lllding up the modern Periodic Table has been a
' l li ljor scientific achievement. The first steps towards
1 ) 1 king out this table were taken long before anyone had
1 1y ideas about the structure of atoms. But, although
l 1 1 1y were partly successful, these groupings were
ll1 1 I lted or flawed. The breakthrough came in 1869 when
1i 1 1 1deleev put forward his ideas of a periodic table. In
1 ,1•, first attempt he used 32 of the 61 elements known at
1 1 1, 1 1 time (Image (3.01). He drew up his table based on
1l nmic masses, as others had done before him. But his
1 11 cess was mainly due to his leaving gaps for possible
l1 1 ments still to be discovered. He did not try to force the
l1 1 ments into patterns for which there was no evidence.
Image C3.0l Mend eleev's ea rly Periodic Ta b le carved on
l h wall of a un iversity building in St Petersbu rg, with a
I tue of Mendeleev in front.
M endeleev's great achievement lay in predicting the
properties of elements that had not yet been discovered.
All modern versions of the Periodic Table are based on
the one put forward by Mendeleev. An example is given in
Figure C3.0l.
In the Periodic Table:
the elements are arranged in order of increasing
■
proton number (atomic number)
the vertical columns of elements with similar
properties are called groups
■
■ the horizontal rows are called periods.
The main distinction in the table is between metals
and non - metals. Metals are clearly separated from
non-metals. The non-metals are grouped into the
top right-hand region of the table, above the
thick stepped line in Figure C3.0l. One of the first
uses of the Periodic Table now becomes clear.
Although we may never have seen a sample of the
element hafnium (Hf), we know from a glance at the
table that it is a metal. We may also be able to predict
some of its properties.
Metals and non-metals
There are 94 naturally occurring elements. Some are very
rare. Francium, for instance, has never been seen. The
radioactive metals neptunium and plutonium, which we
make artificially in quite large amounts, occur only in very
small (trace) quantities naturally. Most of the elements
(70) can be classified as metals. Together they form a
group of elements whose structures are held together by a
particular type of bonding between the atoms. The metals
have a number of physical properties that are broadly the
same for all of them (Table (3.01).
The chemical properties of metals and non-metals are
also very different, as is the type of bonding present in
their compounds. The distinction is therefore a very
important one.
The Periodic Table does not list substances such as steel,
bronze and brass, which in everyday terms we call metals
and which share the properties listed for metals. They are
not elements! They are in fact alloys, mixtures of elements
(usually metals) designed to have properties that are
useful for a particular purpose.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

[I].
0

Key: I\
o= atomic number 2'. > > > 5
Q_ Q_ Q_ Q_ Q_ Q_ a

-
,
:::,
0
e
:::,
x = symbol
e e
:::, :::,
6 / e
:::,
e
:::,

I mass
relafIVe atom·c
(.'.) '-.'.) (.'.) ,' <.'3 , (.'.) l'.)

-
b=
l
H
c----r
H•
Period 1
4

-
Hyd1ogen

.....
l
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B

-
Be

-
Li C N 0 F Nt
Period 2

s
'-""""

-
C,,boo Nitrogeo Oxygen F!uonne

.......
"'
u
7 9 12 14 16 19
11 13 14 15 16 17
Ai

- - -- -.
Period 3 Na Mg N Si p Cl

Ki,
"!
-
Phosph� Sulfur Chlorine

......,., ..
-
23 24 27 2B 31 32 35.5

K
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

- - -.
V Mn n Ga Ge Ni, Br
Period 4 Ca
""""' Sc Ti Cr Fe
'""
Co
""""
Ni Cu
'- ,,�
Se
'°
...,
T_,., CM>mium Cobolt Gallium Selenium Bromine
45 64
'°
39 51 52 59 70 73 75 79 80
54
48 55 56 59 65
37 38 39 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 SI 52 53

..
n,
Period 5 Rb Sr y r Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xt

w
,
-�
Rubidium Zirconium Niobium Technetium "'°""m Palladium �mium Indium Antimony Tellunum lodme
-
'""""•m

...... "'"= ....Rr-

89

,
86 88 91 93 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 BO 81 82 83 84 85
La
Cs Ba Hf Ta Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
Period 6 to '"- "'""" _,,,.

-�
Tlrulum Platinum Gold Thallium Bismuth Polonium
- -
Caowm Rhenium Iridium
Lu

,......,,
133 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
87 88
Ac
Period 7 Fr Ra to
- - Lr

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
._
-
Cttium �ium N�ium �um """"m Europium Gadolinium T�um Dysp,osium Holmium Erbium ThuliU'l'I Ytt�blum Lutetium
139 l<O 141 144 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175

u
150
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
-
Actinium Thorium f>rot«tinium Uranium Nf,ptunium Plutonium .vnenc.1um Curium 8'-rkelium C.,llfomlum E!nste!oium Fermium Mendde,t,um Nobelium lawrencium
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

□
Elements in Groups I to O are sometimes known as the main-group elements.

D □
□ □
The reactive metals: Group I - the alkali The non-metals: includes Group VII -
The ' poor' metals
metals; Group I I - the alkaline earth metals the ha logens

The transition elements: hard, strong and

dense metals
The metalloids: includes semiconductors,
e.g. silicon and germanium
D 'The noble gases: very u n reactive

Figure C3.01 The Periodic Table, showing the major regions. (Except for ch lorine, the relative atomic masses are given to
I

the nearest whole n u m ber.)

Meta ls
They are usually solids (except for mercury, which is a liquid)
at room temperature.
Their melting and boiling points are usually high.
They are usually hard and dense.
All metals are good conductors of electricityJ0J
They are good conductors of heat.
Their shape can be changed by hammering (they are m alleable). Most non-metals are brittle when solid.
They can also be pulled out into wires (they are d uctile).
They are grey in colour (except gold and copper).
They can be polished.
They usually make a ringing sound when struck
(they are sonorous).
!0!E/ectrica/ conductivity is usually token as the simplest
I N o n -metals
They are solids or gases (except for bromine, which is "
liquid) at room temperature.
Their melting and boiling points are often low.
Most non-metals are softer than metals (but diamond i
very hard). Their densities are often low.
They are poor conductors of electricity (except graphitt
a form of carbon). They tend to be insulators.
They are generally poor thermal co nductors.
They vary in colour.
They often have a dull surface when solid.
They are not sonorous.
test of whether a substance is metallic or not.

Table C3.0l Com parison of the physical properties of meta ls a n d non-metals.

 ACTIVITY C3.0l
Testing metals and non-metals
kills:
A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use
techniques, appa ratus and materials (including
following a sequence of instructions where
appropriate)
A 3.2 Plan experiments and i nvestigations
A 3.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates
A03.4 I nterpret and evaluate experimental
observations and data
1 l ie> key test to distinguish between metals and non-
1 1Plals is electrical cond uctivity. A simple circuit is set u p
1 ,111g either a light bulb or an ammeter. Power is supplied
,y batteries or a power pack. Examine a ra nge of solid
l1 •ments and alloys including magnesium, zinc, tin, iron,
1111 kel, roll sulfur, graphite, brass and solder.
A worksheet is i ncluded on the CD-ROM.
11 1 metals a re a less uniform grou p of elements. They show
1 1 H 1 h wider range of properties. This reflects the wider
Iii 'I nces in the types of structure shown by non-metals.
metal: an element that conducts electricity and is malleable
11 1d ductile
non-metal: an element that does not conduct electricity well
111d is neither malleable nor ductile
111 1 hange from metallic to non-metallic properties in the
I, 1 1 1 nts is not as clear -cut as suggested by drawing the
111• between the two regions of the Periodic Table.
I t, lements close to the line show
11 11 rties that lie between these
I I ! mes. These elements are now
11 1 •1 1 referred to as metalloids (or
111I-metals). Such elements have
11 1 1 ) of the properties of metals and
t l iPrs that are more characteristic
I 1 1on-metals. There are eight
Ii I l l nts that are called metalloids.
l 11 •y often look like metals, but are Image C3.02
, 11 1 1 like non-metals. They are A sam ple of the
11 1 1 r conductors nor insulators, element silicon,
111 make excellent semiconductors. the basis of the
1 11 1 prime example of this type of semiconductor
h 1 1 1 nt is silicon (Image (3.02). ind ustry.
TIP
If asked to say how you would test to see whether an
element was a metal or a non-metal, the key test is
electrical conductivity. Describe the setting up of a
simple circuit using a battery and a light bulb, and then
connect in a sample of the element and see if the bulb
lights up (Figure 82%
, 0!&≥
The other properties which are most clearly those of a
metal are malleability and ductility. These, and electrical
conductivity, are the properties where there are fewest
exceptions.
Figure C3.02 Testi ng the electrical conductivity of a
possible metal.
Groups and periods in the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table allows us to make even more
useful su bdivisions of elements than simply deciding
which are metals and which are non-metals. The elements
present in Gro u ps I to Vlll/0 of the table are sometimes
known as the m a i n -gro u p elements. These vertical
groups show most clearly how elements within the same
group have similar chemical a nd physical properties.
Some of these groups have pa rticular names as well
as numbers. These are given in Figure C3.0l. Between
Groups II and Ill of these main groups of elements is a
block of metals known as the transition elements (or
transition m eta ls). The first row of these elements occurs
i n Period 4. This row includes such important metals as
iron, copper and zinc.
The noble gases, in Gro u p Vlll/0 on the right-hand side
of the table, are the least reactive elements in the table.
However, the grou p next to them, Group VII which are also
known as the halogens, and the group on the left-hand
side of the table, Gro u p I or the alkali metals, a re the most
reactive elements. The more u n reactive elements, whether
metals or non-metals, are in the centre of the tab le.
 G RO U PS
TIP Ill IV V VI

,-----,.------, [TI
I f you are asked a question about a n element in the
Periodic Table, use the table at the back of the examination
2,;
r---ir-""'---r-..:.....;,-----.--+-......■
paper to help you answer it. 2 2,1 2,3 2,4 2,5 2, 6 2, 7
Li Be B C N 0 F

3 2,8,1 2,8, 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6

Na Mg A/ Si p s
Electron a rrangement and the
2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2
Periodic Table 8
0::
4
K Ca

@
When the first attempts were made to construct a Periodic 0...

