Hallik PHD Final Raamatukogust

DOCTORAL THESIS
On Design Principles and

Calculation Methods Related
to Air Leakages and Thermal
Bridges in Well-insulated
Building Envelopes
Jaanus Hallik
TALLINNA TEHNIKAÜLIKOOL
TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
TALLINN 2022
DOCTORAL THESIS
28/2022
On Design Principles and Calculation

Methods Related to Air Leakages and
Thermal Bridges in Well-insulated
Building Envelopes
JAANUS HALLIK
School of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture
This dissertation was accepted for the defence of the PhD degree 20/05/2022
Supervisor: Prof. Targo Kalamees

Nearly Zero Energy Buildings Research Group
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture
School of Engineering
Tallinn University of Technology
Tallinn, Estonia
Opponents: Prof. Tore Kvande

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Norway
Prof. Raimondas Bliūdžius

Institute of Architecture and Construction
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
Defence of the thesis: 17/06/2022, Tallinn
Declaration:
Hereby I declare that this doctoral thesis, my original investigation and achievement,
submitted for the doctoral degree at Tallinn University of Technology has not been submitted
for doctoral or equivalent academic degree elsewhere.
Jaanus Hallik
Signature
Copyright: Jaanus Hallik, 2022

ISSN 2585-6898 (publication)
ISBN 978-9949-83-833-2 (publication)
ISSN 2585-6901 (PDF)
ISBN 978-9949-83-834-9 (PDF)
TALLINNA TEHNIKAÜLIKOOL
DOKTORITÖÖ
28/2022
Õhulekete ja külmasildade mõju hindamise

