The Endocrine System 5.

Activate genes that result in synthesis of new

 Second messenger system of the body proteins
 Uses chemical messages (hormones) that
are released into the blood
 Hormones control several major processes
▪ Reproduction
▪ Growth and development
▪ Mobilization of body defenses
▪ Maintenance of much of homeostasis
▪ Regulation of metabolism
Hormone Overview
► Hormones are produced by specialized cells
► Cells secrete hormones into extracellular
fluids
► Blood transfers hormones to target sites Nonsteroid Hormone Action
► These hormones regulate the activity of  Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
other cells  Hormone does not enter the cell
The Chemistry of Hormones  Sets off a series of reactions that activates
 Amino acid-based hormones an enzyme
▪ Proteins  Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second
▪ Peptides messenger molecule
▪ Amines  Oversees additional intracellular changes to
 Steroids – made from cholesterol promote a specific response
 Prostaglandins – made from highly active Nonsteroid Hormone Action
lipids
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
 Hormones affect only certain tissues or
organs (target cells or organs)
 Target cells must have specific protein
receptors
 Hormone binding influences the working of
the cells
Effects Caused by Hormones
 Changes in plasma membrane permeability
or electrical state
 Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes 1. Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
 Activation or inactivation of enzymes 2. Hormone does not enter the cell
 Stimulation of mitosis 3. Sets off a series of reactions that activates an
Steroid Hormone Action enzyme
 Diffuse through the plasma membrane of 4. Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second
target cells messenger
 Enter the nucleus molecule
 Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus 5. Oversees additional intracellular changes to
 Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA promote a specific
 Activate genes that result in synthesis of response
new proteins Control of Hormone Release
Steroid Hormone Action  Hormone levels in the blood are
1. Diffuse through the plasma membrane of maintained by negative feedback
target cells  A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
2. Enter the nucleus blood triggers the release of more
3. Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus hormone
4. Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood is reached
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
 Endocrine glands are activated by other
hormones
Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
 Changing blood levels of certain ions
stimulate hormone release
Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
 Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
 Most are under control of the sympathetic
nervous system
Location of Major Endrocrine Organs
Pituitary Gland
 Size of a grape
 Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
 Protected by the sphenoid bone
 Has two functional lobes
▪ Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
▪ Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Six anterior pituitary hormones
▪ Two affect non-endocrine targets
▪ Four stimulate other endocrine glands
(tropic hormones)
 Characteristics of all anterior pituitary
hormones
▪ Proteins (or peptides)
▪ Act through second-messenger
systems
▪ Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly
negative feedback
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH)
 General metabolic hormone
 Major effects are directed to growth of
skeletal muscles and long bones
 Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 Causes fats to be broken down for a source
of energy
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones

 Prolactin (PRL)
→ Stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth
→ Function in males is unknown
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
→ Regulates endocrine activity of the
adrenal cortex
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
→ Influences growth and activity of the PINEAL GLAND (EPIPHYSIS CEREBRI)
thyroid  Located at the caudal end of the
 Gonadotropic hormones diencephalon of the brain
→ Regulate hormonal activity of the  Consist of cells called pinealocytes
gonads  Hormone secreted: Melatonin derived
▪ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from serotonin (promote sleepiness)
▫ Stimulates follicle development
in ovaries
▫ Stimulates sperm development
in testes
▪ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
▫ Triggers ovulation
▫ Causes ruptured follicle to
become the corpus luteum
▫ Stimulates testosterone
production in males
◦ Referred to as interstitial
cell-stimulating hormone THYROID GLAND
(ICSH)  located in the lower part of the anterior
neck, with a pair of lobes connected in the
Pituitary - Hypothalamus Relationship
midline by an isthmus.
 Release of hormones is controlled by
 contains follicles, which secrete 2 thyroid
releasing and inhibiting hormones
hormones:
produced by the hypothalamus
▪ Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid
 Hypothlamus produces two hormones that
follicles
are transorted to neurosecretory cells of
▪ Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of
the posterior pituitary
T4 at target tissues
 The poterior pituitary is not strictly an
 Actions of thyroid hormones:
endocrine gland, but does release
1. Increase basal metabolic rate
hormones
2. Help maintain normal body
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary temperature
 Oxytocin  Also secretes thyrocalcitonin secreted by
→ Stimulates contractions of the uterus the parafollicular cells which helps
during labor regulate calcium homeostasis
→ Causes milk ejection
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
→ Can inhibit urine production
→ In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction
leading to increased blood pressure
(vasopressin)

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.