5 Sr
Table, nobody knew about the structure of the atom. We
can now directly link the properties of an element with 6 Ba
its position in the table and its electron arrangement �
(Figure (3.03). The number of outer electrons in the atoms 7 an argon atom
a potassi u m atom
of each element has been found. Elements in the same

Figu re C3.03 The relationship between an element's

group have the same number of outer electrons. We also

position in the Period ic Ta ble and the electron

know that, as you move across a period in the table, a shell

a rrangement of its atoms.

of electrons is being filled.

There is a clear relationship between electron

arrangement and position in the Periodic Table
for the main-group elements. The elements in Group II

position in the Periodic Table.

have two outer electrons. The elements in Period 3 The electron arrangements of atoms are linked to
have three shells of electrons. A magnesium atom
Elements in the same group have the same
'

has two electrons in its third, outer shell, and is in

nu m ber of electrons in their outer shel l.
n å«̈́ ■
Group I I. An argon atom has an outer shell

For the m ain-gfoup elements, the nu m ber of

containing eight electrons - a very stable arrangement -

the group is the n u mber of electrons in the

and is in Group V l l l/0. A potassium atom has one
■
outer shel l.
electron in its fourth, outer shell, and is in Gr.oup I and

The periods also have n u m bers. This n u m ber

Period 4.

shows us h ow m any shel ls of electrons the

This link between electron arrangement and
position in the Periodic Table shows itself in the
essential nature of the element as a metal or a non-metal.
Elements in Groups I to I l l, with low numbers of electrons
in there outer shell, are metals. These elements
can lose their outer electrons relatively easily,
contributing them to the 'sea of electrons' that forms
the metallic bond. In contrast, elements with higher
numbers of outer electrons (Groups IV to V I I)
form covalent bonds between the atoms and are
therefore non-metals.
It is the outer electrons of an atom that are mainly
responsible for the chemical properties of any element.
Therefore, elements in the same group will have
similar properties.
Certain electron arrangements are found to be more
stable than others. This makes them more difficult to
break up. The most stable arrangements are those of
the noble gases, and this fits in with the fact that they
are so unreactive.
■
atom h as.
There are links between the organisation of
particles in the atom and the regular variation in
properties of the elements in the Periodic Table.
This means that we can see certain broad trends in
the table (Figure C3.04). These trends become most
obvious if we leave aside the noble gases in
Group Vll l/0. Individual groups show certain 'group
characteristics'. These properties follow a trend in
particular groups. The awareness of these broad trends
(Figure C3.04) means that the properties of any one
element in a group can be predicted from data and
observations about the other elements in that group.
The trends in Groups I and V I I are described in more
detail in the following sections. However, even for, say,
Group IV, it is possible to see that the elements lower in
the group will be more metallic since metallic character
i ncreases down a group.
 fluorine - the most
atoms getti ng smaller, less meta l l ic

�-
1:_D u
ro .:.:::
��
C a,
B E
a, a,
bl) ...
V) 0
transition elements E E

caesium - the most

reactive metal
available in useful
amou nts

I I ure C3.04 General trends i n the Periodic Table, leaving aside the noble gases in G ro u p V l l l/0.

-­
QUESTIONS

C3.0l What is the name of the most reactive non -metal?

3.02 How many elements are there in Period l?
Where in the Period ic Table will the largest atom
be found?
3.04 Sort the following properties into those
characteristic of a metal, and those typical of a
non-metal.
Is an insulator can be beaten into sheets
aives a ringing sound when hit conducts heat
has a dull surface conducts electricity
3.05 What is the similarity in the electron arrangement
in the noble gases?
3.02 Trends in groups
oup I - the alkali metals
I I i metals in Group I are often called the a lkali m eta ls.
I Ii y are soft solids with relatively low melting points and
1 1w densities (Image (3.03). T hey are highly reactive and
1 1 1 stored in oil to prevent them reacting with the oxygen
1 1cl water vapour in the air. W hen freshly cut with a knife,
II hese metals have a light-grey, silvery surface, w hich
1 1 i lckly tarnishes (becomes dull). Reactivity increases
•, we go down the group. All Group I metals react with
,ll r to form hydrogen and an alkalin e solution of the
1 11 Lal hydroxide. The reactions range from vigorous in
l iP case of lithium to explosive in the case of caesium.
, 11 1 might predict that francium, at the bottom of Group I ,
nuld b e t h e most reactive of all t h e metals. However, i t is
1111,hly radioactive and very rare because it decays with a
Ii ! I f life of 5 minutes. It has been estimated that there are
I mage C3.03 The alkali metals a re all soft a n d can be cut
with a kn ife. This is a sam ple of lith i u m .
on ly 17 atoms of francium in existence on Earth at any one
moment in time.
The physical properties of the alkali metals also change as
we go down the group. The me lting points become lower
while the de nsity of the metals increases.
The a lkali m etals (Group I) are the most reactive
metals that occur. They are known as the alkali
metals because they react vigorously with water to
produce hydrogen and an alkaline solution.
Group VII - the halogens
The most reactive non-metals are the halogens in
Group V I I of the table (Figure (3.05). In contrast with
Group I, here reactivity decreases down the group.
For example, f luorine is a dangerously reactive,
pale yellow gas at room temperature. There is a steady
increase in melting points and boiling points as we go
down the group, and the elements change from gases to
solids as the atomic number increases. Interestingly, the
lowest e lement in t his group is also a high ly radioactiv
 a n d ra re element, astatine. T h e actu a l properties of
astati n e re m a i n a mystery to u s, but we cou ld m a ke a
Chlorine (C/2)
\\

good guess at some of t h e m . T h e suggestion wo u ld be

dense pa le-green g9s

that a stati n e would be a b l a c k solid, non- m eta llic b u t with

smelly and poiso nous

some m et a l l i c cha racter. We w o u l d not expect a stati n e to

occurs as <'hlorides, especi a l ly
sod i u m chloride in the sea

vapou rise as easily as iodine d o es .

relative atomic mass 35.5

The h a logen fa m i ly fo u n d i ri G ro u p V I I o f t h e Period i c Ta ble

s h ows clea rly the s i m i l a rities of elem ents i n the gro u p.

Bromine (Br2)

Common properties of the halogens deep-red liquid with

They a re a l l poisonous a n d h ave a similar

red-brown vapour

strong smell.
■ smelly and poisonous
occurs as bromides, especia l ly

They a re a ll non-meta ls.

magnesium bromide in the sea

They a l l form d iatomic molecu les (for exa mple

■ relative atomic mass 80

C l2, B r2, 1 2) .
■
They a l l have a valency (combining power o f a n atom
or gro u p of atoms) of 1 a nd form compounds with

it
■
similar formu lae, for exa mple hydrogen chloride (HCI),
Iodine ( 12)

hydrogen bromide (H B,), hyd rogen iod ide (HI).

grey solid with p u rple vapour

Their co mpounds with hyd rogen are usually

smelly and poisonous

stro n g acids when dissolved in water, for exa m ple

■ occ u rs as iodides and iodates i n
some rocks a n d i n seaweed

hyd roch loric acid (HCI), hyd robromic acid ( H Br),

relative atomic mass 127

Figure (3.05 The general properties of some of the

hyd ri odic acid ( H I ) .
220

halogens (Group VII).

They each prod uce a series o f com pounds with
other elements: ch lorides, b rom ides and iodides.
■
Together these a re known as halides.
The h a logens themselves ca n react d i rectly with
m etals to form metal h a l ides (or salts).
■
They a l l form negative ions ca rryi ng a single charge,
for example ch loride ions (Cl-), brom ide ions ( Br),
■

iodide ions (I-) .

There a re gra d u a l c h a n ges i n p roperties between t h e

h a loge ns (see Figu re C3.05). As you go down the gro u p, t h e
b o i l i n g poi nts i n crease. Also t h e re i s a cha nge fro m g a s to
l i q u i d to s o l i d . T h e i ntensity of t h e co lour of the element
a lso i n c reases, from p a le to d a rk. Following these tre n d s,
it s h o u ld n ot su rprise you to k n ow that fluorine is a p a le
yel low gas at room te m peratu re.

The chemical reactivity of the halogens

Fluorine a n d ch lo ri n e a re very rea ctive. C h lo ri n e d isso lves
in water to give an acidic solutio n . Th is m ixtu re is c a l led
chlorine water a n d conta i n s two acids:

C l 2 + H 20 ➔ HCI + HCIO
I mage C3.04 B ro m i n e is disp la ced by chlori ne from a
hydrochloric acid hypochlorous acid colourless solution of potassi u m bromide.
11,• .iction with I Chlorine
ured dyes bleaches easily
orides - no reaction
mides displaces bromine, e.g.
Cl2 + 2KBr ➔ 2KCI + Br2
Ides displaces iodine, e.g.
Cl2 + 2KI ➔ 2KCI + 1 2
I 1 1 C3.02 Some reactions of the ha logens.
l ilt I ine water acts as an oxidising agent - hypochlorous
Id an give up its oxygen to other substances. It also acts
, I I leach because some coloured substances lose their
,ii J11r when they are oxid ised. This reaction is used as the
1 11 rnical test for chlorine gas. Damp litmus or Universal
It 11 ator paper is bleached when held in the gas. The
l1 wens become steadily less reactive as you go down the
, I Ip. Table C3.02 gives some examples of the reactivity of
11 1 1 logens.
displacement reactions shown in the lower part
111
' I i 1 ble C3.02 demonstrate the order of reactivity of the
1 1 1 1 major halogens. For example, if you add chlorine to
, 1lution of potassium bromide, the chlorine displaces
1
1 1 11 1 1 ine (Image (3.04). Chlorine is more reactive than
,, 1 nine, so it replaces it and potassium chloride is
,1 1 1 \ d. Potassium bromid e solution is colourless. lt turns
1 I1 1ge when chlorine is bubbled through it:
Cl2 + 2KBr ➔ 2KCI + Br
orange
colourless
l ilmine will also displace iodine from potassium iodide:
Cl2 + 2KI ➔ 2KCI + 12
colourless yellow-brown
TIP
If you are asked to put elements from a group in order
f reactivity, you must be very careful when reading the
1uestion to see whether the answer should be in order of
ncreasing or decreasing reactivity.
1 up Vll l/0 - the noble gases
1 11 •11 Mendeleev first constructed his table, part of his
I 1 1 1 1 1ph was to predict the existence and properties of
11 1 1 , undiscovered elements. However, there was no
I Bromine I iodine
bleaches slowly bleaches very slowly
no reaction
- no reaction
displaces iodine, e.g. -
Br2 + 2KI ➔ 2KBr + 1 2
indication that a whole group of elements (Group Vll l/0)
remained to be discovered! Because of their lack of
reactivity, there was no clear sign of their existence.
However, analysis of the gases in air led to the discovery
of argon. There was no suitable place in the table for an
individual element with argon's properties. This pointed
to the existence of an entirely new group! In the 1890s,
helium, which had first been detected by spectroscopy
of light from the Sun during an eclipse, and the other
noble gases in the group (Group Vll l/0) were isolated. The
radioactive gas radon was the last to be purified , in 1908.
One man, William Ramsay, was involved in the isolation of
all the elements in the group. He was awarded the Nobel
Prize for this major contribution.
All the noble gases are present in the Earth's atmosphere.
Together they make up about 1% of the total, though
argon is the most common. These gases are particularly
unreactive. They were sometimes referred to as the inert
gases, meaning they did not react at all. However, since the
1960s, some compounds of xenon and krypton have been
made and their name was changed to the noble gases.
The uses of the noble gases depend on this unreactivity.
Helium is used in airships and balloons because it is
both light and u nreactive. Argon is used to fill light bulbs
because it will not react with the filament even at high
temperatures. The best known use of the noble gases is,
perhaps, its use in 'neon' lights . The b rightly coloured
advertising lights work when an electric d ischarge takes
place in a tube containg a little of a noble gas. Different
gases give different colours.
The atoms of the noble gases do not combine with each
other to form molecules or any other form of structure.
T h eir melting points and boiling points are extremely low
(Image C3.05). Helium has the lowest melting point of
any element, and cannot be solidified by cooling alone
( pressure is needed also). All these properties point to the
atoms of the noble gases being particularly stable.
 C3.03 Trends a(:ross a period
T h e vertic al gro u ps of e le m e nts show �i m ila r properties,
but fo llowing a period a c ross the ta ble high lights the
tre n d fro m meta llic to n o n - m eta llic prope rties. This can I>
exp l o red by looking a cross a period . The first period of th
ta b l e conta ins j u st two e l e m e nts, hyd rogen and h e l i u m ,
both of w h i c h a re d isti nctive i n d i fferent ways. T h e final
period in the t a b le is as yet i ncomp lete. Each of t h e five
rem a i n i ng periods of elem e n ts starts with a rea ctive a lk 1 1
meta l and fi n ishes with a n u n reactive, n o n - m etallic, nobl<
gas. In Period 3, for exa m p le, from sodium to a rgo n , ther ,
a ppea rs to be a gra d u a l c h a n ge i n p hysical properties
a cross the period. The c h a n ge i n prope rties seems to
ce ntre a ro u n d s i l icon; e l e m e nts before this be h ave as
metals a n d those after it a s n o n -metals (Figu re (3.06).

The c h a n geover i n p ro p e rties is emph asised if we

I mage C3.05 A small piece of rapidly melting 'argon ice'. look at G ro u p IV as we ll. As we go d own this gro u p,
The m e lting point is -189 °C. the c h a nge is from n o n - m eta l to meta l . The m eta l loids,
silicon a n d ge rma n i u m , a re in the centre of the gro u p
(Figu re (3.06).
The e lectron a rrangements of the atoms of the
noble gases are very sta ble.
■
This means that they do not react readily with
other atoms.
■
In many situations where atoms of other elements
atomic size decreasing

bond or react chemica l ly, they are trying to achieve

■ FẄ́

that sta ble a rrangement of electrons fou nd i n the

no ble gases.
î̈́ gases

.iii 3 Na Mg Al Si p S C/

The e l e m e nts of G ro u p V l l l/0 a re betwee n the two

m ost rea c tive gro u ps of elements (Gro u ps I a n d VI I).
D metals Ge

D metalloids
a.,

I nd ee d , it is their c losen ess to t h is gro u p with sta b le

.iii All elements except

D non-metals
.!d C/ a n d Ar a re solids

e lectro n a rra ngements that m a kes the a l ka l i m eta ls

Ț̈́ Sn at room temperatu11•

and the h a logens so reactive. T h ey can fa i rly easi ly

a c h ieve a n o b le-gas e lectro n stru ctu re. G ro u p VI I e l e m e nts
Pb

gain or s h a re electro n s a n d G ro u p I elements lose Fig ure C3.06 The changes i n p roperties of the elements In
e lectro n s to reach a noble-gas e lectron a rra n ge m ent. Period 3 a n d i n G ro u p IV.

QUESTIONS

C3.06 What is the name of the alka li formed when The transition elements
potassi um reacts with water? If we look at Period 4 in the Periodic Ta b le, we see that
C3.07 Write a word equation for the reaction between there is a whole ' b lock' of e le m e nts i n the centre of the
lithium and water. ta ble. T h is block of eleme nts falls outside the m a i n gro up
C3.08 Give a use and a test for chlorine. of e l e m ents th a t we h ave t a l ked a bout so fa r. T h ey a re
C3.09 Which ha logen (s) will displace bromine from a best considered n ot as a ve rtical gro u p of eleme nts
solution of potassium b romide? but as a row o r block. They a re usually referred to
as th e transition ele m e nts (or transiti o n m eta ls).
 O n e i m p o rta nt featu re of tra nsition m et a ls is that th e i r
co m p o u nds a re often colo u red (Image C3.07) .

General features of transition metals (or transition

elements)
■ They a re h a rd and strong.
■ They have high density.
■ They have high melting and boi l i n g points.

Two of their d isti nctive p ro perties:

■ M a ny of their compounds are col o u red.

1111,1 C3.06 Some everyday objects m ade from ■ They often show more than one valency (va ria ble
1 1 111 ition meta ls. oxidatio n state) - they form more than one type
of ion. For exa m p le, i ro n can form compounds
containing i ro n (11) ions (Fe2+) or i ro n (111) ions (Fe3') .
l 11 1 l r prope rties m a ke them a m o ng th e m ost u sefu l
1 1 • l i 1 l lic elements ava ila ble to us (I ma ge C3.06).
1Py a re m u ch less reactive th a n th e metals in
, , 1 1 ps I a n d II. M a ny h ave exce llent co rrosion resista n ce,
,1 , xample c h ro m i u m . The very h igh melting point
QUESTIONS

I I I 1 ngsten (3410 °C) h as led to its use in t h e fi laments I n which direction does the cha nge in

■
C3.10
I light bu lbs. element type run, when going across a period
from left to right?
my fa milia r o bjects a re made fro m transition metals.
Which metal has the highest melting point in
I I . ip C3.06 shows a ra n ge of these: steel n a i ls, chro m e
C3.11
Period 3?
, 11 1 1 sto p per, copper pipe joints, i ro n h o rseshoe magnet,
Which meta l is the softest and least dense in
q 11 -n ickel coins (a m i x of 75% copper, 25% n ickel) a n d
C3.12
Period 3?
'Pl r-p lated steel coin s. C3.13 What is the form u la of chlorine?
1 11 111 general pro pe rties mean that the tra nsition m eta ls Which of the elements in Period 3 has the h ighest
, , 1 1sefu l i n a n u m be r of d i ffe rent ways. I n add itio n ,
C3.14
melting poi nt?
1 11 1 1 are particular p ro p e rties that m a ke th ese meta ls Why is copper(11) su lfate blue?
, l l nctive a n d u sefu l fo r m o re specific p u rp oses.
C3.15

Coloured transition
metal salts d issolve to
give coloured solutions.

lt1I1we C3.07 a M a ny of the compounds of transition m eta ls a re coloured; b when dissolved, they give coloured solutions.
C3.04 Chemical bonding in positive
metal ion
elements and compounds
We live on the 'water planet'. The surface of the Earth is
distinctive because so much of it is covered with water.
From space, it is the blue colours of water in seas and
oceans and the white of the moisture-laden clouds that
distinguish the Earth from other planets. The Earth is
unique in being the only planet in our solar system where

Figure C3.07 Meta llic bonding - the metal ions are

conditions allow water to exist in all three states of matter.

surroun ded by a 'sea' of mobi le electrons.

Simple compounds such as water, ammonia and methane
begin to show the variety that can be achieved when the atoms
of elements combine together. Water is formed from hydrogen
and oxygen. Each water molecule contains two hydrogen Bonding in metals
atoms bonded to an oxygen atom. In fact, the formula of water Metal atoms have relatively few electrons in their outer
(HP) is perhaps the best-known chemical formula. shells. When they are packed together, each metal atom

Chemical bonding involves the outer electrons of each

loses its outer electrons into a 'sea' of free electrons (or
mobile electrons). Having lost electrons, the atoms are
atom. As we examine a range of substances, we shall

ions because they have lost electrons but the number of

no longer electrically neutral. They become positive
see that, whatever type of bonding holds the structure
together, it is the outer electrons that are used. The
protons in the nucleus has remained u nchanged.
diversity of the material world is produced by the different
ways in which atoms can join together. Therefore the structure of a metal is made up of positive
ions packed together. These ions are surrounded by
electrons, which can move freely between the ions.
Bonding in the elements
These free electrons are delocalised (not restricted to
Earlier we saw that some elements are not simply made
orbiting one positive ion), and form a kind of electrostatic

such as oxygen (02) and hydrogen (H2) consist of diatomic

up of separate atoms individually arranged. Elements
'glue' holding the structure together (Figure C3.07). In an

m olecu les. Indeed, the only elements that are made up

electrical circuit, metals can conduct electricity because
the mobile electrons can move through the structure,
of individual atoms moving almost independently of each
carrying the current. This type of bonding (called metallic
other are the noble gases (Group Vll l/0). These are the
bonding) is present in alloys as well. Alloys such as solder
elements whose electron arrangements are most stable
and brass, for example, will conduct electricity.
and so their atoms do not combine with each other.

Most of the elements do form structures. Their atoms are

I KEY1TERM

The structures in this case are held together by meta llic

linked by some type of bonding. Most elements are metals.

bonding. The non-metallic elements to the right of the

ion: a charged particle; an atom that has lost or gained electron

Periodic Table are held together by cova lent bonding. Both

these types of bonding use the outer electrons in some way.

them. So, they become positive ions. In doing so,

Metal atoms more easily lose electrons than gain

Bonding i n the elements they achieve a more stable electron arrangement,

■ Metallic elements are held together by meta llic usually that of the nearest noble gas.
bonding, which results in metallic lattices.
■
covalent bonding or exist as separate atoms (the
Non-metallic elements are held together by

noble gases). Covalent bonding results in simple

Bonding in non-metals

molecules or giant molecular lattices.