ja arvutamise põhimõtted hästi soojustatud
piirdetarindite projekteerimisel
JAANUS HALLIK
Contents
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... 7
Symbols ............................................................................................................................. 8
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 10
Lühikokkuvõte ................................................................................................................. 12
List of publications .......................................................................................................... 14
Author’s contribution to the publications ...................................................................... 15
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 16
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 16
1.2 Objectives and content of the study ......................................................................... 17
1.3 New knowledge and practical application ................................................................ 21
1.4 Limitations of the study ............................................................................................ 22
2 Heat loss of building envelopes ................................................................................... 23
2.1 In general .................................................................................................................. 23
2.2 Heat loss and thermal transmittance in well insulated building envelopes ............. 24
2.2.1 Airtightness and factors affecting it ....................................................................... 26
2.2.2 Air leakages of joints between building components ............................................ 27
2.2.3 Additional heat loss due to air cavities inside the insulation layer ........................ 27
2.2.4 Thermal bridging .................................................................................................... 29
3 Methods ....................................................................................................................... 32
3.1 Airtightness in Estonian wooden buildings ............................................................... 32
3.1.1 Studied buildings .................................................................................................... 32
3.1.2 Measurements ....................................................................................................... 33
3.1.3 Statistical analysis and calculation of base values ................................................. 33
3.2 Air leakage of joints ................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1 Studied joints ......................................................................................................... 34
3.2.2 Measurements ....................................................................................................... 35
3.2.3 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................. 37
3.3 Heat loss due to cavities within the insulation layer ................................................ 38
3.3.1 Experimental study in a climate chamber for model validation ............................ 38
3.3.2 Simplified thermal transmittance correction (EN ISO 6946) .................................. 39
3.3.3 Description of model geometry ............................................................................. 40
3.3.4 Computational fluid dynamics analysis .................................................................. 42
3.3.5 Calculation of annual heat loss in different climate conditions ............................. 42
3.4 Assessment of combined thermal bridges ................................................................ 43
3.4.1 Numerical finite element analysis .......................................................................... 43
3.4.2 Studied geometry of thermal bridges .................................................................... 44
3.4.3 Description of whole building model geometry..................................................... 46
3.5 A new method for estimating point thermal transmittance ..................................... 47
3.5.1 Numerical finite element analysis .......................................................................... 47
3.5.2 Description of the assessed thermal bridging elements ........................................ 48
3.5.3 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................. 51
4 Results .......................................................................................................................... 52
4.2 Air leakage of joints sealed with PU foam................................................................. 56
5
4.3.1 Observed installation situations............................................................................. 60
4.3.2 Validation of the CFD model .................................................................................. 63
4.3.3 Convective heat loss of penetrating air cavities .................................................... 64
4.3.4 The effect of air cavities in dual-layer insulation with a rebate edge or partial
filling with PU foam ......................................................................................................... 66
4.3.5 The effect of triangular air cavities ........................................................................ 67
4.3.6 Heat loss of a building envelope with cavities in different climate conditions ...... 67
4.4 Assessment of combined thermal bridges ................................................................ 69
4.4.1 The effect of flanking element length .................................................................... 69
4.4.2 Simplification of combined thermal bridges .......................................................... 74
4.5 Simplified estimation of point thermal transmittance.............................................. 75
4.5.1 The effect of thermal properties ............................................................................ 75
4.5.2 Model fitting .......................................................................................................... 77
5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 79
5.2 Air leakage of joints sealed with PU foam................................................................. 80
5.4 Possible simplifications regarding thermal bridging ................................................. 85
6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 87
References ...................................................................................................................... 89
PUBLICATION I................................................................................................................. 97
PUBLICATION II.............................................................................................................. 107
PUBLICATION III............................................................................................................. 125
PUBLICATION IV ............................................................................................................ 135
PUBLICATION V ............................................................................................................. 147
Curriculum vitae ............................................................................................................ 172
Elulookirjeldus ............................................................................................................... 174
6
Abbreviations
ach Air change per hour, m-1
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
ASHRAE
Engineers
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
EPC Energy performance certificate
EPS Expanded polystyrene
ETICS External thermal insulation composite system
FD Finite difference
FE Finite element
IL 0 Installation level 0
IWEC International Weather for Energy Calculations
LBNL Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory
nZEB Nearly zero energy building
PIR Polyisocyanurate
PU Polyurethane
PU OCF Polyurethane one-component foam
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
PW Planed wooden surface
SW Sawn wooden surface
7
Symbols
A Area, m2
C Flow coefficient, m3/(h·Pan)
Correction factor based on the level of insulation installation
∆U’’
quality, W/(m2·K)
∆Ug Correction term for air cavities, W/(m2·K)
hadd Additional length of the point thermal bridge, m
heq Equivalent length of the point thermal bridge, m
hTB Actual length of the point thermal bridge, m
Hd Direct heat transfer coefficient, W/K
Htr Transmission heat transfer coefficient, W/K
Hve Air leakage heat transfer coefficient, W/K
K Number of point thermal bridges
L Length, m
Thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a two-dimensional
L2D
numerical calculation, W/(m·K)
Thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a two-dimensional
L2Dref
numerical calculation without thermal bridge, W/(m·K)
Thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a three-dimensional
L3D
numerical calculation, W/K
Thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a three-dimensional
L3Dref
numerical calculation without thermal bridge, W/K
n Number of measurements
n Flow exponent, -
n50 Leakage air change rate at 50 Pa air pressure difference, h-1
P Air pressure, Pa
q Heat flux, W/m2
q50 Air leakage rate at 50 Pa air pressure difference, m3/(h·m2)
q50,base Base value of air leakage rate, m3/(h·m2)
Annual heat loss through 1 m2 of the building envelope,
QH
kWh/(m²·a)
qv Air leakage rate through the building envelope, m3/s
R1 Thermal resistance of insulation layer, (m2·K)/W
cp Specific heat capacity of air, J/(Kg·K)
Rse Thermal resistance of external surface, (m2·K)/W
Rsi Thermal resistance of internal surface, (m2·K)/W
8
Total thermal resistance of building envelope component,
Rtot
(m2·K)/W
U Thermal transmittance, W/(m2·K)
Corrected thermal transmittance according to EN ISO 6946,
Uc
W/(m2·K)
Corrected thermal transmittance for installation quality level 0
Uc0
according to EN ISO 6946, W/(m2·K)
Uc1
Uc2
Corrected thermal transmittance according to numerical
UCFD
calculation, W/(m2·K)
Variable thermal transmittance of the building envelope depending
UCh on the temperature difference between the interior and exterior
temperatures, W/(m²·K)
V100 Leakage air flow rate at 100 Pa air pressure difference, m3/h
V� Air flow, m3/h
Greek letters
∆ Delta, difference
χ Point thermal transmittance, W/K
λ Thermal conductivity, W/(m·K)
σ Standard deviation
Ψ Linear thermal transmittance, W/m2·K
Θe Exterior temperature, °C
Θi Interior temperature, °C
ρair Density of air, kg/m3
9
Abstract
On design principles and calculation methods related to air
leakages and thermal bridges in well-insulated building
envelopes
Minimising heat transfer through the building envelope in nZEBs assumes careful
optimisation of building fabric performance. Increased insulation thickness introduces
new challenges because thermal bridges and air leakages contribute to a significantly
high proportion of overall heat loss while also creating a risk of moisture accumulation
inside the construction and deterioration of the building structure.
Underestimation of air leakages, thermal bridging and the effect of nonidealities
inside the insulation layer along with non-ideal workmanship can lead to significantly
higher heat losses than estimated for otherwise well-insulated building envelopes. This
contributes to a performance gap, where targeted energy performance of the building is
not met in practice. Minimising heat loss through air leakages and thermal bridging is
challenging, mainly because widely used methods and empirical solutions are too
imprecise in the case of well-insulated building envelopes while experimental knowledge
and more detailed methods are too complex and time-consuming to implement in
practical design process.
The objective of this thesis is to assess and further develop current normative
methods used to estimate the heat loss through gaps, cavities and other nonidealities
along with penetrating thermal bridging elements in well-insulated building envelopes
with greater accuracy in limited time and resource conditions. For future practical use
and predictive modelling the whole building and joint air leakage rates were measured,
statistically assessed and tabulated by effecting factors for situations where direct
measurement is not possible.
According to field measurements the airtightness of Estonian wooden buildings has
improved by a factor of 10 since the minimum requirements for energy efficiency took
effect. The median air leakage rate for buildings erected since 2009 is 1.1 m3/(h·m2) with
base value for energy performance calculation of 3.0 m3/(h·m2). Prefabrication with the
light-weight timber construction technology seems to be superior to on-site or
traditional timber log building with the lowest calculated base value of 1.6 m3/(h·m2) for
this group of buildings. The compactness factor and number of storeys did not have a
significant effect on air leakage referring to the fact that if systematic quality assurance
with a proper airtightness concept is used, the geometric and structural complexity of
the building envelope will no longer be a key factor for achieving airtightness.
Wooden test specimens representing typical joints in building envelope with planed,
sawn and plastic-coated cavities and two cavity thicknesses were filled with three
different polyurethane (PU) foams and tested for air leakages according to standard EN
12114 in laboratory conditions. The surface property and thickness of the joint had a
significant effect on the air leakage of joints filled with PU foam. In laboratory conditions
consistent and a very low air leakage rate was obtained with planed timber surfaces.
Joints with plastic-coated and sawn timber surfaces performed worse by a factor of 2 or
more on average and contributed to a very variable airtightness with up to 28 % and 50 %
test specimens failing the airtightness testing.
Even if air leakages are minimised through proper sealing, additional heat loss will still
occur in small gaps and cavities inside the insulation layer caused by varying
10
manufacturing tolerances, thermal contraction of the material and poor workmanship,
especially in the case of more complex building geometry. Numerical analysis indicated
that the additional heat loss induced by air cavities between insulation boards due to
nonidealities is highly dependent on the cavity diameter and temperature difference.
Penetrating vertical air cavities with 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm diameters will increase
the thermal transmittance in the wall construction by up to 10 %, 33 % and 59 % at 40 K
temperature difference. In roof construction the effect is even more adverse, and a
simplified method presented in EN ISO 6946 Annex F fails to describe this. The current
thesis points out certain insulation solutions that should be reclassified in the standard
that is in force today.
Parametric numerical assessment of different thermal bridges in a well-insulated
construction was carried out to study the effect of minimal flanking element length in
the numerical heat flow calculation and the possibility of simplifying the assessment of
combined thermal bridges in steady-state conditions. In the case of a well-insulated
building envelope, the sufficient length of the flanking element to adequately describe
the linear thermal transmittance in a steady-state situation is equal to approximately its
thickness. The shorter distance to the adiabatic cut-off plane suggested in this study can
be used to disaggregate more complex thermal bridges with multiple combined
junctions, allowing the separation of the thermal bridges, which can then be summed up
arithmetically and thus reducing the need for separate calculation by up to 76 %.
The current thesis proposes a new method for the estimation of point thermal
transmittance of composite (metal + other materials) elements, such as metal angles
with plastic thermal brakes or timber, fixation anchors etc. inside the wall construction
by combining results from two separate two-dimensional numerical heat flow calculations.
11
Lühikokkuvõte
Õhulekete ja külmasildade mõju hindamise ja arvutamise
põhimõtted hästi soojustatud piirdetarindite
projekteerimisel
Piirdetarindite soojuskadude vähendamine energiatõhusates liginullenergiahoonetes
eeldab piirdetarindi toimivuse hoolikat kavandamist. Paksema soojustuskihi ning
suurenenud soojustakistuse tõttu suureneb õhulekete ja külmasildade olulisus tarindi
kogusoojuskaos.
Õhulekete ja külmasildade tegeliku mõju alahindamine ning soojustuskihi
ebaideaalsustega mitte arvestamine võib kaasa tuua oluliselt suurema soojuskao kui
paksu soojustuskihiga piirdetarindi puhul eeldada võiks ning eesmärgiks seatud hoone
energiatõhususe tase jääb seetõttu praktikas saavutamata. Külmasildadest ja
õhuleketest tingitud soojuskadude hindamine on praktikas probleemiks, sest kasutusel
olevad tavapärased lihtmeetodid jäävad hästi soojustatud piirdetarindite puhul
ebatäpseks ning detailsemad analüüsimeetodid on sageli liiga komplekssed ja
aeganõudvad tavaprojekteerimisel rakendamiseks.
Käesoleva doktoritöö eesmärk on hinnata soojustusesiseste pragude ja külmasildade
mõju arvestamisel praegu kasutusel olevate standardiseeritud meetodite adekvaatsust
ning neid edasi arendada moel, mis võimaldaks hästi soojustatud piirdetarindite korral
soojuskadude kiiret ja täpsemat analüüsi. Õhulekkearvu ennustamiseks või
modelleerimiseks olukorras, kus hoone otsene mõõtmine ei ole võimalik määrati ja
tabuleeriti suure hulga mõõtmiste baasil olulisemate mõjutegurite järgi õhulekkearvu
baasväärtused nii tervikhoonete kui paisuva polüuretaanvahuga täidetud
vuugilahenduste kohta.
Käesolevast doktoritööst selgus, et Eesti puithoonete õhupidavus on pärast
energiatõhususe miinimumnõuete kehtestamist 2009. aastal ligi kümnekordselt
paranenud. Uuemate puithoonete õhulekkearv on keskmiselt (mediaanväärtus)
1.1 m3/(h·m2) ning sellele vastav õhulekkearvu baasväärtus 3.0 m3/(h·m2) hõlmates 75 %
valimist 84 % usaldusintervalliga. Kergkonstruktsioonis hoonete tehaseline tootmine
tagab seejuures oluliselt parema õhupidavuse võrreldes platsiehitusega või
traditsiooniliste tehaseliselt toodetud palkhoonetega, tagades vaadeldud mõjutegurite
lõikes madalaima õhulekkearvu baasväärtuse tasemel 1.6 m3/(h·m2). Hoone kompaktsus
ja korruselisus hoone õhupidavusele olulist mõju ei avaldanud, mis näitab, et
läbimõeldud tihenduslahenduste ning süsteemse kvaliteedikontrolli tingimustes ei sõltu
hoone õhupidavus enam oluliselt hoone arhitektuurse lahenduse või konstruktsiooni
keerukusest.
Paisuva polüuretaanvahuga täidetud vuukide õhulekke laboratoorsel mõõtmisel leiti,
et vuugi pinna omadused ning vuugi laius mõjutavad oluliselt vahuga täidetud vuugi
õhupidavust. Hööveldatud puitpinnaga vuukide puhul täheldati laboritingimustes väga
madalat õhulekkemäära ühtlaselt kõigi katsekehade lõikes. Plastikkattega ning saetud
puitpinnaga vuukide puhul oli õhulekkemäär enam kui kaks korda kõrgem ning kuni 28 %
ja 50 % vastavatest katsekehadest lekkisid seejuures kontrollimatult.
Lisaks otsesele õhulekkele tekib hästi soojustatud piirdetarindis täiendav soojuskadu
ka soojustusplaatide vahel esinevate suletud õhutühimike tõttu. Sellised tühimikud
tekivad materjali toomisel ja lõikamisel esinevate võimalike tolerantside,
mahukahanemise ning ebaühtlase töökvaliteedi tõttu ning võivad varieeruda mõnest
12
mõnekümne millimeetrini. Arvutuslik analüüsi näitas, et tühimikusisesest õhuringlusest
ja kiirgusülekandest tingitud täiendav soojuskadu on tugevalt sõltuv tühimiku laiusest ja
temperatuuride erinevusest sise- ja väliskeskkonnna vahel. Läbivad vertikaalsed 5 mm,
10 mm ja 20 mm laiusega praod välisseina soojustuskihis suurendavad soojusläbivust
vastavalt 10 %, 33 % ja 59 % kui temperatuuride erinevus sise- ja väliskeskkonna vahel
on 40 K. Katusekonstruktsioonis on mõju veelgi suurem ning EN ISO 6946 standardi lisas
F toodud lihtsustatud parandid alahindavad seda olulisel määral. Käesolev doktoritöö
kirjeldab erineva ristlõikega osaliselt või täielikult soojustuskihti läbivate pragudest
tingitud täiendavat soojusläbivust ning toob välja soojustuslahendused, mis tuleks
standardi lisas ümber klassifitseerida.
Parameetrilisel arvutuslikul analüüsil vaadeldi mudeli katkestustasapindade minimaalse
kauguse vähendamise mõju erinevate külmasildade joonsoojusläbivuse arvutamisel
eesmärgiga lihtsustada omavahel kombineeritud külmasildade normatiivset analüüsi.
Arvutustulemused näitasid, et hästi soojustatud piirdetarindi puhul on minimaalne
vahekaugus külmasilla keskse elemendi ja katkestustasapinna vahel võrdne tarindi
paksusega ilma arvutustäpsuse olulise vähenemiseta. See võimaldab keerukamad
kombineeritud külmasillad katkestustasapindadega omavahel lahutada ning kasutada
joonsoojusläbivuste aritmeetilist liitmist, vähendades nii praktikas oluliselt arvutustele
kuluvat aega. Uuritud hoonegeomeetria puhul vähenes eraldi analüüsi vajavate sõlmede
hulk kuni 76 %.
Käesolevas doktoritöös pakuti välja uudne meetod metallist fassaadikinnitite ja
muude analoogsete väiksemate külmasildade punktsoojusläbivuse täpseks arvutamiseks
kasutades kahemõõtmelist temperatuurivälja arvutusmeetodit.
13
List of publications
The list of the author’s publications on the basis of which the thesis has been prepared:
I Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2019). Development of airtightness of Estonian wooden
buildings. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 24 (1), 36−43.
DOI: 10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.23231.
II Hallik, J.; Gustavson, H.; Kalamees, T. (2019). Air leakage of joints filled with
polyurethane foam. Buildings, 9 (7), 172. DOI: 10.3390/buildings9070172.
III Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2020). A new method to estimate point thermal
transmittance based on combined two-dimensional heat flow calculation. 12th
Nordic Symposium on Building Physics, NSB 2020, Tallinn; Estonia; 6 Sept - 9 Sept
2020. EDP Sciences, #08005. (E3S Web of Conferences; 172).
DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/202017208005.
IV Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2021). The effect of flanking element length in thermal bridge
calculation and possible simplifications to account for combined thermal bridges in
well insulated building envelopes. Energy and Buildings, 252 (111397). DOI:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111397.
V Hallik, J.; Klõšeiko, P.; Piir, R.; Kalamees, T. (2022). Numerical analysis of additional
heat loss induced by air cavities between insulation boards due to non-ideality.
(Under review, submitted to: Journal of Building Engineering 06.04.2022)
These publications are referred to in the thesis by their Roman numbers
14
Author’s Contribution to the Publications
The author of the thesis is the principal author of all five publications with the following
contribution:
I Data curation and preparation and statistical analysis were carried out by the author.
A number of air leakage tests in the large Estonian air leakage database were carried
out by the author. Compilation of the methodology of statistical analysis and original
draft preparation were carried out by the author. The review and editing of the
paper were carried out and research principles of the study were developed in
cooperation with the author’s supervisor T.K.
II Data curation, statistical analysis and original draft preparation and review of the
publication were carried out by the author. Compilation of the testing methodology,
preparation of the test specimens, practical laboratory measurements and data
acquisition were done by co-authors T.K and H.G.
III Conceptualisation of the study, compilation of the methodology, preparation of
calculation models and conducting all numerical calculations were carried out by the
author. Data visualisation and original draft preparation were carried out by the
author. The review and editing of the paper were carried out in cooperation with
the author’s supervisor T.K.
IV The preparation of calculation models and conducting numerical calculations was
carried out by the author. Original draft preparation was carried out by the author.
The conceptualisation of this study, compilation of methodology and the review and
editing of the paper were carried out in cooperation with author’s supervisor T.K.
V Calculation models were prepared and numerical calculations were carried out by
the author. Experimental measurements in the climate chamber and validation of
numerical models were done by co-authors P.K and R.P. Data visualisation and
original draft preparation were conducted by the author. The review and editing
were done in cooperation with P.K and T.K. The conceptualisation of this study,
compilation of methodology and the review and editing of the paper were carried
out in cooperation with the co-authors and author’s supervisor.
15
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
A well-insulated, airtight and thermal bridge free building envelope is a key factor for
nearly zero energy buildings (nZEBs) mandatory in the European Union from the year
2021 (EPBD, 2018). Minimising heat losses and combining a thermally optimised building
envelope with the passive use of solar energy allows a significant reduction in the heat
load and heating energy demand of residential buildings during the heating period.
Minimising heat transfer through the building envelope in nZEBs requires careful
optimisation of building fabric performance, thermal bridges and air leakages through
the building envelope. These key factors related to heat loss are interconnected in
practice and contribute to the three-dimensional transient heat loss through the building
envelope.
The heat loss through the plane building envelope is defined and well described in EN
ISO 6946 (2017), showing that increased insulation thickness corresponds to decreased
heat loss. The thermal performance of the plane building envelope is well studied and
the difference between mathematical ideal and construction practice is shown in
(Gullbrekken, Kvande, et al., 2017; Kivioja & Vinha, 2020; O’Hegarty et al., 2021).
For older buildings a wide range of topics concerning airtightness of the building
envelope have been studied in the past and the phenomenon along with affecting factors
in older buildings have been sufficiently described. Increased insulation thickness in
energy efficient buildings introduces new challenges when accounting for air leakages as
infiltration and exfiltration airflows contribute to a higher proportion of heat loss while
also creating the risk of moisture accumulation inside the construction and deterioration
of the building structure if the air leakages are not minimised or avoided. In practice it is
problematic to estimate the air leakages in the design phase of the building process. This
is especially important in the case of timber constructions where the materials are more
sensitive to extensive moisture and deterioration.
Thermal bridges and other nonidealities are present in the building envelope
decreasing its overall thermal transmittance and increasing the heat losses locally.
Penetrating structural elements with low thermal resistance in facade systems and air
voids or cavities inside the insulation layer introduced by material tolerances and non-ideal
workmanship can cause significantly higher heat losses than estimated for an otherwise
well insulated building envelope. Increased insulation thickness and minimised air
leakages in modern energy efficient buildings and nZEBs increase the effect of thermal
bridges on the overall heat loss of the building envelope (Ge & Baba, 2015). The fraction
of heat loss due to thermal bridge effects is highly dependent on architectural complexity
and constructional solutions used in the building envelope, but is usually significant in
nZEBs and can be as high as 30 % or more (Erhorn et al., 2010).
Underestimation of thermal bridging, the effect of nonidealities inside the insulation
layers and air leakages leads to a performance gap, where the estimated energy
performance is not met in practice. Minimising heat loss through air leakages and
thermal bridging is challenging, mainly for two reasons:
1. the existing methods and empirical solutions are too imprecise in the case of
well insulated building envelopes, and
2. the existing knowledge and more detailed methods are too complex and
time-consuming to implement in the practical design process.
16
This PhD thesis studies the effect of air leakages and thermal bridges along with other
nonidealities in the context of well-insulated building envelopes in order to provide
robust, updated and more accurate methods to estimate the heat loss through air
leakages and several types of thermal bridges that could be implemented in the design
process of nZEBs and used to reduce the performance gap. This is especially important
in the case of modular building prefabrication because of excessive junctions in the
building envelope, prevailing use of timber elements which are prone to moisture damage
and very limited time during the design process for thorough assessment of solutions.
1.2 Objectives and content of the study