PARATHYROID GLANDS
 2 pairs of yellow glands closely related to
the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
 Secretes: Parathyroid
hormone/Parathormone which directly
elevate blood calcium
 Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium
from bone
 Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium
ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS
 A pair of glands resting on top of each
kidney.
 2 layers :
1. Adrenal cortex
 Secretions:
A. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone and
deoxycortisones)
→ regulate fluids and electrolytes
→ help adjust blood pressure and blood
volume
B. Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisone)
→ Regulate metabolism and resistance to
stress
C. Androgens
→ Promotes libido in females and are
converted to estrogen. It also stimulates
growth of axillary and pubic hairs in boys
and girls and contribute to the prepubertal
growth spurt
2. Adrenal Medulla
 Secretes : cathecolamine, epinephrine and
norepinephrine
 produces effects that enhance those of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system during stress.
PANCREAS
 pistol-shaped flattened organ, the head
part of which is enclosed by the
duodenum, the body at the back of
stomach and tail related with spleen.
 The endocrine portion of the pancreas
consists of the cells of the Islets of
Langerhans scattered among the exocrine
acini.
 Cell populations found in the pancreatic
islets:
1. Alpha cells – produces glucagon, which
increases blood glucose levels when it falls
below normal.
2. Beta cells – produce insulin, helps lower blood
glucose levels when it is too high
3. Delta cells – produce somatostatin which
inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon and
slows absorption of nutrients from the
gastrointestinal tract
4. F cells – secrete pancreatic polypeptides
GONADS
 Are the organs that produces gamates –
sperms in amles and oocytes in females.
 The female gonad is the ovary, a pair of
oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity.
 The male gonad, the testes are oval glands
that lie in the scrotal sac.
TESTES
 the initial cells of Leydig in the testes
secretes these androgens:
1. Testosterone
2. Androstenedione
3. Dehydrotestosterone
 Its main hormone testosterone :
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 ▪ regulates production of sperm
▪ stimulates the development
▪ maintenance of masculine secondary
sex characteristics
◦ beard growth and deepening of
the voice
OVARIES
 the follicular cells of the ovarian follicle
secrete estrogen and the corpus luteum
secretes progesterone.
▪ ESTROGEN
● Produced by Graafian follicles or the
placenta
● Matures female reproductive organs
● Regulate oogenesis
● Helps prepare the uterus to receive a
fertilized egg
● maintain pregnancy
● prepare the mammary land for
lactation
● promote development
● maintenance of female secondary sex
characteristics.
▪ PROGESTERONE
● Produced by the corpus luteum
● these hormones regulate the female
reproductive cycle.
● Helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus
Hormones of the Thyroid Gland
Thyroid Hormone
 Major metabolic hormone
 Composed of two active iodine
containing hormones :
● Thyroxine (T4 ) – secreted by thyroid
follicles
● Triiodothyronine (T3 ) – conversion of
T4 at target tissues
Calcitonin
 Decreases blood calcium levels by causing
its deposition on bone
 Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
 Produced by C (parafollicular) cells
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
→ Produced in outer adrenal cortex
→ Regulate mineral content in
blood, water, and electrolyte
balance
→ Target organ is the kidney
→ Production stimulated by renin
and aldosterone
→ Production inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide
 Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and
cortisol)
→ Produced in the middle layer of
the adrenal cortex
→ Promote normal cell metabolism
→ Help resist long-term stressors
→ Released in response to
increased blood levels of ACTH
 Sex hormones
→ Produced in the inner layer of
the adrenal cortex
→ Androgens (male) and some
estrogen (female)
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
 Produces two similar hormones
(catecholamines)
▪ Epinephrine
▪ Norepinephrine
 These hormones prepare the body to
deal with short-term stress
Roles of the Hypothalamus and
Adrenal
Glands in the Stress Response
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.