Hydrogen normally exists as diatomic molecules (HJ Tw
atoms bond together by sharing their electrons. The orbl l
overlap and a molecule is formed (Figure (3.08).
 a shared pai r of electrons
makes a covalent bon d
two hydrogen atoms hydrogen mo lecule (H 2 )
H-H
model d isplayed formula
I 11ure C3 .08 The hydrogen molecule is formed by sharing
1 1 11• lectrons from the atoms. A space-fi l l i ng model can be
11 1 d to show the atoms overla ppi ng.
1 1 11 ugh this sharing, each atom gains a share in
o lectrons. This is the number of electrons in the outer
I II •II of helium, the nearest noble gas to hydrogen. (Remember
l i,1I Lhe electron a rrangement of helium is very stable; helium
11 11 1 1s do not form He2 molecu les.) Sharing electrons like this
I 1 1own as covalent bonding. It has been shown that in a
1{1 l1 ogen molecule, the electrons are more likely to be found
•lw en the two n uclei. The forces of attraction between the
I ,, 11 d electrons and the nuclei are greater than any repulsive
111 'S. The molecule is held together by the bond.
eatures of covalent bonding
■ The bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of
electrons between two atoms.
■ Each atom contri butes one electron to each bond.
Molecu les are formed from atoms linked together
by covalent bonds.
111y non-meta llic elements form d iatomic molecules.
I 1w ver, elements other than hyd rogen form bonds in
1 1 11 1 1 to gain a share of eigh t electro ns in their outer shel ls.
l 11', is the n u m ber of electrons in the o uter shell of all
1 1 noble gases a pa rt from helium. Th us, the ha logens
I 1 11 Ip VII) form cova lent molecu les (Figu re C3.09).
, 111 1 ules of hyd rogen and the halogens a re each held
t'l •l her by a single covalent bond. Such a single bond
1 ' • l wo electrons, one from each ato m . The bond ca n be
1 1w1 1 as a si ngle line between the two atoms.
iii I I hat, when we d raw diagrams showing the overlap
1 I I I!' outer shells, we can show the outer electrons on ly,
because the inner electrons are not i nvolved in the bondi ng.
Each atom gains a share in eight electrons in its outer shell.
When molecu les of oxygen (02) or n itrogen (N 2) are formed,
more electrons have to be used i n bonding if the atoms
a re to gain a share of eight electro ns. These molecu les
a re held together by a dou ble bond (02) or a triple bond
(N 2) (Figu re C3.10). Note that the structure of oxygen is
not required for the sylla bus, but is i ncluded here as a n
exam ple of a double covalent bond, which you will need to
be able to draw for carbon dioxide later.
The non - meta ls i n the middle of the m ai n-group elements,
fo r example ca rbon a nd si licon, do n ot form simple
molecu les. They exist as giant molecu la r structu res held
together by single cova lent bonds. I n these structu res, the
atoms are joined to each other in an extensive network
or giant covalent (molecular) lattice (see Figure (3.34).
Such structu res a re very strong because all the atoms a re
interlinked by strong cova lent bonds. The structure of the
carbon atoms in diamond is a three-di mensional lattice
structure in which each ca rbon ato m is joined to fou r
■
others by strong cova lent bonds. A s i m i l a r structu re exists
in silicon, an im portant element in the electronics ind ustry.
a
two chlorine atoms chlorine molecule
(2,8,7) (each chlorine is now 2,8,8)
Cl- Cl
d isplayed formula
b
nm
nm
nm
Figu re C3.09 a The fo rmation o f the cova lent b o n d i n
chlorine molecules (Cli} . Each ato m gains a share in eight
electrons in its o uter shell. The diagra m can be d rawn
showing the o uter electrons on ly, beca use the inner
electrons a re n ot i nvolved in the b o n d i ng. b M o lec u les
of B r2 and 12 a re fo rmed in the same way. They a re larger
beca use the origi n a l atoms a re bigger.
 N-N
nitrogen, N 2 displayed formula
Figu re C3.10 The structure of nitrogen (N 2) m o lecu les
invo lves m u ltiple covalent bonding. A nitrogen m o lecule
co ntains a triple bond. The n itrogen m o lecu le is the
d rawing required for the syllabus.
Chemical bonding in compounds
Different elements combine together to form the vast
ra nge of co mpounds that make up o u r world. They va ry
from i nert a nd heat-resistant ceramic materials to high
explosives, and from lethal poisons to the molecu les of life.
All depend on the means of chem ica l bonding. Two major
types of bond hold com pou nds together. The fi rst is
covalent bondi ng, which, as we have seen, involves shoring
electrons between atoms. H owever, the behaviour of
meta l plus non-metal compounds a rises from a different
type of bond ing. Here electrons a re transferred from one
atom to another. This tra nsfer of electro ns between ato ms
. 226 produces oppositely cha rged pa rticles known as ions .
The formation of these ions resu lts in a different type of
chemica l bonding: ionic bonding.
Bonding in compounds
■ Non-metal plus non-meta l compounds are held
together by covalent bonding, which results in the
simple molecules which make up the compound.
■ Metal plus non-metal compounds are held
together by ionic bonding between positive a nd
negative ions.
■ In some elements and compounds (C and SiO2,
for example) covalent bonding can resu lt in the
formation of giant covalent lattices.
■ I n ionic bond ing the ions are held together
by electrostatic forces of attraction, forming
giant ionic lattices in the solid crystal.
Covalent com pounds
I n cova lent compou nds, bonds a re again made by
sharing electrons between atoms. I n sim ple molecu les,
the atoms combine to achieve a more stab le
a rra ngement of electrons, most often that of a no ble gas.
A hydrogen atom has
just one electron in its
first energy level.
A ch lorine atom has
seven electrons in its
third energy level.
If the two atoms share one pair of electrons:
... hyd rogen can fi ll
its first energy
level ...
This is a
molecule
of hyd rogen
ch loride.
We can also draw the molecule like this:
'. v
I �
Figu re C3.ll H yd rogen and chlorine atoms share a pair
electrons to fo rm a m o lecule of hydrogen chlo ride.
The formation of hydrogen ch loride (HCI) involves the tw
atoms sharing a pair of electrons (Figu re C3.11).
The exa mples shown in Figure C3.12 illustrate different
ways of representing this sharing. They a lso show how t h
formula of the co mpound co rresponds to the number of
each atom in a m olecu le.
In each case, the atoms achieve a share in the same nun1I
of electrons as the noble gas nearest to that element in t l i
Periodic Ta ble. I n all but the case of hydrogen, this meaI I•,
share of eight electrons in their outer shell.
Ea rlier we saw that multiple cova lent bonds can exist in
molecu les of the elements oxygen and nitrogen. They c- 1 1
exist in com pou nds too. The carbon dioxide molecule is 1 1
together by dou ble bonds between the atoms (Figu re C 1 , I
This figu re also shows some other exa m ples of bonding 1 1 1
compounds that you will meet again i n Cha pter ClO.
 methane (CH )
• H
H-C-H &
C
4 0 + • C
•
- $̈́
ó̈́ $̈́
H
() • H
fou r hydrogen carbon atom displayed formula
atoms (1) (2,4)
methane molecule
Each hydrogen now shares two electrons with carbon.

ammonia (NH )

o•
••
O
• •
3 0 + N -
•
three hydrogen nitrogen atom displayed form ula
atoms (1) (2,5)
ammonia molecule
Hydrogen and nitrogen both fill their outer shells by sharing electrons.

.
water (H 20 )

2 + •
0 = H -·o:
0 -

two hydrogen oxygen atom displayed formula

atoms (1) (2,6)
water molecule
Hydrogen and oxygen both fi ll their outer shells by sharing electrons.

H - C/

one hydrogen chlorine atom hydrogen chloride displayed formula

atom (1 ) (2,8,7) molecule
carbon dioxide (CO2)

0=<:=-0
displayed formula

111 C3.12 xam p les of the formation of s i m ple cova lent molecu les. Again, o n ly the outer electrons of the atoms are shown.
11 omplex examples a re shown in Figu re (3.13.

A03.4 I nterpret and evaluate experimental

Modelling the bonding in covalent substances

observations and data
In this activity, you will make models of simple molecu l a r
Ill : structures of certa i n elements a n d com pounds to
.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely demonstrate the im porta nce of si ngle, double a nd triple
use techniques, apparatus and materials cova lent bonds i n molecules.
(including following a sequence of instructions The modelling ca n be extended to show the processes of
where appropriate) bond b reaking and bond making that take place d u ri ng
.3 Make and record observations, measurements a chem ica l reaction. This serves as an introd uction to
and estimates balancing chemical equations.
A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
 four hyd rogen two carbon atoms
atoms

d isplayed formula

00
00 +
0. . 8. -
00
six hydrogen
atoms
0
two carbon
atoms
oxygen
atom
ethanol molecule (C 2 H 5OH)

� �
H - C -C - O H
I I
H H

displayed formula

Figu re C3.13 The formation of ethene and eth a n o l molecu les, showing the oute r e lectro ns on ly.
Ball-and-stick models can be used to show the stru ctu re.

Ionic compounds A common exa mple of a compound that involves ionic

Compounds of a metal plus a non-metal generally adopt a
third type of bonding. This involves the transfer of electrons
from one atom to another. This transfer of electrons resu lts
in the formation of positive and negative ions. The oppositely
charged ions a re then held together by forces of attraction.
■ The electrons involved in the formation of
ions are those in the outer shell of the atoms.
■ Metal atoms lose their outer electrons to become
positive ions. In doing so they achieve the more
stable electron arrangement of the nearest noble gas.
■ Generally, atoms of non-metals gai n electrons to
become negative ions. Again, i n doing so, they
achieve the stable electron arrangement of the
nea rest noble gas to them in the Periodic Table.
bonding is sodium chloride (Figure C3.14). Each of the sodiu1 11
atoms, which have an electron a rrangement of 2,8,1, loses ii
one outer electron to form a sodium ion (Na•) (Figu re C3.15)
The sodium ion then has the sta ble electron a rra ngeme111
(2,8) of a neon atom - the element j ust before it in the
Periodic Table. The electron released is tra nsferred to a
chlorine atom. The sod i u m ion has a single positive charg,
beca use it now has j ust 10 electrons i n total, but there a r < •
sti ll 11 protons i n t h e n ucleus of t h e atom.
The chlorine atoms, electron arrangem ent 2,8,7, each g 1 1 1
an electron released fro m the sod i u m atoms a n d they
become ch loride ions (Cl-) (Figure C3.16). The ch loride io1 1
(electron a rra ngement 2,8,8) has the electron a rra ngem
of an a rgon atom. The ch loride ion has a negative charg
because it has one more electron (18) than there a re
protons in the nucleus.
 magnesi u m oxide (MgO)
so d i u m chloride (NaCl)

I 11 1 1 C3.14 The tra nsfer of e le ctrons from a sod ium atom

t,i ,I h lorine atom to form ions.