The objective of the present thesis is to further develop current normative methods used
to estimate the heat losses through gaps, cavities and other nonidealities along with
penetrating thermal bridging elements in well-insulated building envelopes with a
greater accuracy in limited time and resource conditions as well as heat loss through air
leakages when direct measurement is not possible.
The specific objectives of the thesis were the following:
• To determine the airtightness and its variation and subsequent base values of
Estonian wooden buildings for several grouping factors such as building envelope,
construction process, number of storeys, compactness, energy performance, etc.
• To determine the air leakage of joints filled with different products of
polyurethane (PU) foam with different typical joint surface properties and width.
• To assess the effect of additional heat loss through unintentional cavities in the
insulation layer and provide suggestions for improving standardised methods.
• To determine the minimal length of flanking elements in numerical models used
to calculate the linear thermal transmittance in the case of combined thermal
bridges under steady-state conditions.
• To create a new method to assess the heat loss through small three-dimensional
thermal bridges with a two-dimensional numerical heat flow calculation method.
The results of the thesis, described in the following chapters, are published in four
journal articles and one conference paper. A graphical overview of the research
contribution in relation to the system of European norms related to heat loss in building
envelope is given in Figure 1.
It is expected that the airtightness of the building envelope has been improved over
the years, especially after the minimum requirements for energy performance were set
by legislation (MTMm nr 58, 2015). Several publications seem to conclude that the
overall air leakage of the building envelope, even in modern buildings, depends mostly
on the building quality and on subsequent factors that affect the building quality (Colijn
et al., 2017; Kalamees, 2007; Mortensen & Bergsøe, 2017). There have been attempts to
estimate the airtightness of the building envelope without measuring, based on
component measurements and subsequent calculations, but no reliable method for
estimation has been found (T. O. Relander et al., 2012). This means that in the design
phase, or when calculating the energy use of existent buildings with no means of direct
measurements, the statistical average values for different building techniques,
construction types and different time frames must be used. The average airtightness of
the existing building stock and the variation within subgroups can differ between regions
as the building process and quality assurance measures are different.
17
Figure 1. Research contribution of this thesis in relation to European norms related to heat loss in
building envelope.
In PUBLICATION I a large number of whole-building airtightness measurements of

Estonian wooden buildings are statistically analysed to determine the average (median)
air leakage rates at 50 Pa and tested for significant differences within the grouping
factors related to building complexity and quality assurance. Additionally, the base
values of air leakage are calculated to include the effect of variation within the measured
18
groups to give practitioners a possibility of using construction specific estimation if
airtightness testing is not yet feasible.
In existing buildings and for major renovations specific airtightness products,
such as special sealing tapes for different surface materials, airtight membranes,
rubber collars, adhesive sealing glues and joining elements, are frequently omitted in
favour of expanding montage foams although the existing literature shows only variable
success and sealing the gaps in the building envelope using only montage foam is
generally not regarded as an infallible solution. Nevertheless, for accurate estimation
of air leakages there is a need for detailed data about specific leakage rates depending
on the width and type of the gaps in the building envelope, typically connections
between wall and roof elements, window and door connections, etc. The expansion
of foam cannot be fully controlled and therefore successful results can be highly
dependent on surface properties along with foam properties and environmental
conditions. In PUBLICATION II the air leakage of joints filled with PU foam and factors
influencing it are studied to see if consistent airtightness can be achieved under varying
conditions. Three typical surface properties common in prefabricated building envelopes
are studied. Air leakage measurements through different joint configurations were
conducted under laboratory conditions, based on the standardised method (EN 12114,
2000) and statistical analysis was used to retrieve the specific air leakages for joints
with 10 mm and 30 mm diameter, three types of coating and three separate PU foam
products.
Air leakages are just one aspect of additional heat loss caused by gaps and
nonidealities between building envelope parts and within the insulation layer. Many
studies in the existing literature describe the effect of air convection in and around
insulation systems and conclude that there is a substantial increase of thermal
transmittance if air circulation between the warm and the cold side around the insulation
layer is enabled (Bankwall, 1972; Chebil et al., 2003; Huttunen & Vinha, 2013;
Šadauskiene et al., 2009; Stankevičius et al., 2013). Therefore, it is crucial to seal the
gaps between the rigid insulation boards to minimise the additional heat loss through
the natural convection inside the construction. However, small gaps, slits and cavities
between rigid insulation boards can contribute to higher heat loss even if the internal or
external surfaces are sealed with tapes and air circulation between the warm side
and the cold side around the insulation layer is avoided and the natural buoyancy-driven
circulation is localised inside small cavities. A simplified method is described in EN ISO
6946 (2017) to include these effects into the thermal transmittance of an insulated
structure; however, it is expected that the effect is underestimated in the case of
well insulated building envelopes. In PUBLICATION V the effect of penetrating and
partly penetrating differently shaped air cavities inside the insulation layer is studied.
These systematically occurring cavities are caused by the varying tolerances of the
insulation boards during the production process, on-site cutting and assembling as well
as by poor workmanship, especially in the case of more complex building geometry.
The numerical steady-state computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method is used to
derive additional heat loss caused by the convective air movement and radiation inside
a 200 mm thick insulation layer depending on the cavity thickness, thermal conductivity
of the insulation material and temperature difference between the warm and the cold
side of the structure. Correction factors given in EN ISO 6946 Annex F (EN ISO 6946, 2017)
are compared to the study results and reclassification of the solutions and respective
19
correction factors in the standard is recommended to consider higher than expected
heat loss through irregular air voids and cavities.
The overall heat loss of the building envelope is strongly dependent on thermal
bridging elements that partly or fully penetrate the insulation layer. With many
modern facade systems, the external cladding needs repeated fixation points and
metal elements that penetrate the insulation and contribute to higher heat loss.
Although several more prominent linear thermal bridges are accounted for in practice,
the three-dimensional heat flow through the vast array of fixation elements and other
point thermal bridges is usually neglected. Based on experience with less insulated
structures it is usually expected that various point thermal bridges have a small
contribution to the overall heat loss, but several recent studies have shown that within
a highly insulated building envelope the extremely conductive metal fixing elements and
cladding systems have a considerable impact on the effectiveness of thermal insulation
layers (Theodosiou et al., 2019). Although the detailed numerical calculation
methodology for steady-state three-dimensional heat flow is described in European
standard EN ISO 10211 (2017) along with other related standards not implemented in
general practice due to the time-consuming model preparation routine, lack of input data
as well as the high number of different thermal bridges that have to be assessed for a
single project. Additionally, the selection of software tools for three-dimensional
numerical heat flow modelling is often limited due to their high price and steep learning
curve compared to numerical heat flow calculation tools in two dimensions where
several open source or free to use tools are generally available. There is a great need for
simple methods and workflows to implement the three-dimensional thermal bridge
effects in practice. In PUBLICATION III a new method is proposed to estimate
three-dimensional heat loss and point thermal transmittances based on multiple
two-dimensional calculations to provide a faster and more accessible solution for
accurate estimation of all necessary thermal bridge elements in a well-insulated building
envelope.
In complex situations, where multiple thermal bridges are in close proximity the
calculation of linear thermal transmittance strictly according to the standard should be
conducted separately for each such combination. This poses a practical problem as
the number of different combinations (mainly related to window to wall connections
in combination with corners, intermediate ceiling, etc.) is too large to follow in practice
the standardised procedure. Furthermore, most whole building energy simulation tools
do not usually have an interface for the highly fragmented input of linear thermal
transmittances required to realistically model the overall thermal transfer value of an
entire building envelope. In PUBLICATION IV a parametric numerical assessment of
different thermal bridges in well-insulated constructions is carried out to study the
effect of the flanking element in the numerical heat flow calculation to determine the
minimal flanking element length for combined thermal bridges in numerical models that
has minimal or no effect on the accuracy in estimating the linear thermal transmittance
in steady-state conditions.
20
1.3 New knowledge and practical application
New knowledge discussed in this thesis relates to
• reconsideration of the factors affecting air leakages in building envelopes in the
case of newer well insulated buildings;
• quantification of the air leakages through joints in building envelopes tightened
with PU foam without additional sealing with tapes depending on joint
geometry and surface properties;
• additional heat loss due to the buoyancy-driven air flow in cavities within the
insulation layer arising from nonidealities in the building process and
assessment of adequacy of the simplified method given in EN ISO 6946 (2017)
to estimate the necessary correction factor for thermal transmittance with
suggested reclassification of the described construction solutions;
• specification of a standard calculation method with proven performance for
quick and accurate assessment of additional heat loss due to thermal bridges
inside well-insulated building envelopes by simplifying the assessment of
combined thermal bridges
• new method proposed for predicting three-dimensional heat flow and the point
thermal transmittance of thermal bridges caused by full or partial penetration
of the building envelope with metal elements with uniform geometry in the
third dimension using two-dimensional numerical calculation.
Practical application discussed in this thesis relates to