Pancreatic Islets
 The pancreas is a mixed gland
 The islets of the pancreas produce
Hormones:
▪ Insulin – allows glucose to cross
plasma
membranes into cells from beta cells
▪ Glucagon – allows glucose to enter
the
blood from alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar
Pineal Gland
 Found on the third ventricle of the brain
 Secretes melatonin
→ Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep
cycles
→ May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated
functions
Thymus
 Located posterior to the sternum
 Largest in infants and children
 Produces thymosin
▪ Matures some types of white blood
cells
▪ Important in developing the immune
system
Hormones of the Ovaries
 Estrogens
→ Produced by Graafian follicles or the
placenta
→ Stimulates the development of
secondary female characteristics
→ Matures female reproductive organs
→ Helps prepare the uterus to receive
fertilized egg
→ Helps maintain pregnancy
→ Prepares the breasts to produce milk
 Progesterone
→ Produced by the corpus luteum
→ Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
→ Helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus
Hormones of the Testes
 Interstitial cells of testes are hormone
producing
 Produce several androgens
 Testosterone is the most important
androgen
→ Responsible for adult male secondary
sex characteristics
→ Promotes growth and maturation of
male reproductive system
→ Required for sperm cell production
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues
and Organs
 Parts of the small intestine
 Parts of the stomach
▪  Kidneys
▪  Heart
 Many other areas have scattered endocrine
cells
Endocrine Function of the Placenta
 Produces hormones that maintain the
pregnancy
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 Some hormones play a part in the delivery ▪ Extreme overproduction of thyroxine
of the baby results:
 Produces HCG in addition to estrogen, ▪ high basal metabolic rate
progesterone, and other hormones ▪ intolerance of heat
Developmental Aspects of the ▪ rapid heartbeat
Endocrine System ▪ weight loss
 Most endocrine organs operate smoothly ▪ nervous
until old age ▪ agitated behavior
 Menopause is brought about by lack of ▪ inability to relax.
efficiency of the ovaries ▪ thyroid gland enlarges
 Problems associated with reduced estrogen ▪ the eyes may bulge
are common ▪ treated surgically by removal of part of the
 Growth hormone production declines with thyroid
age ▪ chemically with thyroid-blocking drugs or
 Many endocrine glands decrease output radioactive iodine,
with age ● which destroy some of the
HORMONAL IMBALANCES thyroid cells.
 negative feedback mechanisms  Addison’s disease
→ the chief means of regulating blood levels → hyposecretion of all the adrenal cortex
of nearly all hormones hormones
 pituitary dwarfism → a peculiar bronze tone of the skin
→ Hyposecretion of GH during childhood  diabetes mellitus
 gigantism → cells cannot use glucose, fats and even
→ Hypersecretion during childhood proteins are broken down and used to
→ individual becomes extremely tall meet the energy requirements of the body
 sterility → three cardinal signs of diabetes mellitus :
→ Hyposecretion of FSH or LH ▪ Polyuria
in both males and females → excessive urination to flush out
 goiters the glucose and ketones
→ enlargement of the thyroid gland that ▪ Polydipsia
results when the diet is deficient in iodine → excessive thirst resulting from
 cretinism water loss
→ results in dwarfism in which adult body ▪ polyphagia
proportions remain childlike → hunger due to inability to use sugars
→ the head and trunk are about 1½ times the and the loss of fat and proteins from