+
i 1n atom of sodium an ion of sod i u m , Na
[2,8,l] [2,st

@)
When the so di u m atom loses an
calciu m chloride (CaC/2 )

Figu re C3.17 Diagrams showing the fo rmation of ionic

bonds i n magnesi u m oxide and calcium chlo ride. Aga i n ,
electron, it forms a sodi u m ion.
only the outer electrons a re shown.
1 1 11re C3.15 A sodium ato m loses a n e lectron to become
, d i u m ion.
M o re c o m p lex i o n i c compounds than those fo r m ed
between the a l ka li m etals a n d the h a logens req u i re care in
wo r k i n g out t h e tra n sfer of a greater n u m be r of e lectro ns.
Figu re C3.17 shows two exa m p les of such c o m p o u nds.

Features common to ionic bonding

The chlorine atom [2,8,7] needs t o gai n
a n electron t o m a ke it more stable. ■ M eta l atoms a lways lose their outer electrons to
form positive ions.
■ The n u m ber of positive charges on a meta l ion is
eq ual to the n u m ber of electrons lost.
■ N o n-meta l atoms, with the exception of hydrogen,
always ga i n electrons to become negative i ons.
■ The n u mber of negative charges o n a non-metal ion
This is an ion of chlorine [2,8,Br.
is eq ual to the n u m ber of electrons gai ned.
1 1 u re C3.16 A chlorine ato m gains an electron to become ■ I n both cases, the ions fo rmed h ave a more stable
1 h loride ion. e lectron a rra ngement, usually that of the noble gas
nea rest to the element concerned .
111• positive and negative i o n s in sod i u m chloride a re ■ Ionic (electrova lent) bonds resu lt from the
11•lt l together by t h e e lectrostatic attra ction betwee n attraction between oppositely charged ions.
'I 'l l site c h a rges.

TIP
TIP
or the Core syllabus, the exam ples of ionic bonding
Do p ractise d rawing the diagrams for both covalent and
you need to be fa miliar with a re those between Group I
ionic bonding so that you can draw them accurately
metals and Group VII non-metals - the alkali metals
in the examination.
ond the halogens. Try drawi ng diagrams like the one
In Figure C3.14 for compounds such as lithium fluoride When you d raw the diagrams of ionic bonding, make sure
r potassium bromide. You will see that there is a great you remember to put in the charges outside the brackets
,lmilarity in the diagrams. on each ion.

Figure C3.18 A giant ionic lattice where each i o n is
surro u n d ed by ions of op posite charge.
Io nic co m pounds (such as sod i u m chloride) a re solids
at roo m tem perature. The ions a rrange themselves i nto
a reg u l a r lattice (Figure C3.18). I n the lattice, each ion is
s u rrou nded by ions of the o pposite cha rge. The whole
giant ionic structure is held together by the electrostatic
forces of attraction that occ u r between particles of
opposite cha rge (see Sectio n C3.06).
Ionic groups
The i o n i c co m po u nds mentioned so far have been
made from sim ple ions, for exa m p le N a +, K+, M g2+, ct-, 02-.
H owever, in many i m porta nt ionic compounds the meta l
ion is combined with a negative ion conta i n i n g a group
of atom s (for exa m p le, so/-, N O3-, co/-). These ionic
groups a re made up of atom s cova lently bonded together.
These grou ps have a negative cha rge because they have
gained e lectrons to m a ke a sta ble structure. Exa m ples
of such ions a re s hown in Figu re C3.19. In addition to
these negative ionic grou ps, there is one i m portant ionic
gro u p that is positively charged, the a mm o n i u m ion, N H/
(Figu re C3.19). Ta ble C3.03 gives a s u m mary of some simple
ions and ionic gro u ps.
The formu lae of com pou n d s i nvolving the ions listed in this
table can be worked out by remembering that the overa ll
change of a formula is zero. The total positive cha rge must
eq u a l the total negative cha rge.
T h ro ugh our d iscussion of elements a n d
c o m pounds w e have s e e n that there are three major
types of chemical b o n d i ng:
■ metallic bonding
■ ionic bonding
■ covalent bonding.
T h e types of structure based on these methods of
bonding are s u m marised in Figu re C3.20.
2-
one carbon + three one nitrogen + th,
oxygens, with oxygens, with
overa l l cha rge of 2- overa l l cha rge of I
one sulfu r + four
oxygens, with
overall ch arge of 2-
Fig u re C3.19 Three exa m p les of negatively c h a rged
ionic groups a n d a positively charged ionic gro u p.
The n u m bers of atoms a n d the overa ll charge carried by
each gro u p of atoms a re shown. Note that you a re not
expected to know the sha pes of these ions; the diagram
a re s i m ply to show you w hy the formu lae a re as they ar
listed in Ta ble C3.03.
The physical properties of ionic and
covalent compounds
Knowledge of how ato m s combine to make different typ
of structure helps us b,egin to understa nd why su bstanr
have different physical p ro perties. Ta ble C3.04 shows
the broad differences i n properties of ionic a n d simple
covalent compounds.
The d ifferences we observe between the physical
p ro perties (Ta ble C3.04) of ionic and sim ple cova lent
com pounds depend on the i nteractive forces betwec1 1
the pa rticles p resent i n the compound. The ions maki 1 1
u p a n ionic compound i nteract through t h e electrostr 1I 1
attraction of the full chem ical bondi ng. These forces w,
i n a l l d i rections in the solid and strongly hold the ion
in place in the stru ctu re. Sim ple cova lent com pound
a re made u p of molecules. The fu ll chemical bonding
works withi n the m o lecu les holding them together.
H owever, i m p o rta ntly, this bonding does not act belw1
one molecu le and the othe rs around it. The forces
between molecules a re j u st weak intermolecu lar for( 1
Therefore, such su bsta n ces have lower melting poinl ,
a n d boiling poi nts as it ta kes less energy to separal<• I i i
molecu les from each oth e r than to sepa rate the ion•, I I 1
ionic compound.
 V� lency S i m ple meta l ions
l
I

(+ve)
sod i u m , N a + hyd roge n, W hyd ride, H - a m m o n i u m , N H/ hyd roxide, O H -
̶ ̈́
1
potassi u m , K+ ch loride, c1- n itrate, N 03-
si lver, Ag• b ro m i d e, B r hyd rogenca r b o n ate, H C03 -
copper(1), cu +
iod i d e, 1 -
2 m agnesi u m , Mg 2+
oxide, 02- s u lfate, SO/-
ca lci u m , C a 2+ s u lfide, s2- c a rb o n ate, CO/-
zinc, Z n 2+

i ro n (11), Fe2+
co pper ( 11), C u 2+
3 a l u m i n i u m , A l 3• n itride, N 3 - phosphate, PO/-
'""

i ro n (111), Fe 3+

, I le C3.03 Some com m o n s i m ple ions a n d i o n ic grou ps.

metals - metallic
bonding
- x " , 0̈́
| Ä" &B1̈́
°" (01 ' ̈́

- -
17
x " , 0̈́ metal +
ionic
е3, ж
1̈́ non-
bonding
&"001 ' ̈́ metal(s)

-
ELEMEN TS

f l
' з| * ° ̈́
COMPOUNDS

1J
| 3&1_° ' ̈́

-
x " - (̈́
non-metals - covalent
bonding
- | 3ы1˜ B" ѕ̈́
covalent
bonding
non-metal +
non-metal(s)

l
&"0Äи1 ' ̈́

X * " •" 0 ̈́
" 03І ' ̈́
≠, 3õ& ̈́ 6"' ' Ü̈́

111 ( C3.20 A n overa l l s u m m a ry of the b o n d i n g i n elements a n d com pounds.

What type of bond would be fo und between the (showing the o uter electrons only i n you r
followi ng pairs of elements? diagrams):
a sulfur a n d chlorine a hydrogen b water
b carbon and oxygen c ammonia d metha ne.
c magnesi u m and nitrogen C3.20 Draw d iagrams of the ionic bonding in the followi ng
d zinc and cop per com pounds:
Why is the formula of hydrogen a lways written a sodium chloride b lith i u m fluoride.
as H 2? Why is it true to say that ca lci u m carbo nate has
both ionic and cova lent bonds?
C3.21
What force holds the sod i u m and chlorine
together i n sod i u m chloride? Draw d iagrams of the ionic bonding i n the following
com po u nds:
C3.22
Draw d iagra ms of the cova lent bond i n g in
the fol lowing elements and compounds a magnesium oxide b ca lciu m chloride.
 They are crystalline solids at room temperature.
They have high melting and boiling points.
They are often soluble in water (not usually soluble
in organic solvents, e.g. ethanol, methylbenzene).
They conduct electricity w hen molten or dissolved
in water (not when solid).
There is a regular arrangement of the ions in a lattice.:
•, lons with
opposite charge are next to each other.
Ions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic forces.
Large amounts of energy are needed to separate them.
Water is attracted to charged ions and therefore many ionic solid
dissolve.
In the liquid or solution, the ions are free to move about. They ca11
move towards the electrodes w hen a voltage is applied.

These substances are made of simple molecules. The atoms are

temperature. joined together by covalent bonds.
They have low melting and boiling points. The forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces) are only
very weak. Not much energy is needed to move the molecules
further apart.
They are soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol Covalent molecular substances dissolve in covalent solvents.
or methylbenzene (very few are solu ble in water).
They do not conduct electricity. There are no ions present to carry the current.

Ta ble C3.04 The properties of ionic a n d s i m p le cova lent co mpounds.