• quantification of air leakages for the whole building simulation by statistically
derived tabulated median and base values of total building air leakage rates for
buildings of different age groups and construction technologies for use in
practical application where the building’s airtightness is not known or cannot be
measured
• defining the surface properties of joints in the building envelope that contribute
to failing airtightness when filled with PU foam without additional sealing with
tapes
• suggested reclassification of different insulation solutions in EN ISO 6946 (2017)
Annex F to incorporate the higher than estimated heat loss to the simplified
correction factor for air cavities
• use of a significantly reduced flanking element length compared to the current
method in EN ISO 10211 (2017) for steady-state numerical assessment of
combined linear thermal bridges without substantial reduction in accuracy thus
reducing the number of complex thermal bridges that need separate analysis
and thereby the working hours of practitioners
• possibility of estimating the point thermal transmittance of different mounting
brackets etc using two-dimensional software in cases where the three-dimensional
calculation procedure is not possible due to lack of time, software tools or skills
within the design team.
21
1.4 Limitations of the study
In PUBLICATION I the air leakage database of only wooden buildings was assessed as
these buildings are more prone to failures and have a higher moisture related risk of
deterioration. The degradation of airtightness over time is not considered.
In PUBLICATION II the air leakage of joints filled with PU foam was measured in
laboratory conditions and premium quality PU foams were applied by skilled workers.
The skill level of workers and real-life application conditions can induce significant
differences between different foams and cause higher air leakages compared to
laboratory measurements. However, this needs further research. The ageing of the
freshly applied foam over a longer period of time and degradation due to thermal and
dynamic shrinking were not taken into account.
In PUBLICATION III the assessment is based on highly conductive metal point thermal
bridges. Application of the proposed method with penetrating concrete columns etc.
needs further research.
In PUBLICATION III, PUBLICATION IV and PUBLICATION V the analysis was based on
insulation layer thickness of 200 mm with a variable thermal conductivity to cover a wide
range of thermal transmittances of well-insulated building envelopes. This thickness
corresponds to the typical timber element length.
22
2 Heat loss of building envelopes
2.1 In general
The heat loss through building envelopes is a three-dimensional dynamic process where
different physical phenomena such as conduction, convection and radiation take place
simultaneously. These processes are strongly determined by the size, shape and thermal
properties of the building envelope as well as the environmental conditions inside and
outside of the building. For practical implementation these interconnected processes are
usually broken up and assessed separately, typically by using more or less simplified
approaches. In the building design process the estimation of heat loss through the
building envelope is described in EN ISO 13789 (2017) where the transmission heat
transfer coefficient Htr and air leakage heat transfer coefficient Hve are defined for the
entire building. These values are necessary for estimating the energy need for heating
and cooling a building. The coefficient Htr includes the heat transfer through the plane
elements, junctions between the plane elements where linear thermal bridges emerge
and point thermal bridges while Hve includes the heat transfer through the infiltrating
and exfiltrating airflow. For both coefficients additional standards are needed to describe
the necessary methods for calculating the heat transfer through windows and doors (EN
ISO 10077-1, 2017; EN ISO 10077-2, 2017), curtain wall systems (EN ISO 12631, 2017),
regular plane elements (EN ISO 6946, 2017), linear and point thermal bridges (EN ISO
10211, 2017) and ground coupled envelopes (EN ISO 13370, 2017) for component-wise
assessment.
When the heat loss between the conditioned space and the external environment is
considered the direct heat transfer coefficient Hd is calculated either directly for the
whole building envelope by numerical methods using the modelling rules given in EN ISO
10211 (2017) or by using the simplified component based approach according to
equation (1) defined in EN ISO 13789 (2017).
𝑁𝑁𝑗𝑗
𝑁𝑁
𝐻𝐻𝑑𝑑 = ∑𝑖𝑖=1
𝑖𝑖 𝑁𝑁
𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 + ∑𝑘𝑘=1
𝑘𝑘
Ψ𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑙𝑙𝑘𝑘 + ∑𝑗𝑗=1 𝜒𝜒𝑗𝑗 , W/K (1)
where Ui is the thermal transmittance of element i of the building envelope in

W/(m2·K), Ai is the area of element i of the building envelope in m2, Ψk is the linear
thermal transmittance of thermal bridge k in W/(m⋅K), lk is the length of linear thermal
bridge k in m, χ is the point thermal transmittance of point thermal bridge j in W/K.
The thermal transmittance of these plane elements of building envelope depends
directly on the thermal resistance of the individual layers. Increasing the thickness of the
insulation layer and decreasing the thermal conductivity of the insulation material
reduce the thermal transmittance and the direct heat transfer coefficient accordingly.
To account for the additional heat loss due to thermally inhomogeneous layers,
mechanical fasteners and cavities within the insulation layer corrections to thermal
transmittance shall be applied according to simplified methods described in EN ISO 6946
(2017).
The effect of air leakages through the building envelope is included in a separate heat
transfer coefficient Hve according to equation (2). However, if the infiltration air flow rate
is known, this does not account for collateral effects of air leakages such as moisture
condensation (Janssens & Hens, 2003) or cold air movement (Chebil et al., 2003) inside
the insulation layer.
23
𝐻𝐻𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 ∙ 𝑞𝑞𝑣𝑣 , W/K (2)
where qv is the air leakage rate through the building envelope in m3/s and ρair ⋅ cp is
the heat capacity of air per volume in J/(m3·K).
2.2 Heat loss and thermal transmittance in well insulated building