length of the legs the body
 myxedema  acidosis
→ characterized by both physical and mental → blood becomes very acidic as
sluggishness ketones appear in the blood
→ Other signs:  insulin resistance
▪ puffiness of the face → insulin receptors are unable to
▪ fatigue respond
▪ poor muscle tone
▪ low body temperature (the  hyperaldosteronism
person is always cold) → Hyperactivity of the outermost cortical area
▪ obesity → Excessive water and sodium are retained
▪ dry skin. leading to high blood pressure and edema
→ Oral thyroxine is prescribed to treat this  Cushing’s syndrome
condition. → the tumor is in the middle cortical area or
 Hyperthyroidism the client has been receiving
▪ results from a tumor of the thyroid gland pharmacological doses of glucocorticoids
to counteract inflammatory disease
 Graves’ disease
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
→ one form of hyperthyroidism → PTH causes an increase in serum Ca++ by the
 masculinization ff:
→ Hypersecretion of the sex hormones 1. Stimulates osteoclasts to remove Ca++ from
 Effects in females the bone
▪ beard develops 2. Stimulates loss of Ca++ in urine . PTH also
▪ masculine pattern of body hair stimulates the production of active vitamin
 Hyperinsulinism D in the kidneys.
→ excessive insulin secretion 3. Increases Ca++ absorption from food in the
→ results in low blood glucose levels, or intestine ,via its effect on Vitamin D
hypoglycemia. metabolism.
→ This condition triggers the release of
hyperglycemic hormones, which cause SUMMARY OF THE
anxiety, nervousness, tremors, and PARATHYROID HORMONES
weakness.
 Polydipsia TISSUES HORMONES TARGET EFFECTS
→ Dehydration stimulates hypothalamic thirst OF THE
PARATHYR
centers OID
→ excessive thirst 1. Chief cells Parathormone stimulates Increases
 polyphagia or
Hypercalcemic
osteoclast
activity in
calcium in
body fluids
→ excessive hunger Hormone bones and by causing
→ food consumption, a sign that the person is kidneys bone
“starving in the land of plenty.” resorption
or bone
SUMMARY OF THE THYROID demineraliza
tion
HORMONES
TISSUES HORMONES TARGET EFFECTS SUMMARY OF THE ADRENAL
OF THE
THYROID
CORTEX
1. Follicular T3 Most cells Conversion
Epithelium (Triiodothyronine) of the of T4 to T3 at TISSUES OF HORMONES TARG EFFECTS
THE ET
body target
ADRENAL
T4 (Thyroxine) tissues & CORTEX
increases 1. Zona Mineralococoticoids kidney Increase
energy Glomerulos (aldosterone) renal
utilization , a reabsoption
O2 of Na & H2O ;
consumption accelerate
& dev’t urinary loss
of K+
TISSUES OF HORMONE TARGET EFFECTS
THE S TISSUES OF HORMONES TARGE EFFECTS
THYROID THE T
2. Parafollicul Calcitonin or 1. Stimulate -decreases ADRENAL
ar Cells or C Thyrocalcitoni s osteoblast calcium CORTEX
cells n activity in concentratio 2. Zona Glucocorticoids Most Promote liver
the bones n in body fasciculata (corticosterone) cells of formation of
2. kidneys fluids by the glucose &
depositing it body glycogen;
in the bones release
amino acids
-has from skeletal
antagonistic muscles; it
effect to the has anti-
Parathyroid inflammatory
hormone effects

TISSUES OF HORMONES TARGE EFFECTS

PARATHYROID GLANDS THE T
ADRENAL
CORTEX
→ Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid 3. Zona androgens Most Uncertain

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
reticularis cells significance

SUMMARY OF THE ADRENAL

MEDULLA
HORMONES TARGET EFFECTS

1. Catecholamines Most cells Increased pulse

(Epinephrine or rate , increased
Norepinephrine) BP ; glycogen
breakdown ,bro
nchodilation
potent
vasoconstrictor

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.