Cl.OS The chemical formulae of For convenience, the same applies to elements such

elements and compounds as phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S). In these cases, the
molecules contain more than three atoms.
The chemical 'shorthand' of representing an element by its
symbol can be taken further. It is even more useful to be The formulae of ionic compounds
able quickly to sum up the basic structure of an element or
compound using its chemical formu la.
Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature, and
their formulae are simply the whole-number ratio of
the positive to negative ions in the structure. Thus, in
The formulae of elements
magnesium chloride, there are two chloride ions (Cl-) fo1
Those elements which are made up of individual atoms
each magnesium ion (Mg2•).
or small molecules (up to three atoms covalently
bonded together) are represented by the formula of the
ions present Mg2• cI­
particle present (Figure C3.21). Where elements exist as
cI-
giant structures, whether held together by metallic or
covalent bonding, the formula is simply the symbol of the total charge 2+ 2-
element (for example Cu, Mg, Fe, Na, K, etc., and C, Si, Ge).

5]
The formula is MgCI 2 . The overall structure must be
neutral. The positive and negative charges must balanc
each other.
Li Be B 9≥ N2
The size of the charge on an ion is a measure of its val 1 1
Na (see Table C3.03) or combining power. Mg2• ions can

I I
Mg Af Si (P,)

K Ca
combine with Cl - ions in a ratio of 1 : 2, but Na• ions ca1 1
Sc Ti 9¶≥ Zn Ga Ge As
only bond in a 1 : 1 ratio with cI - ions. This idea of vale1 11
giant metallic giant molecular can be used to ensure that you always use the correct
simple molecules
lattice lattice
formula for an ionic compound. Follow the examples I
Figu re C3.21 The form u la e of the e leme nts a re l i n ked to aluminium oxide and calcium oxide below (Figures C3.J
their structure a n d their position in the Periodic Ta ble. and C3.23), and make sure you understand how this w r
 ormula for aluminium oxide Table C3.05 su m m a rises the formulae of some importa nt
ionic compounds.

I Formula I ions p resent

W1 Ile down the correct symbols

Name I Ratio
e1-
W1 Ile down the charges on the ions

sodium NaCl Na• 1:1

I r,ure C3 22 The formula for a luminium oxide chloride
a m monium N H 4 NO3 NH/ NO3- 1:1
I ormula for calcium oxide
nitrate
Nill down the correct symbols
Ca
�� potassium K2 SO 4 K• so/- 2:1
�- su lfate
W1 Ile down the charges on the ions
Ca 202 calci u m Ca (HCO3) 2 Ca 2• HCO3- 1:2
Simplify the ratio: hydrogen-
Formula cao ca rbonate
I nure C3.23 The fo rm u la for calcium oxide.
copper(11) CuSO4 Cu 2• so/- 1:1
su lfate
I11 same ru les a p p ly when writing the formu lae of
magnesiu m Mg(NO3) 2 Mg2• NO3- 1:2
, impounds contai n i ng ionic groups beca use each of
nitrate
c1-
111 m has an overall charge (see Ta ble C3.03). It is usefu l
,, , I ut the formula of the ionic group i n b rackets. This aluminium AICl3 A [ 3• 1:3
1 1 1phasises that it cannot be changed . For exa mple, the chloride
1 mula of the ca rbonate ion is a lways CO/- . Work through
Ta b le C 3.05 The fo r m u lae of some ionic compou nds.
111 xa mples for sodium ca rbonate and a m monium
1 1 1 1 te i n Figures C3.24 and C3.25.
The formulae of covalent compounds
The idea of an atom having a valency, or com bining power,
can also be applied to working out the form u lae of covalent
ormula for sodiu m carbonate

111 down the correct 'symbols' com pounds. Here the valency of an atom is the number
of covalent bonds it can form. The 'cross-over' method for
1 11 0 down the charges on the ions
Formula Na 2 CO3
working out chemical formu lae can be a p plied to covalent
The brackets are not needed if compounds in two situations:
there is on ly one ion present.
• sim ple molecu les with a central atom , for exa m ple
t fil l re C3.24 The fo rm u la for sod ium carbonate. water, metha ne, ca rbon dioxide (Figu re C3.26) and
ammonia:
ormula for ammonium sulfate
(NH Formula for carbon dioxide
1 /1 1 ' down the correct 'symbols'
�
Write down the sym bols
, 111 down the charges on the ions
Formula Write down the valencies cp4
1 1 11re C3.25 The formu la for a mmonium su lfate. Can simplify:
Formula CO2

Figure C 3 . 26 T h e formula for carbon d ioxide.

TIP
I e very careful when writing chemical formulae to get the • gia nt cova lent m o lecules, where the formula is simply
ymbols of the elements correct. Remember the unusual
1
,ymbols: that sodium is Na and not So, for example.
the whole-n u m ber ratio of the atoms present in the
giant lattice, for example silica.
I member that the second letter in any symbol is lower
se, not a capital letter: Na not NA, Cl not CL and Co not The valency of a n element in the main grou ps of the
Periodic Ta ble can be worked out from the group
n u m ber of the element. The relationship is shown below.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

systems do aim to be consistent. Some common and

Working o ut v alency
I\
important compounds have historical n,ames that do no
seem to fit into a system. Examples of these include wat
For elements in Groups I-IV,
(H2 O), ammonia ( N H 3 ) and methine (CH 4) . These apart,
valency = group number there are some basic generalisations that are useful.
For elements in Groups V-V I I, • I f there is a metal in the compound, it is named first.
valency = 8 - the group number • Where the metal can form more than one ion, then th
Elements in Group V l l l/0 have a valency of 0. name indicates which ion is present; for example, iron
chloride contains the Fe2+ ion, while iron(111) chloride
This trend in valency with the group number can be contains the Fe3+ ion.
seen by looking at typical compounds of the elements
• Compounds containing only two e lements have nam
of Period 3. You can see that the valency rises to a value
of 4 and then decreases to O as we cross the period. ending in -ide; for example, sodium chloride (NaCl),
calcium bromide (CaBr2) , magnesium nitride (Mg3 N 2 ).
Group ̇̈́ FF̈́ ̈ ь&̈́ FẄ́ Ẅ́ WF̈́ WF̊ ̈́ W&&&Ļ@̈́ The important exception to this is the hydroxides, whi
Valency ӭ́ f̈́ ç̈́ 4 ç̈́ f̈́ ю̈́ Ω̈́ contain the hydroxide (OH -) ion.
Typical
compound
ŗ ИE&̈́ “ 6E&2 h óE&3 öÊEóþ̈́ ə $3 ̃ −ö̈́ $ E̋ ̈́ • Compounds containing an ionic group (usually
containing oxygen) have names that end with -ate; f r
For example, carbon is in Group IV, so its valency is 4,
example, calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) , potassium nitn
and oxygen is in Group VI, so its valency is 8 - 6 = 2.
(KNO3), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), sodium ethanoat
(CH3 COONa).
• The names of some compounds use prefixes to tell y u
Examples of writing formu lae the number of that particular atom in the molecule. l h
The method for working out formulae above does not is useful if two elements form more than one compou
work for the many covalent molecules that do not have a for example, carbpn monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxi I
single central atom, for example H2 O2 , C2 H 6 , C3 H 6 , etc. The (CO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and dinitrogen tetraoxid<'
formulae of these compounds still obey the valency rules. (N 2 O), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3).
However, the numbers in the formula repre·sent the actual
number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of Th e names for the important mineral acids are systematl
the compound (Figure C3.27). but are best simply learnt at this stage; for example, sulfur
acid (H 2 SOJ

'What's in a name?' - naming chemical Two important oxidising agents contain polyatomic
compounds negative ions involving metal and oxygen atoms. Their
modern names (potassium manganate(v11) (KMnO4) and
Giving a name to a compound is a way of classifying it.
potassium dichromate (v1) ( K2 Cr2 O7) ) include the oxidati n
N ot all names are as informative as others, but modern

"
state of the metal. At this stage you will not need to writ

"
equations using these compounds, but you will need t >
E a c h oxygen atom recognise their names and formulae.
0-0 m a kes two bonds;
each hydrogen
m a kes one bond.
hydrogen peroxide QUESTION S

C3.23 What names would you give these compoun

a Nal b MgS c K2 O d Li3
e f NO g h SO
H H
I I Each carbon atom Ca(OH)i NO2
C3.24
$á Eá Eá $̈́ m a kes fou r bonds;
I I each hydrogen Use your Period ic Table to help you give the
q̈́ q̈́ m a kes one bond. formula of each of these compou nds:
a b
etha n e
silicon ch loride
Figu re C3.27 The structu res of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 02) c phosphorus chloride d si licon oxide
a n d eth ane (C2 H 6), showing the bonds m ade.
 H ow many atoms of th e d ifferent elements a re C3.06 Metals, alloys and
there in the formu lae of these compounds? crystals
sod ium hyd roxide, NaOH
The h exago n a l sha pes of snowfl a ke crysta ls d e m o n strate
ii ethane, C2 H 6
how s i m p le m o lecules can co m b i n e to p ro d uce com plex
iii su lfuric acid, H 2 SO 4 and bea utifu l solid structu res ( I m a ge (3.08). The regula rity
iv copper n itrate, Cu(NO3} i of a snowflake suggests that the w ater m olecu les it conta i n s
v sucrose (sugar), C 12 H 22O11 a re a rra n ge d i n a n o rga nised w ay. I n general, there a re t h ree
b What are the names of the com pounds that basic u n its from which solids a re c onstructed - ato ms, i o n s
have the followi ng fo rmu lae? a n d m o lecules. These d ifferent p a rticles p ro d u ce a ra n ge
KBr vi H N O3 of structu res i n the solid state, w h ich c a n be classified i nto
ii Al(O H) 3 vii SiCl4 fo u r b ro a d ty pes.
iii CuCO3 viii FeSO4
iv Mg3 N 2 ix CH 4
PCl3 H 2SO4
c G ive the form ulae for the following
V X

compounds: The fou r d i fferent types of sol i d p hysical structu re a re:

giant metallic lattice: a lattice of positive ions in a
potassium su lfate 'sea' of electrons
ii aluminium fluoride giant ionic lattice: a lattice of alternating positive and
iii i ron(111) oxide negative ions
iv calcium nitrate giant covalent (molecular) lattice: a gia nt molecule
v zinc chloride (macro molecule) maki ng the lattice
simple molecular substances: consisting of simple
vi ammonia
molecules in a lattice held together y wea k forces
vii hyd roch loric acid (Figu re C3.28)
viii copper(11) su lfate
ix sulfur trioxide.
,26 The d iagram shows the a rrangement of the oute r
electrons only in a molecule o f ethanoic acid . Structu res of these d ifferent ty pes a re fo u n d a l l a ro u n d us.
I n s o m e c a ses, we use a n d a d a pt their p hysical p ro pe rties
to engineer m ateri a l s to suit a p a rticu l a r p u rpose.

a Name the d ifferent elements found in this

co mpound.
b What is the tota l n u m ber of atoms present in
th is molecu le?
c Between which two atoms is there a double
covalent bond?
d H ow many cova lent bonds does each carbon
ato m make?
e Would you expect this compound to be a solid
o r a liquid at room tem perature? G ive a reason
for your answer.
f Ethanoic acid will disso lve in methylbenzene.
Would you expect the solution to conduct
electricity? Give a reason for your answer. I mage C3.08 A snowflake crysta l.
 Su bstances that consist of sim ple molecules have
relativity low melting points and boiling points.