envelopes
The energy performance requirements have gradually become more stringent in the
European Union (EU) after the Energy Performance Building Directive (EPBD, 2018)
recast forced the member states to fully adopt the nZEB requirements for all new
buildings and major renovations. Depending on the climatic conditions, availability of
renewable energy sources and national differences the cost optimal levels of insulation
differ between the member states. In Estonian climate the cost optimal insulation
thickness in combination with triple-glazed windows is 200 mm (Pikas et al., 2014).
Zangheri et al. (2018) calculated the cost-optimal retrofit measures to reach nZEB levels
in different European countries and found that a typical nZEB building should have a
well-insulated envelope (including insulation layers of 10–30 cm and double or triple low
emissivity (low-e) windows) depending on climatic conditions. The necessary thermal
transmittance of wall and roof constructions is in a range of 0.12–0.33 W/(m2⋅K) for Spain
and Italy and 0.09–0.18 W/(m2⋅K) for all other countries corresponding to at least
200 mm thick insulation layer considering typical insulation materials.
Historically the heat loss of the building envelope has been mainly determined by the
heat loss through plane elements due to a low thermal resistance of uninsulated walls,
roofs and floor slabs. When the thermal resistance of the insulation is increased in
modern buildings, the overall heat loss will be reduced and the proportion of other heat
transfer components will become more prominent.
The effect of air leakages on thermal transmittance and heat losses of well-insulated
buildings is strongly affected by their location (climate conditions and sheltering from
wind), architectural and structural solutions (compactness, construction type, height),
ventilation systems and overall building quality. The airtightness of buildings with
different envelope structure has been shown to differ by a factor of 4 or more (Górzeński
et al., 2014; Paap et al., 2012; Vinha et al., 2015). Jokisalo et al. (2009) showed that in
Finnish cold climate air leakages through the building envelope cause about 15–30 % of
the energy use of space heating including ventilation in a detached house with typical
airtightness (n50 = 3.9 ach) and 30–50 % in the case of a leaky house (n50 = 10 ach).
The resultant change in the energy use of space heating is 7 % on average, when the
value of the building leakage rate n50 changes by one unit (1 ach).
Minimised air leakages in well-insulated and energy efficient buildings increase the
effect of thermal bridges on the overall heat loss of the building envelope even more
(Ge & Baba, 2015). The fraction of the heat loss due to thermal bridge effects is highly
dependent on the architectural complexity and constructional solutions used in the
building envelope, but it is usually significant in nZEBs and can be as high as 30 % or more
(Erhorn et al., 2010).
While the heat losses through air leakages and dominating two- and
three-dimensional thermal bridges are accounted for separately from the thermal
transmittance of the building envelope according to EN ISO 13789 (2017) recent studies
have shown that affecting factors have to be reconsidered when estimating the thermal
24
transmittance of a well-insulated building envelope. It is important to acknowledge that
the method defined in EN ISO 6946 (2017) is based on the ideal electrical-thermal
analogy and therefore, it is necessary to consider corrections to the thermal
transmittance that include different aspects of nonidealities present in built solutions.
In their review of building wall thermal characterisation, Evangelisti et al. (2018) showed
that the measured thermal transmittance is about 20 % higher than the calculated one.
O’Hegarty et al. (2021) reviewed 14 past studies and conducted additional experiments
to study in-situ U-value (thermal transmittance) performance gap. A total of 13 tests
from 7 different sites were conducted, 10 of which were on envelopes with theoretical
thermal transmittances below U≤0.2 W/(m2⋅K). It was shown that the deviation between
theoretical and measured thermal transmittances increases considerably (127 %
increase on average) at lower thermal transmittances corresponding to an increase in
thermal transmittance by 0.2 W/(m2⋅K). Deviations of up to 297 % were observed and
these cannot be explained by uncertainties in material properties or minor defects in the
insulation layer.
When the insulation thickness is increased the role of different physical processes will
become more prominent and will start to limit the actual thermal resistance of the
insulation layer. Kivioja & Vinha (2020) studied natural convection inside 300 mm and
600 mm thick insulation layers of roof constructions and observed a 10 %–46 % increase
in the heat flux inside a blown-in glass wool (density 25 kg/m3) layer in the case of 20 K
temperature difference and a 10 %– 63 % increase in the case of 35 K temperature
difference. With a blown-in wood fibre insulation (density 40 kg/m3) the increase of the
heat flux in the range of 2 %–16 % was observed only in the case of 35 K temperature
difference. Previous studies have also shown heat flux increase of similar magnitude and
a strong effect of temperature difference on air convection inside thick insulation layers
(Gullbrekken et al., 2019; Gullbrekken, Uvslokk, et al., 2017; Shankar & Hagentoft, 2000).
A convection barrier in the middle of the insulation layer is recommended both in wall
and pitched roof structures if the insulation thickness exceeds 200 mm to effectively
decrease the temperature difference across each layer and limit the additional heat loss
(Gullbrekken, Uvslokk, et al., 2017). Discrepancies between modelling and experimental
data suggest that workmanship quality and material properties related to ageing and
deformations can have a significant effect on the natural convection and additional heat
loss at the border regions of the insulation layer (Wahlgren, 2005, 2007). Huttunen &
Vinha (2013) observed unexpectedly large thermal transmittances from well-insulated
wall elements filled with cellulose explaining the difference from estimated values by
unexpected creep of material forming penetrating air gaps at the edges of test
specimens. They emphasised that the natural convection inside this kind of cavities can
have a significant effect on thermal transmittance. This effect is not limited to
air-permeable insulation materials and can be especially problematic in the case of rigid
insulation boards, where varying measurement tolerances (Šadauskiene et al., 2009),
shrinkage due to ageing as well as thermal expansion and contraction (Tatara & Ricketts,
,2017) and poor workmanship in the case of more complex building geometry will incur
partly or fully penetrating air cavities. The simplified method in EN ISO 6946 (2017) Annex
F to correct for this effect underestimates the additional heat loss in the case of
well-insulated building envelopes. Therefore, further research is needed to quantify the
effect of air cavities with different width and geometry on the thermal transmittance.
The contribution of thermal bridges to overall heat loss is highly dependent on
architectural and structural solutions but can easily be as high as 30–40 % of the total
25
heat loss of the building envelope (Al-Sanea & Zedan, 2012; Berggren & Wall, 2013, 2018;
Capozzoli et al., 2013). A wide array of highly conductive metal fixing elements and
composite cladding systems have to be included in calculating thermal transmittance
according to EN ISO 6946 (2017). These can have a considerable impact on the
effectiveness of thermal insulation layers (Theodosiou et al., 2019) However, not enough
numerically derived product-specific data are available for all possible situations.
Consequently, for well-insulated building envelopes the thermal transmittance has to
be corrected to include the effect of convection, multidimensional conduction as well as
all nonidealities present on the building site. In practice this means that current methods
must be reassessed and improved in order to accurately estimate the actual heat loss
through air leakages, thermal bridges and nonidealities inside the insulation layer.
2.2.1 Airtightness and factors affecting it

In Estonia, lightweight timber-frame envelopes are common for detached houses. Today
timber structures have become more and more common for apartment buildings and
non-residential buildings (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications, 2022).
Structures built from timber logs have been historically widespread and are still used for
some projects. It is expected that the airtightness of the building envelope has been
improved over the years as the knowledge and specific sealing products are generally
available, especially since the minimum requirements for energy performance were set
by legislation (MTMm nr 58, 2015). Several publications seem to conclude that in general
the air leakage of the building envelope, even in modern buildings, depends on the
quality of construction works and on factors that affect this process (Colijn et al., 2017;
Kalamees, 2007; Mortensen & Bergsøe, 2017). For example, the number of storeys,
compactness of the building volume etc. have been shown to increase the complexity of
the work needed to achieve the required airtightness. Prignon & Van Moeseke (2017)
conducted a thorough literature review to gather data and knowledge from 14 different
countries and to rank the factors that have an influence on building airtightness based
on their significance. While the envelope structure, building method, ventilation system
and all aspects related to guidance and supervision are acknowledged as highly
significant influencing factors, many other parameters related to insulation type and
position, foundation and ceiling type etc. are not considered significant or are not enough
discussed in previous research. Various parameters related to building geometry
(building volume, number of storeys, floor area etc.) are often considered important, but
significant inconsistency is present between different studies and air leakage pathways
are not directly linked with building geometry (Prignon & Van Moeseke, 2017).
Attempts have been made to estimate the airtightness of the building envelope
without measuring, based on component measurements and subsequent calculations,
but no reliable method for such estimation has been found (T. O. Relander et al., 2012).
Prignon & Van Moeseke (2017) also discuss this and conclude that lack of standardisation
at different levels and the impact of workmanship and supervision partially explain why
reliable and suitable models for predicting airtightness are difficult to develop. This
means that in the design phase, or when calculating the energy use of existent buildings
with no means of direct measurements, statistical average values for different building
techniques, construction types and different time frames must be used. The average
airtightness of the existing building stock and the variation within subgroups can be
different in different countries as the building process and quality assurance measures
are different. Therefore, data for similar regions are needed.
26
2.2.2 Air leakages of joints between building components
There are several different technical solutions for sealing the cracks, joints and
penetrations through the building envelope. Special sealing tapes for different surface
materials, airtight membranes, rubber collars, adhesive sealing glues and various
montage foams, etc. are used with varying degrees of success. Although it has been
shown that the overall airtightness of new buildings has improved significantly
(Górzeński et al., 2014; T. O. Relander et al., 2012), the actual leakage rate and its
variation are strongly related to overall quality assurance mechanisms and local building
techniques (Vinha et al., 2015), especially for window related air leakages (Cuce, 2017).
Polyurethane one-component foams (PU OCF) are self-adhesive and self-hardening
sealing materials often used for door and window installation and filling other joints and
gaps in the building envelope. Despite their widespread use it is not known if the
necessary airtightness can be consistently achieved without the use of additional sealing
tapes. The volume of PU OCF expands after application to fill all hollow spaces and
hardens on contact with air humidity. The expansion of foam cannot be fully controlled
and therefore successful results can be highly dependent on surface properties along
with foam properties and environmental conditions. Different joints in the building
envelope can have different surface materials. Depending on the construction
technology, a cap between different envelope elements can have sawn wooden surface
(wooden studs and beams at the end of wall and roof elements etc.), planed wooden
surface (connection between wooden window frame, plywood and other similar
wood-based products, planed wooden elements etc.) or plastic surface (connection
between PVC window frame and wall). Air leakage of joints filled with PU foam in the
case of all three surface types was measured under laboratory conditions (published in
PUBLICATION II) to quantify the differences due to surface roughness and material as
well as joint width and specific foam product and to determine if consistent airtightness
can be achieved under varying conditions.
2.2.3 Additional heat loss due to air cavities inside the insulation layer
Air leakages are just one aspect of additional heat loss caused by gaps and nonidealities
between building envelope parts and within the insulation layer. Previous studies have
described the effect of air convection in and around insulation systems to conclude that
there is a substantial increase of thermal transmittance if air circulation between warm
and cold sides around the insulation layer is enabled (Bankwall, 1972; Chebil et al., 2003;
Huttunen & Vinha, 2013; Šadauskiene et al., 2009; Stankevičius et al., 2013). It is
therefore crucial to seal the gaps between the rigid insulation boards to minimise the
additional heat loss through natural convection around the insulation layer. The remaining
isolated small gaps, slits and cavities between insulation boards or between the
insulation matt and structural elements can still contribute to higher heat loss due to the
natural buoyancy-driven air circulation in localised small cavities. These air cavities inside
an insulation layer can vary in size and shape and may lack filling or tightening with
montage foam or a similar agent, especially when rigid insulation boards, such as many
common external thermal insulation composite systems (ETICS) are used. The size,
shape and distribution of this type of cavities are affected by varying tolerances of the
boards during the production process, on-site cutting and assembling as well as due to
poor workmanship, especially in the case of more complex building geometry. According
to EN 13163 (2016) and EN 825 (2013), the allowed tolerances of board width and
length are up to 5 mm and of board squareness up to 1, 2 and 5 mm/m. Such production
27
tolerances can in the worst case lead to up to a 15 mm wide cavity between 3 m long
insulation boards.
Similar issues with manufacturing tolerances occur in the case of mineral wool boards.
Deviations in the board length of up to 20 mm and board width of up to 5 mm in the
manufacturing process were observed in a previous study about dual density rockwool
boards (Šadauskiene et al., 2009); the observed deviation from squareness according to
the width and the length was up to 3 mm/m. The observed width of actual vertical air
cavities forming due to these deviations was up to 5 mm when insulation boards were
installed (Šadauskiene et al., 2009). When an insulation layer is installed between timber
or steel battens, additional cavities can occur due to non-ideal cutting and placement of
insulation material.
Additionally, expanded polystyrene (EPS) is prone to shrinkage due to ageing as well
as thermal expansion and contraction (Tatara & Ricketts, 2017). The alternating heating
and cooling cycles cause changes in the cavity width between boards with increasing
permanent deformation (Ricketts, 2018; Tatara & Ricketts, 2017). Altogether, the heat
loss through a building envelope featuring all the irregularities of that kind is higher due
to radiation and natural convection that occur inside these cavities and is highly
dependent on cavity dimensions as well as the temperature difference between the
internal and the external environment.
Several empirical studies have been conducted to give an insight into the approximate
effect of penetrating cavities inside insulation layers. In 1972, in the first study conducted
in Sweden, heat flow plates were used to test the change in local thermal resistance
caused by penetrating cavities with 5, 10 and 30 mm width within an insulation layer; as
the study concentrated mainly on the natural convection inside the insulation material
itself, the overall effect of air cavities on the thermal transmittance was not quantified
(Bankwall, 1972). Under the heat flow plate, the thermal resistance decreased locally by
up to 8 % at a 5 mm wide cavity, up to 21 % at a 10 mm wide cavity and by up to 64 % at
a 30 mm wide cavity (Bankwall, 1972). Although the effect on the entire wall area with
fewer cavities will be significantly lower, the study showed that the natural convection
inside such air cavities can have a significant impact on the thermal transmittance,
depending strongly on the cavity width.
Similarly, Lowe et al. (2007) and Miles-Shenton et al. (2010, 2015) showed through
field measurements in Great Britain that differently sized and shaped air cavities caused
by poor workmanship can increase the observed thermal transmittance by a factor of 2
while the effect is strongly dependent on the actual observed nonideality.
Huttunen & Vinha (2013) conducted hot-box measurements to study the natural
convection inside the exterior wall with air-permeable insulation and to assess the effect
of horizontal cavities within an insulation layer caused by material displacement after
installation or by non-ideal workmanship, resulting in rounded edges of insulation wool
batts that form vertical air cavities between the edge of the insulation wool batt and the
structural timber element. It was reported that negligent installation of insulation wool
can cause horizontal air cavities at the upper or lower edges of the wall insulation layer
and in the case of wet-sprayed cellulose insulation, these may be formed due to creep of
the material (Huttunen & Vinha, 2013). Contrary to previous studies, it was concluded
that air cavities formed due to poor workmanship do not dramatically increase (observed
increase 5 % to 10 %) the thermal transmittance at no provision of air circulation from
the hot side to the cold side referring to rounded edges of wool batts (Huttunen & Vinha,
2013). Creeps at the edge of wet-sprayed cellulose, which enable air circulation between
28
hot and cold sides, showed a significantly greater effect (Huttunen & Vinha, 2013): an up
to 34 % increase compared to the ideal thermal transmittance calculated according to
EN ISO 6946 (2017). However, the dimensions of the air cavities and their effect
compared to standardised installation quality levels were not quantified.
A simplified method is described in EN ISO 6946 Annex F (2017) to include all these
effects into the thermal transmittance of insulated structures. However, this method is
expected to underestimate the effect in the case of well-insulated building envelopes.
Additionally, the installation quality levels and the examples given in the standard are
only descriptive and the limiting cavity widths and cavity length-to-area ratio are not
quantified.
Further research is needed to quantify the effect of air cavities with different width
and geometry on the thermal transmittance depending on the temperature difference
between the interior and exterior sides of the insulation layer as well as to describe the
cavity types and geometries with respective dimensions that correspond to simplified
correction factors assigned to each installation level given in EN ISO 6946 (2017).
Numerical simulation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) with preliminary validation
against the climate chamber experiment described in PUBLICATION V was used in this
thesis to parametrically assess the additional heat loss caused by buoyancy-driven air
circulation and radiation inside air cavities with different width, geometry and location
in a well-insulated building envelope.
2.2.4 Thermal bridging

Thermal bridges are defined as part of the building envelope where the otherwise
uniform thermal resistance is significantly changed by full or partial penetration of the
building envelope by materials with higher thermal conductivity (EN ISO 10211, 2017).
Typically, these represent different junctions in the building envelope where two or more
building components are connected and form linear thermal bridges along the
connection, e.g., exterior wall connection to roof, intermediate ceiling or floor, window
and door perimeters etc. Additionally point thermal bridges with a localised effect occur
when highly conductive metal fixing elements and cladding systems are used to attach
an insulation layer and external cladding to a structural part of the building envelope.
The fraction of heat loss due to these thermal bridge effects is highly dependent on
architectural complexity and constructional solutions used in the building envelope.
Over the years there has been a lot of research to propose different ways to reduce
the workload related to thermal bridge effects in building envelopes. Robust coefficients
for defining the thermal transmittances have been used (EN ISO 13790, 2008), but these
can underestimate the actual heat loss (Bergero & Chiari, 2018; Theodosiou et al., 2021;
Theodosiou & Papadopoulos, 2008). A large number of thermal bridge catalogues have
been composed for typical or approximate geometries (EN ISO 14683, 2017) for both
national and international implementation along with specific attention to optimised
window to wall connections (Adamus & Pomada, 2018; Cappelletti et al., 2011; Kalbe &
Kalamees, 2019), special construction types (Chang et al., 2019; Viot et al., 2015), etc.
Alternatively, there have been attempts to generate statistical models for typical
junctions that would allow the estimation of linear thermal transmittance based on other
building envelope parameters (Borelli et al., 2020; Capozzoli et al., 2013; Larbi, 2005),
but these are bound to specific geometrical and constructional solutions and are not
universally applicable. Despite this collective effort, a standardised numerical calculation
is often still necessary and in the case of complex building geometry and window layout,
29
the number of combined thermal bridges is too large to follow the standardised
procedure in practice. Moreover, for very complex junctions where highly conductive
elements create a need for very fine meshing of the finite element model it may happen
that those larger models with multiple combined junctions cause extended simulation
duration as well as models reaching the maximum mesh size limitations.
In practice, junctions with two or more combined thermal bridges are sometimes
handled as the sum of individual thermal bridges, but this is not allowed by EN ISO 10211
(2017) and not backed up by previous studies. It is expected that building envelope parts
with variable layer properties related to thermal resistances as well as geometric
dimensions need different minimal flanking element length to reach a uniform thermal
distribution at the cut-off boundary condition. In EN ISO 10211 (2017) methodology, it is
defined that for all regular building envelope elements (excluding ground coupled
elements) the minimum flanking element length is 1.0 m or 3 times the thickness of the
flanking element itself. Previous studies related to simplification of dynamic properties
of thermal bridges through the equivalent wall (Martin et al., 2012) and mixed equivalent
wall methods (Quinten & Feldheim, 2019) show that shorter flanking element lengths for
those specific junctions can be used to describe the heat loss and surface temperatures
without significant loss of accuracy compared to EN ISO 10211 (2017) methodology.
The current thesis builds on these findings to detect the minimal flanking element lengths
(PUBLICATION IV) through parametric numerical assessment of different well-insulated
constructions and to use these shorter lengths to simplify the assessment of combined
thermal bridges by arithmetically combining the linear thermal transmittances of unitary
thermal bridges and thus reducing the required working hours of practitioners and the
time and computing power for more complex numerical finite element (FE) or finite
difference (FD) models due to smaller model geometry.
Although several more prominent linear thermal bridges are accounted for in the
practice the three-dimensional heat flow through the vast array of fixation elements and
other point thermal bridges is often neglected. Based on experience with less insulated
structures it is usually expected that various point thermal bridges have a small
contribution to the overall heat loss. However, several recent studies show that within
well-insulated building envelopes the highly conductive metal fixing elements and
cladding systems have a considerable impact on the effectiveness of thermal insulation
layers (Theodosiou et al., 2019). Although the detailed numerical calculation
methodology for steady-state three-dimensional heat flow is described in European
standard EN ISO 10211 (2017) along with other related standards, it is not implemented
in general practice due to the time-consuming model preparation routine, lack of input
data as well as the large number of different thermal bridges that have to be assessed
for a single project. Additionally, the selection of software tools for three-dimensional
numerical heat flow modelling is limited due to their high price and steep learning curve
(e.g. ANSYS (ANSYS inc., 2020), COMSOL Multiphysics (Comsol inc., 2020), PHYSIBEL
Trisco and Solido (PHYSIBEL, 2020), etc.) compared to numerical heat flow calculation
tools in two dimensions where several open source or free to use tools like LBNL Therm
software package (LBNL Therm, 2020) and others are generally available.
Omission of numerical assessment of different point thermal bridges introduces great
uncertainty in estimating the overall heat loss of highly insulated building envelopes and
different parametric or simplified calculation procedures are needed for general practice
to avoid the performance gap. Several efforts have been made to generalise the thermal
bridge effects of different fixation elements inside the insulating layer with sensitivity
30
analysis to show the effect of different technical parameters contributing to the heat
flow through these thermal bridges such as thermal conductivity of bridging elements
and the surrounding insulation layer, thermal resistances of adjoining layers etc.
(Lorenzati et al., 2016; Theodosiou et al., 2019; Theodosiou et al., 2015). Stonkuvienė
et al. (2021) conducted hot-box measurements of steel ties and connectors inside
200 mm and 300 mm thick insulation layers and compared the results with numerical
three-dimensional steady-state calculations as well as with the simplified procedure
described in EN ISO 6946 (2017) to propose a method and predefined tabulated
coefficients for the simplified method given in EN ISO 6946 (2017) depending on the fixed
insulation layer thickness and material properties and height of connectors.
The current thesis proposes an additional method for accurate estimation of point
thermal transmittance of composite (metal + other materials) elements, such as metal
angles with plastic thermal brakes or timber, fixation anchors etc. inside the wall
construction layer, by combining results from two separate two-dimensional numerical
heat flow calculations.
The method is based on the hypothesis that the difference between the actual length
of the thermal bridge in the third dimension and the equivalent length of the thermal
bridge are strongly correlated to the difference between the thermal coupling
coefficients derived from the respective cross sections (i.e., the central plane of the
thermal bridge and the reference plane without it) and that the difference partially
involves the effect of varying geometry and conductivities to the heat flow in the third
dimension. The proposed methodology (PUBLICATION III) can be useful in general
practice where the design team lacks the skills or software tools for conducting detailed
numerical analysis in three dimensions.
31
3 Methods
3.1 Airtightness in Estonian wooden buildings
3.1.1 Studied buildings
The database of buildings with measured airtightness was constructed based on the
results of different building envelope (Figure 2) airtightness measurements according to
EN ISO 9972 (2015) and EN 13829 (2000) carried out between 2003 and 2017 (in total
522 buildings). The subset of all wooden buildings (in total 313 buildings) was used for
further analysis. The buildings were classified based on building structure (log houses
versus lightweight timber frame), the number of storeys (single-storey versus multi-
storey), year of construction (built before 1945, built between 1946 and 1994, built
between 1995 and 2008, built since 2009), energy classification (energy performance
certificate A and B versus minimum requirements (EITMn nr. 63, 2018)) and compactness
factors (envelope area ratio to volume and envelope area ratio to floor area).
Additionally, companies (producers or building companies) with five or more
measurements were grouped to analyse the effect of systematic measurements.
Figure 2. Measurement of building envelope airtightness with pressurization and depressurization