This is because there a re only weak forces between

the molecules. They don't conduct electricity.

The layers of
atoms can ca rry

Figu re C3.28 Sim ple molecu lar su bstances have low

o n slipping past
each other.

melti ng points.

Metal crystals

Figu re C3.29 The layers in a meta l lattice can s lide over

The idea of the regular packing of meta l ions i nto a lattice

each other.
su rrou nded by a 'sea' of mobile electrons helps to explain
many of the physica l properties of meta ls. I n m ost metals,
the packing is as close as possible. This explains why
meta ls usua lly have a high density. I n some meta ls the When mixed with 4% copper and sma ller amounts of
ions a re less closely packed . These meta ls, for exa m ple the other elements, it gives a meta l (d uralum in) that com bin
alkali metals, have the lowest densities of all metals. So, strength and lightness and is ideal for ai rcraft b u i lding.
lith i u m and sod ium will float on water. Other exa mples of alloys a n d their properties a re given i l l
The layers of identica l ions i n a p u re metal can be Ta ble C3.06.
moved over one another without brea king the structu re Figure C3.30 shows how the presence of the 'impu rity'
(Figu re C3.29). This flexibility in the layered stru ctu re atoms makes it more diffic;ult for the meta l ions to slip OV! 'I
means that metals can be beaten or rolled i nto sheets
(they a re ma llea ble). Meta ls a re more ma llea ble '{Vhen hot,
each other. This m a kes the alloy stronger but more brittl
than the metals it is made from.
and steel, for instance, is rolled when hot. They can a lso be
stretched i nto wires (they a re ductile). The strength of the
Strength is not the only p roperty to think about when
designing an a lloy. For exa mp le, solder is an a lloy of tin
meta llic bonds means that the meta l does not easily brea k
and lead. It is usefu l for m a king electrical con nections
under these forces. The bonds a re strong but not rigid. This
beca use its melti ng point is lower than that of either of
means that meta ls generally have a high tensile strength .

Alloy
I Typical Par ticular properties
The mobility of the deloca lised electrons in a meta l mea ns
I
composition
that meta ls conduct electricity very well. Copper is a
pa rticula rly good conductor, and most electrica l wires
a re made from it. For overhead power li nes, aluminium is brass copper 70% harder than p u re
used, as it is lighter. However, beca use aluminium is not zinc 30% copper; 'gold' colo u red
strong, a steel core has to be used. bronze cop per 90% harder than p u re copp ,
ti n 10%
Alloys mild iron 99.7% stronger and harder
Making a lloys with other metals is one of the com m onest steel carbon 0.3% than p u re iron
ways of changing the properties of metals. Alloys a re stain less iron 74% harder than p u re iron;
fo rmed by m ixing the molten meta ls together thoroughly steel does not rust
chro m i u m 18%
and then allowing them to cool and fo rm a solid.
nickel 8%
Alloyi ng often resu lts in a meta l that is stro nger than the solder tin 50% lower melting point th 1 1
original individ ual metals. 'Silver' coins a re mi nted from either tin or lead
lead 50%
cu pro-nickel a lloy, which is much harder than copper itself.
Alu m i n i u m is a low-de nsity metal that is not very strong. Ta b le C3.06 Some important alloys.
 force
applied
here
p u re metal
b AO3.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use
force
a pplied
here
I If ure C3.30 a The positions of atoms in a p u re metal
1 1 y tal before a force is a p p l i ed . b After the force is a pplied,
I ppage has taken place. The layers in a p u re meta l can
I I le over each othe r. c In an a lloy, slippage is prevented
111 a use the atoms of d ifferent size can not slide over
1 11 h other.
1 1 ! two sepa rate meta ls. Also, steel, which rusts w h e n i n
t lntact with oxygen a n d water, ca n b e prevented fro m
, It ing so w h e n a lloyed with c h ro m i u m a n d n i ckel. This
11 I m s sta i n less steel (see Ta bl e (3.06).
TIP
It is im portant that you learn which elements are p resent
in certain alloys, such as brass, bronze, mild steel and
stain less steel, and you should be familiar with certain key
uses for each alloy. The syllabus gives uses for mild steel
(car bodies and machinery) and stain less steel (chemical
plant and cutlery) - make sure you are awa re of these.
I nic crystals
limic com po u nds fo rm lattices consisti ng of positive a n d
1 1 ' ative i o n s. I n a n i o n i c lattice, the nearest neighbo u rs
, ii n ion a re a lways of the o p posite c h a rge. Th us, i n
1 d i u m c h loride, each sodi u m ( N a +) i o n is su rro u n ded
I Iy six c h loride (Cl-) ions (Figure (3.31), and each Cl- ion
i'i u rro u nded by six N a + i o n s. Overa ll, there a re eq u a l
1 1 1 1 m bers o f N a + a n d cI- ions, so t h e c h a rges bala n ce.
1 1 1 actu a l a rra ngement of the i o n s i n other com po u nds
dl 1 pends o n the n u m bers of ions i nvolved a n d o n
ACTIVITY C 3.03
• Intriguing alloys!
Skills:
techniques, apparatus and materials (including
following a sequence of instructions where
a ppropriate)
AO3.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates
AO3.4 I nterpret and evaluate experimental
observations and data
This activity consists of three sections, each of which
i llustrates how the combi nation of meta l elements into
a n a l loy resu lts in usefu l and novel properties. The al loys
i nvestigated are sold er, Fields meta l and n itinol.
A worksheet is i ncluded on the CD-ROM.
their s izes. H owever, it is i m po rtant to rem e m be r that a l l
i o n i c com pou n d s a re electri ca l ly ne utral.
Ionic c rystals a re h a rd b ut m u ch more b rittle than meta llic
crysta ls. T h is is a resu lt of t h e structu re of the layers. In a
m etallic c rysta l, the ions a re identica l a n d held together
by the m o b i le electrons. This re m a i n s t rue if o n e layer is
slid a g a i nst the next. H owever, p us h i n g one laye r a ga i n st
a n other i n a n ionic crysta l bri ngs ions of the s a m e c h a rge
next to each other. The rep u lsions force the layers a pa rt
(Figu re (3 .32).
Disru pt i o n of an ionic lattice is a lso bro ught a b o ut by
water. M a ny i o n i c com po u n d s d isso lve in water. Water
mo lecu les a re a b l e to i nteract with both positive a n d
negative i o ns . When a n i o n i c c rysta l d i sso lves, each i o n
beco m es su rro u n d ed by wate r molecu les. T h is b re a ks
u p t h e lattice a n d kee ps t h e i o n s a pa rt (Figu re ( 3 . 33).
Fo r t h ose i o n i c com pou n d s that do not d isso lve i n water,
the forces between the ions m ust be very stro n g.
I o n s i n sol ution a re a b le to m ove, so the solution ca n
ca rry a n electric cu rre nt. I o n ic com po u nds ca n cond u ct
electricity when d issolved in water. This is a lso t ru e when
they a re m elted beca use, h ere a ga i n , the ions a re a b l e to
move t h ro ugh t h e liq u id a n d ca rry the cu rrent.
Giant covalent crystals (macromolecu les}
Gi a n t covalent crystals a re h eld togeth er by stro ng cova lent
bonds. Th is type of structu re is sh own by some elem ents
(such a s ca rbon, in the form of d ia m o n d and gra p h ite), a n d
a lso b y some com po u nds (for exam p le, SiOJ
 chlorine atom
(Cl)
sod i u m atom
(Na)
Figure C3.31 The a rra ngement of the positive and negative ions in a sod ium chloride crysta l.
force app lied here
,+HH,
Figure C3.32 In ionic crystals, when one layer is forced
to slide against an other, repulsions cause the crystal
to fracture.
Figu re C3.33 Water m olecules form 'shells' a ro u n d m etal
(yellow) and non-metal (green) ions. This helps ionic
su bsta n ces (like sod ium chloride, NaCl) to dissolve in water.
The properties of diamond are due to the fact that the
strong covalent bonds extend in all directions through the
whole crystal. Each carbon atom is attached to four others
- the atoms are arranged tetrahedrally (Figure (3.34).
Diamond has a very high melting point and, because the
bonding extends throughout the whole structure, it is
very hard and is used in cutting tools. The bonds are rigid,
however, and these structures are much more brittle than
a
dia mond silicon (1v) oxide
b
one layer how the layers fit together
Figure C3.34 a The tetra hedra l structure of diamond
silicon (1v) oxide (si licon d ioxide). b The layered structur
of gra ph ite.
giant metallic lattices. All the outer electrons of the at 1 1 1
these structures are used to form covalent bonds. T h •r
no electrons free to move. Diamond is therefore a typit , 1
non-metallic element. It does not conduct electricity.
Graphite is a different form of carbon that does con 1 1 1
electricity (Table (3.07). The carbon atoms are arra1 1 p,
in a different way in the molecular structure of grap i 1 1 1
They are arranged in flat layers of linked hexagons
(Figure C3.34b). Each graphite layer is a two-dimen 1t1r
giant molecule. Within these layers, each carbon at 111
is bonded to three others by strong covalent bond
Between the layers there are weaker forces of attr c 1 11
The layers are able to slide over each other easily.
This means that graphite feels slippery and can b 1 1
 Di a mond G ra p h ite
Properties Uses Properties Uses
A ppea ra nce colourless, transparent in jewellery and dark grey, shiny solid
crystals that sparkle in light ornamental objects
I t , rdness the hardest natural in drill bits, diamond soft - the layers can slide in pencils and as
su bstance saws and glass-cutters over each other - and a lubricant
solid has a slippery feel
I) nsity more dense than graphite less dense than diamond
(3.51 g/cm3 ) (2.25 g/cm3)
I ctrical does not conduct electricity conducts electricity as electrodes and
onductivity for the brushes in
electric motors

I 1 1 C3.07 A co m parison of the properties a n d uses of diamond a n d graph ite.