test according to ENS ISO 9972 and EN 13829.
For all buildings built since 2009 an additional grouping based on production
technology was described to compare on-site building practice to prefabrication for
lightweight timber construction and hand-made building logs to prefabricated building
logs for log houses. The prefabrication level for lightweight timber construction differs
between companies. For volumetric modules the building envelope is typically finished
internally and externally, and airtightness is controlled with vapour control membranes
separately for each module. Prefabricated separate roof and wall elements are typically
structurally complete but the internal finishing layers and external cladding are
completed on site allowing for additional taping to connect the vapour control
membranes between the separate elements. For both construction types, the vapour
control layer (polyethylene sheet) is used on the interior side of the load bearing
structures (Figure 3).
32
Figure 3. A typical solution for prefabricated glulam timber log structures (left) and lightweight
external wall timber structure with and without additional installation layer (right) for
better airtightness and moisture safety used in Estonia. The airtight layer is marked
with a red dashed line.
For log houses the prefabricated glulam timber logs are assembled on site and
typically no additional insulation nor separate airtightness layers are used. The energy
performance requirements of those buildings are fulfilled through a more efficient
heating system and a well-insulated lightweight roof structure with a similar vapour
control membrane for airtightness. For glulam log structures with a thickness less than
200 mm an additional external insulation layer with a timber frame in combination with
a wind-barrier layer, ventilated cavity and cladding is used for better energy performance.
3.1.2 Measurements
The air leakage measurements were carried out using a standardised pressurisation test
according to method B (the test of the building envelope where all the intentional
openings (for natural and mechanical ventilation) shall be sealed, the doors, windows
and trapdoors being closed) described in EN ISO 9972 (2015) and EN 13829 (2000).
The airtightness of the building envelope was tested in a range of pressure differences
between 10 Pa and 60 Pa and reported with a standardised pressure difference of 50 Pa.
At standardised pressure difference the air flow rate (V50), the air leakage rate (q50) and
air change rate (n50) were calculated by dividing the measured air flow rate by the
external envelope area or by the internal volume of the building respectively.
For all buildings, a depressurisation test was carried out to test the airtightness of the
building envelope. For some buildings an additional pressurisation test was performed
to measure air leakage in reversed pressure conditions. For these buildings, the average
leakage rate and other relevant test results were calculated as arithmetic means.
3.1.3 Statistical analysis and calculation of base values
The preliminary analysis of the data showed that the distribution of the measured air
leakage (q50) data is non-normal. Because of this, the median value along with 0.16 and
0.84 quantiles were used to describe the distribution within the different subsets of the
data. The non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis rank test was used to determine statistical
differences between different groups of the measured data. In case of a significant
difference, subsequent pairwise comparison of subsets was carried out using the
post-hoc Conover test. For the analysis, the statistical analysis software R (version 3.5.1)
(R Core Team, 2018) was used with several add-on packages to allow non-parametric
analysis and visualisation.
33
Along with median values, the mean value of the air leakage rate (q50,mean) and
standard deviation (σq50) of all groups were calculated to allow the estimation of the
base value of the air leakage rate (q50,base) for different groups of buildings.
The base value of the air leakage rate was calculated according to the method
described in the Finnish quality assurance manual for airtightness of building
envelope (RT 80-10974, 2009). The calculated base value depends on the group size and
the variation within the group, so that 75 % of the measured buildings will be below the
base value with a confidence interval of 84 % in the case of normal distribution of the
means. The base value is calculated according to equation (3) as follows:
𝑞𝑞50,𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑞𝑞50,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 0.674 ∙ 𝜎𝜎𝑞𝑞50 + 𝜎𝜎𝑞𝑞50 ÷ √𝑛𝑛 , m3/(h⋅m2) (3)
where q50,base – estimated base value of air leakage rate [m3/(h⋅m2)]; q50,mean – measured
value of mean air leakage rate of the group considered [m3/(h⋅m2)]; σq50 – standard
deviation of mean air leakage rate of the group considered [m3/(h⋅m2)]; n – number of
measured buildings in the group considered.
3.2 Air leakage of joints

3.2.1 Studied joints
In laboratory conditions 95 mm deep joints with two different widths (10 mm and
30 mm) and three different surface treatments (sawn wooden laths (SW), planed
wooden laths (PW) and plastic surface (PVC)) filled with three different PU foam products
(product L, product S, product K, all with high elastic recovery dimensional stability) from
different producers were studied. To reduce measurement uncertainty three identical
test specimens were prepared for each combination, totalling to 54 test specimens.
Foam was applied to each joint twice, once from each side.
The width and surface material of studied joints represent typical situations in
different building envelope structures (some examples given in Figure 4) where PU
montage foams are used to limit air leakages. To improve measurement accuracy
multiple joints with same width, surface properties and foam filling were incorporated
into single test specimen. Depending on number of joints in each test specimen the
cumulative length of joints was 5.89 m (10 mm) and 9.82 m (30 mm) for sawn timber
surface and 6.93 m (10 mm) and 10.89 m (30 mm) for other surfaces.
Figure 4. Joints in the building envelope where polyurethane filling is typically used.
34
Joints were filled in laboratory conditions by professional workers (provided by PU
foam producers) according to filling instructions (Figure 5 a). It was targeted that foam
should fill the joint through the width (Figure 5 b).
Figure 5. Filling the joints in a wooden frame (a) and an example of the cross section (from above)
of the frame with filled joints (b).
3.2.2 Measurements
Measurements of the air leakage from the building envelope joints were conducted
under laboratory conditions, based on the EN 12114 (2000) standard. The air flow rate
and static air pressure differences were measured and recorded at each step
automatically.
Air leakage test equipment shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7 consists of the following:
• hermetic chamber (3 mm steel plate) with the test area at a width of 334 mm,
a height of 1000 mm and a depth of 100 mm
• fan (Elmo Rietschle G-BH1, positive pressure difference ≤100 kPa, negative pressure
difference ≤90 kPa, air flow 2450 m3/h) for creating air flow
• frequency converter (EATON DC1-S24DNN-A20N) to regulate air flow
• air flow calibrator (Dwyer: GFC 1109 for 0-–5 l/min, GFC 1131 for 0–30 l/min, GFC
1144 for 0–500 l/min, with an accuracy of ±1.5 %)
• differential manometer (Produal PEL-DK for 0–1000 Pa and Dwyer Magnesense MS
for 0–100 Pa, with an accuracy of ±1 %) for pressure difference measurements
• temperature and relative humidity sensor (Rotronic HygroClip SC05);
• data-logger (Grant Squirrel SQ2010, 8 channels) for automatic and simultaneous
data reading and saving.
Figure 6. Schematic of equipment for air leakage tests (dimensions in mm).
35
Figure 7. Equipment for air leakage tests
The air leakage through test specimens was measured at various air pressure
differences, depending on the individual test, of up to ±600 Pa together with three
pressure pulses (Figure 8 a) according to EN 12114 (2000) standard. The test sequence
was carried out for each individual test specimen so that air flow rate was recorded for
specific combination of joint width, lath surface treatment and foam product each time.
The relation between the pressure difference and the air flow through the building
envelope (Figure 8 b) allowed the results to be presented using the power law (equation
(4)).
𝑉𝑉̇ = 𝐶𝐶 ∙ ∆𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 , m3/h (4)
where 𝑉𝑉̇ [m3/h] is the air flow, ∆𝑃𝑃 is the air pressure difference [Pa], and C [m3/(h·Pan)]
and n [-] are constants obtained from curve fitting, with n ranging from 0.5 to 1.
The air leakage of each test specimen was measured at positive and negative pressure
difference (different flow direction) with separate curve fitting.
Figure 8. Air pressure difference over the studied joint (a) and its influence on the air flow rate (b).
36
3.2.3 Statistical analysis
The measurement data were combined into a database and analysed to test the
significance of different factors. To allow comparison of test specimens with different
lath and joint dimensions, the measured air flow rate was divided by cumulative joint
length of each test specimen to obtain air leakage rates V100 … V500 [l/(min⋅m)].
Preliminary analysis of the measured air leakages over a wide range of pressure
differences showed that some test specimens with the same foam, joint width and
surface treatment had significantly larger air leakage rates. These test results were
marked as ‘failing specimens’ and were omitted from more detailed statistical analysis.
The failing criteria was defined as V100 > 1.5 l/(min⋅m). Nevertheless, all measurement
results were used to determine the ratio of failed specimens grouped by foam, lath
surface treatment and joint width. The cumulative distribution of leakage rates at 100 Pa
pressure difference for different joint surface types along with graphical representation
of failing test specimens is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Cumulative distribution of leakage rates for different joint surface types at 100 Pa pressure
difference and the limiting value for failing specimens.
The general limiting value of air leakage for airtight joints [0.1 m3/(m⋅h⋅(∆Pa)2/3)]
according to German standard DIN 4108-2 is also shown in the figure for corresponding
pressure difference (Beuth-Verlag, 2013).
Due to measurement sensitivity, the air leakage rate of some test specimens could not
be measured for the full range of pressure differences. Some test specimens were too
tight for stable measurements at lower pressure differences while some test specimens
with higher leakage did not sustain stable pressure difference at 500 Pa and 600 Pa
pressure difference. Therefore, more detailed statistical analysis was done with air
leakage rates at 400 Pa pressure difference. For the analysis a power law between
pressure difference and air flow through the envelope (equation (4)) was linearised and
statistically fitted on measured leakage rates and pressure differences separately for
each test specimen. The respective flow coefficient C and exponent n derived for each
test specimen were used according to estimate air leakage rates at exactly 400 Pa
pressure difference (according to equation (4)). The mean air leakage rate (V400) per
37
metre length of joint along with standard deviation (σV400) was calculated and tested for
significant differences (One-Way ANOVA with 95 % confidence interval) between the
different grouping factors (joint width, lath surface treatment, foam product).
Additionally, air leakage rates at 50 Pa pressure difference were estimated from the same
power curves to allow comparison with previous studies. For the analysis, the statistical
analysis software R (version 3.5.1) was used with several add-on packages to allow
statistical analysis and data visualisation (Kassambara, 2018; R Core Team, 2018).
3.3 Heat loss due to cavities within the insulation layer