,I lubricant. Pencil 'lead' is, in fact, graph ite. When we
1 11 with a pencil, thin layers of graphite are left stuck to
, I aper. The most distinctive property, however, arises
1 1 1 1 the free electrons not used by the layered atoms in
-.,. ilent bonding. These electrons can move between
, I, yers, carrying charge, so that graphite can conduct
, I ricity in a similar way to metals.
I iant struct u res of diamond and silicon(1v) oxide are
11
Molecular crystals
Some non-metals (e.g. iodine and sulfur) and some
covalently bonded compounds exist as solids with low
meltingpoints. In these crystals, molecules of these elements
or compounds are held together by weak intermolecular
forces to form a crystal that is easily broken down by heat.
The molecules are then free to move but, unlike the particles
in an ionic crystal, they have no charge. Neither the liquid nor
the solid forms of these substances conduct electricity.

, y imilar (Figure C3.34a). As a result, they show similar

'Y' I al properties. They are both very hard and have
I I melting points. Sand and quartz are examples of
" , I (silicon(1v) oxide o r silicon dioxide, Si02). The whole
" ' ure of silicon and oxygen atoms is held together
• 111 hout by strong covalent bonds.
A summary of the physical properties of the
d ifferent types of structure
The properties of a substance can be related to the type
of structu re it has. The four different types of structure are
summarised in Figure C3.35.

IP QUESTIONS

ur diamond and graphite if you a re presented with the C3.27 How does molten sodium chloride conduct
I t I important that you can recognise the structures

electricity?
ti cribe the essential features of the two structures C3.28 Why does sodium chloride not conduct when
diagrams in an exam question. Make sure that you can

it is solid?
C3.29 Why can graphite:
1 1d link them to the properties of the two forms.
, you should be able to explain the hardness of diamond

a conduct electricity?
l11 t rms of the strongly bonded th ree-dimensional

b
11 twork of the structure.

t ii electrical conductivity of graphite is explained in be used as a lubricant?

C3.3O Why is diamond much harder than graphite?
t 11 layers. It is these 'free' electrons that are able to move C3.3 1
t rms of the mobile electrons not used in the bonding of
Why do molecular crystals never conduct
electricity?
C3.32
1 1ci carry the current, not those involved in the covalent

Why can metals conduct electricity?

ltnnding of the layers.

C3.33 How is the structure of silicon(1v) oxide similar to

111 I cular layers in graphite can slide over each other.
1 11 1,phite can be used as a solid lubricant because

that of diamond?
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ord inated Sciences
/\tom that share electrons can form giant covalent structures called
m cromolecules. These have very high melting points because their
, Loms are l i n ked together with strong covalent bonds.
Metals conduct heat and electricity because their structures contai n
delocalised (free) electrons. The layers o f atoms i n metals are able t o slide
over each other. This is why we can bend and shape metals.
·1 • ·.
�
Figu re C3.35 S u m m a ry of the d ifferent types of structure.
• .
You should know:
how the Period ic Table lists the elements of the
• •
U niverse in order of i ncreasing proton n u m ber
a bout the d ifferent characteristics of metallic and non-
•
meta llic elements
how the Periodic Table is divided into vertical grou ps
and horizontal periods, with clear trends in properties
•
as we move down a group or across a period
that certai n grou ps, such as the a lkali metals (Grou p I)
and the ha logens (Group VII), have d istinctive
names and conta i n the most reactive metals and
•
non-metals respectively
how the structures of all su bstances a re m ade up of
• •
atoms, ions or molecules
a bout the three m a i n types of bonding th at hold these
•
structures together:
•
meta llic bonding
•
ionic bonding
covalent bonding
a bout covalent bo ndi ng, which occurs in some
elements and non-metallic com pounds and i nvolves
■
Su bstances that consist of s i me le molecules have relatively low meltin&
points and boiling points.
This is because there a re o n ly weak forces between the molecules.
They don't conduct electricity.
,.,
Compounds made from ions a re called ionic compounds . The ions are
a rranged in a giant lattice. Ionic compou nds have very high melting
points and boiling points.
When they are d issolved in water or melted, they can conduct electricity
This is because their ions a re free to move about and carry the current.
the 'shari ng' of electrons between atoms to form
stable molecules
how covalent bonding prod uces two types of
structure - simple molecules and giant covalent
•
(macromolecular) structures
that electrostatic forces of attraction between pos·
and negative ions a re the basis of ion ic bo nding i n
•
compounds between metals and non-metals
how the physical properties of a su bstance are re
•
to the type of bon d i ng present
that diamond and graphite are two d ifferent for
carbon with different giant covalent structures a
d istinctly d ifferent properties
that alloys can be made to show properties that a
adapted to a particular purpose; for exa m ple, st
(steel), resistance to corrosion (stain less steel) or
•
melting point
a bout metallic bonding in which the closely pack
metal atoms lose their outer electrons into a 'sea'
mobile electrons
 how the closely packed structure of metals can explain about the differences in structure and properties
the characteristic properties of metals, and how one between sim ple molecula r and giant m olecular
■
metal can strengthen another when the two fonn an alloy cova lent structu res.
about the natu re of ionic lattices an d how it gives rise
to the properties of salts

End-of-chapter questions
1 a Select elements fro m the list be low to co m p lete the left-hand colu m n in the table shown.
Each element may be used o n ce, more than o nce or n ot at a l l.
a lum i n i um c h lorine cop pe r
heliu m potassiu m sulfur

Elem ent I Use of e le m ent

fi lling weather ba lloons
making food containers
steri lising d ri n k i n g water
b The fo llowi n g table shows properties of fou r elements A, B, C a nd D.
[ 3]

Elem ent Me lti n g Electrical Reaction

I
I point/ °C I co nductivity with water
A high none
B
-39
-220 very low reacts q u ickly
C -112 very low none
D 181 high reacts q u ickly

Use the i nfo rmation in the table to suggest which of the elements A, B, C a n d D could be:
non-meta ls, [1]
ii a n element in G roup O of the Periodic Ta b le, [1]
i i i a n element i n G ro u p I of the Periodic Ta b le. [1]

[Cambridge !GCSE Co-ordinated Sciences 0654 Paper 22 Ql a & b June 2014)

2 The diagra m be low shows the elements in a period of the Periodic Ta b le.

Li Be B C N 0 F Ne

a To which period of the Periodic Ta b le do these eleme nts belong? [1]

b Answer these q uestions using o n ly the elements shown i n the diagra m . Each element can be
used once, m o re than o nce o r not at all.
Write d own the sym b o l for the element which:
has six electrons i n its o uter shell
ii is a h a logen
i i i is a metal which reacts rapidly with cold water
iv has two forms, graph ite a n d d iamond
v is i n G ro u p I I of the Periodic Ta b le
vi m a kes u p a bout 80% of the a i r. [6 ]
(continued)
_....,
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

\\
c Write o u t a n d co m p lete the fo l lowing sentence using words from the list b elow.
atoms electrons m o lecu les neutrons protons
The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of the elem ents in the Peri odic Ta ble are a rra n ged in order of i n creasing
,.
/'

n u m ber of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2 ]
[Cambridge /GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 21 Ql November 2010}

3 An element is a su bsta n ce that is m a d e of atoms which h ave the same p roton n u m ber.
M ost ato ms conta i n p rotons, n e utron s a n d e lectrons.

a Name the element whose ato m s do n ot usua lly conta i n any neutrons. [ 1]
b The electronic structures (co nfigu rations) of ato m s of three elements, P, Q a n d R,
a re shown below.

P 2,8,1 Q 2,8 R 2,7

Use the electro n ic structu res to state and expla i n the gro u p n u m bers in the Periodic Ta ble
that contain elem ents P, Q and R.
P G roup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Q G ro u p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R G ro u p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
explanation [2]
ii State and explain which of the elem ents, P, Q or R, is the least reactive. [1]
iii State and explain which one of the elements, P, Q or R, is a good co n d u cto r of e lectricity. [1]
I 242
{Cambridge /GCSE Combined Science 0653 Poper 22 Q2 a & b June 2012}

4 The follow i n g is a list of the electro n d istributions of ato m s of u n known elements. ,

Element I Electron distri bution

A 2,5
B 2 ,8,4
C 2,8,8,2
D 2,8,18,8
E 2,8,18,8,1
F 2,8,18,18,7
a Choose a n element from the list for each of the fo llowing descri ptions.
It is a noble gas.
ii It is a soft meta l with a low density.
iii It c a n form a cova lent compound with element A.
iv It has a giant cova lent structure similar to d i a m o nd.
v It can form a negative i o n of the type X3-. [5)
b Elements C and F can form a n ionic co m po u n d .
D raw a diagra m that shows t h e formula o f t h i s c o m p o u n d , t h e charges o n t h e i o n s and
the a rrangement of the va lency electrons a ro u nd the negative ion. Use o to represent a n
electron from a n ato m of C. U s e x t o represent a n electron from a n a t o m o f F. [3)
i i Pred ict two p ro perties o f this co mpound. [2]
{Cambridge /GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 31 Q3 June 200 /
a The table below shows Period 2 of the Period ic Ta ble.

J■x •·•···••t••1wI•1•u111,w
IA§l@f11_ 1 ]' 77 17
v L2 1
The e lement represented by X is a solid at room temperatu re a n d the ele ments represented
by Y a n d Z a re gases.
Su ggest �_ri e d ifference, other than physical state at room tem pe rat ure, between
the properties of elements X an d Y.
Su ggest one d ifference between the chemical properties of elements Y and Z.
[1]
ii
Sodi u m chloride is a com pound of the a lkali m eta l sod i u m a n d the h a logen chlori ne.
[1]

Explain why the elem ents sod i u m and ch lori ne a re o n ly ever fou n d combined with othe r
b

elements i n t h e Ea rth's crust.

Descri be the changes in electron config uration when sod i u m atoms (2,8,1) react with
[1]
ii
c hlorine atoms (2,8,7) to form sod i u m chloride. [2]