Parametric steady-state numerical CFD analysis was used to assess the effect of gravity
induced natural convection on heat and particle transfer inside differently shaped
cavities within a 200 mm thick insulation layer.
3.3.1 Experimental study in a climate chamber for model validation
To validate the numerical CFD model measurement data from a climate chamber
experiment were used to gather temperature and heat flux data with a penetrating cavity
of 10 mm thickness. The test wall incorporated 200 mm thick polyisocyanurate (PIR)
insulation boards with measured thermal conductivity of 0.019 W/(m2·K) and a 0.3 mm
thick duct tape covering was used to seal the cavities between insulation boards and to
form a closed space. Interior and exterior temperatures along with the interior surface
heat flux were measured at the cavity location as well as at one reference point away
from the joints corresponding to the one-dimensional situation. The following sensors
and loggers were used:
• temperature sensor Onset Hobo TMC20-HD (accuracy ±0.15°C) fastened using tape
and hot glue with logger UX120-006M
• heat flux plate greenTEG gSKIN-XP (accuracy ±3 %) fastened using thermal paste and
tape with logger Grant Squirrel SQ2020 1F8
• heat flux plate Hukseflux HFP03 (accuracy ±6 %) fastened using thermal paste with
logger Grant Squirrel SQ2020 1F8 for PIR 1D conductivity measurements
• temperature sensor Pico PT100 1/10 DIN (accuracy ±0.03°C) with logger Pico PT-104
for the calibration of the Onset temperature sensors
• temperature sensor Siemens QFA3171 (accuracy ±0.6°C) built into the climate
chamber for boundary condition measurements.
The temperature and heat flux measurements were taken at the central plane of the
penetrating cavity at different heights measured from bottom of the cavity. The scheme
of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 10.
38
Figure 10. Scheme of the of test wall: sensor placement on the internal chamber side (left); cross
section of the test wall (middle); photo of the test wall (right)
The heat flux plates with sensing dimension of 10 x 10 mm were fixed to the internal
chamber side of the joint using thermal paste and tape. Heat flux values were recorded
at 20 mm, 100 mm, 800 mm, 2110 mm and 2360 mm height. The exterior chamber
temperatures ranged from –30 °C to +10 °C (with 10 °C intervals); the interior chamber
temperature was set at +20 °C. Measurement results were averaged over periods of
stable ambient temperatures for analysis.
The measurements regarding the air cavity with metal diagonal tie and additional
filling with mineral wool, foam tape and PU foam were part of the study of thermal bridge
effects of vertical diagonal tie connectors in precast concrete sandwich panels and are
published in (Klõšeiko et al., 2020).
3.3.2 Simplified thermal transmittance correction (EN ISO 6946)
European standard EN ISO 6946 (2017) describes a simplified method to account for the
effect of air cavities within an insulation layer. Three levels of installation quality are
defined in EN ISO 6946 (2017) with appropriate correction factors ∆U’’ for installation
levels 0 (IL 0), 1 (IL 1) and 2 (IL 2) shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Correction factors for air voids given in EN ISO 6946 Annex F
Installation Correction factor

Description
level ∆U’’, W/(m2·K)
No air voids within the insulation, or where only minor
IL 0 air voids are present that have no significant effect on 0.00
the thermal transmittance.
Air gaps bridging between the hot and cold side of the
IL 1 insulation, but not causing air circulation between the 0.01
warm and cold side of the insulation.
Air gaps bridging between the hot and cold side of the
insulation, combined with cavities resulting in free air
IL 2 0.04
circulation between the warm and cold sides of the
insulation.
39
These correction factors are used to calculate the correction term for air cavities ∆Ug
according to equation (5).
𝑅𝑅1 2 (5)
∆𝑈𝑈𝑔𝑔 = ∆𝑈𝑈 ′′ ∙ � � , W/(m2·K)
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
where R1 is the thermal resistance of the layer containing the cavities, (m²·K)/W; Rtot
is the total thermal resistance of the component ignoring any thermal bridging (thermally
homogeneous building envelope), (m²·K)/W; ∆U’’ is the correction factor based on the
level of insulation installation quality, W/(m²·K).
The correction term is then used to estimate the corrected thermal transmittance Uc
of the building envelope according to equation (6).
(6)
𝑈𝑈𝑐𝑐 = 𝑈𝑈 + ∆𝑈𝑈𝑔𝑔 , W/(m2·K)
where U is the thermal transmittance of a component ignoring any air cavities and
thermal bridging, W/(m²·K); ∆Ug is the correction term for air cavities in accordance with
equation (5), W/(m²·K).
It is difficult to implement this simplified method correctly in real life conditions as the
descriptions given for each installation level are limited in detail, have changed in
different redactions of the same standard and do not quantify the amount and location
of air cavities. For example, depending on the width of the installed insulation panels,
the recurring distance between the penetrating air cavities differs and therefore also the
average length per unitary envelope area is different. Additionally, the convective heat
flow inside penetrating cavities is caused by the buoyancy-driven air flow, but it is not
clearly described if and in which range of temperature differences this flow is accounted
for in tabulated correction factors.
In our study, the numerical modelling is used to calculate detailed values for correction
factors ∆U’’ depending on the temperature difference, thermal transmittance of the
penetrated insulation material as well as the geometric characteristics of the assessed
air cavities.
3.3.3 Description of model geometry
A simplified construction type of a single insulation layer with a thickness of 200 mm was
used for the assessment with alternative thermal conductivities of 0.019 W/(m∙K),
0.031 W/(m∙K) and 0.040 W/(m∙K), corresponding to the typical range of insulation
materials used in nZEBs. The numerical domain is 600 mm wide, corresponding to the
typical ETICS panel, and 3110 mm long, corresponding to the full storey height of a
building (Figure 11). The numerical domain encloses one cavity between insulation
boards along the length of the domain symmetric to cut-off planes, corresponding to an
average cavity length-to-area ratio of 1.67 m/m2. The dimensions of the numerical
domains for the roof and floor constructions were kept the same for sake of comparison.
40
Figure 11. Location of numerical domains and respective calculation models with dimensions.
The thermal transmittance of this building component without the effect of thermal
bridging and air cavities corresponding to EN ISO 6946 (2017) installation level 0 is
Uc0 = 0.194 W/(m2∙K) with thermal conductivity of 0.040 W/(m∙K). The simplified
normative method suggests corrected thermal transmittance Uc1 = 0.203 W/(m2∙K)
and Uc2 = 0.231 W/(m2∙K) for installation levels 1 and 2 with the same insulation
material. With thermal conductivity of 0.031 W/(m∙K) the respective values are
Uc0 = 0.151 W/(m2∙K), Uc1 = 0.161 W/(m2∙K) and Uc2 = 0.189 W/(m2∙K) and with thermal
conductivity of 0.019 W/(m2∙K), Uc0 = 0.094 W/(m2∙K), Uc1 = 0.103 W/(m2∙K) and
Uc2 = 0.132 W/(m2∙K).
For each location in the building envelope, CFD analysis was carried out on five main
types of potential air cavities, as seen in Figure 12, totalling 483 numerical models:
a) penetrating cavity with rectangular cross section
b) rectangular cavity filled by PU foam (50 mm) from the external side
c) cavities in 2-layer insulation with rebate, tongue and groove edge
d) penetrating cavity with wedge-shaped cross section
e) penetrating cavity with additional triangular cut-outs.
Figure 12. Assessed geometric cases of different cavities.
41
3.3.4 Computational fluid dynamics analysis
Numerical parametric steady-state three-dimensional CFD calculation software ANSYS®
Fluent Academic Student 2021 R2 (ANSYS inc., 2020) was used to assess the effect of
radiation- and gravity-induced natural convection on heat and particle transfer inside
cavities between rigid insulation boards and within the insulation material.
The models were set up with an adaptive computational mesh with very fine element
size inside the air cavity and in its vicinity and in coarser elements near the cut-off
surfaces (Figure 13) of the model as the number of finite elements was limited by the
used software package.
Figure 13. Example of an adaptive computational mesh (left) and calculated air velocities inside the
penetrating air cavity (right). Screenshots courtesy of ANSYS, Inc.
The calculation model with 10 mm penetrating air cavity with a uniform cross section
was validated with climate chamber measurements described in more detail in our
previous study (Klõšeiko et al., 2020). The thermal resistances Rsi = 0.08 (m2∙K)/W and
Rse = 0.08 (m2∙K)/W for all calculations were defined according to the values measured in
that study. Incompressible ideal gas and laminar flow were assumed for each calculation.
The convergence criterion defined in EN ISO 10211 (2017) was used to limit the
number of iterations, i.e., the sum of all heat flows entering the object divided by half
the sum of the absolute values of all heat flows shall be less than 0.0001. Continuity,
velocity and energy absolute residual criteria were set to ≤0.00001.
The sum of all heat flows entering the object was then divided by the reference area
of the geometric model to quantify the respective heat flux for each assessed case. The
heat flux was then divided by the temperature difference used between opposite
boundary conditions to quantify the corrected thermal transmittance UCFD for each case
and to calculate the correction factor 𝛥𝛥Ug by subtracting the nominal thermal
transmittance Uc0 without air cavities.
3.3.5 Calculation of annual heat loss in different climate conditions

As the increase in the thermal transmittance of a building envelope due to natural
convection inside penetrating air cavities is strongly related to the temperature
difference, the effect on overall heat loss of the building envelope is different in different
climates. To assess this difference, a simplified heat loss calculation utilising heating
degree days was used for five different locations across Europe, as shown in Figure 14.
42
For Estonian climate (Tartu), hourly temperature data from national test reference year
for energy calculations were used (Kalamees & Kurnitski, 2006); for all other locations,
hourly temperature data from ASHRAE International Weather for Energy Calculations
(IWEC) data (ASHRAE, 2001) were used.
Figure 14. Locations with different heating degree days in a typical year used for the assessment.
For each assessed cavity type and insulation combination, a linear regression was used
to retrieve slope and intercept for the numerically derived relationship between UCFD and
the temperature difference in the range of 10 K to 40 K. Based on regression parameters,
the temperature dependent thermal transmittance UCh was calculated for each hour of
the typical year and respective heat loss through the unitary area of the building
envelope was accumulated for all hours where the exterior temperature is below the
thermal balance point according to equation (7). The thermal balance point of a building
will depend on overall heat loss of the building, available solar and internal heat gains
etc, which are not defined in this study, because only a theoretical unitary area of
external envelope is considered. In this study the value of thermal balance point was
defined at 11 °C corresponding to 10 K below the interior temperature of 21 °C.
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 = 0.001 ∙ ∑(Θ𝑖𝑖 − 10 − Θ𝑒𝑒 ) ∙ 𝑈𝑈𝐶𝐶ℎ if Θ e < (Θ i – 10) , kWh/(m2·a) (7)
where QH is annual heat loss through 1 m2 of the building envelope, kWh/(m²·a);

Θi interior temperature, °C; Θe exterior temperature, °C; UCh variable thermal
transmittance of the building envelope depending on the temperature difference
between the interior and exterior temperatures, W/(m²·K).
3.4 Assessment of combined thermal bridges

Parametric steady-state finite element (FE) numerical assessment of different thermal
bridges in a well-insulated construction was carried out (PUBLICATION IV) to study the
effect of minimal flanking element length in the numerical heat flow calculation to
determine the minimal flanking element length that has negligible or no effect on
accuracy in calculating the linear thermal transmittance in steady-state conditions.
3.4.1 Numerical finite element analysis

Thermal bridges are defined as part of the building envelope where the otherwise
uniform thermal resistance is significantly changed by full or partial penetration of the
building envelope by materials with higher thermal conductivity (EN ISO 10211, 2017).
43
The linear thermal transmittance Ψ of an additional thermal bridge was calculated as
described in equation (8).
𝑁𝑁𝑗𝑗
Ψ = 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − ∑𝑗𝑗=1 𝑈𝑈𝑗𝑗 ∙ 𝑙𝑙𝑗𝑗 , W/(m⋅K) (8)
where L2D, W/(m·K), is the thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a separate
two-dimensional numerical calculation; Uj, W/(m2·K), is the thermal transmittance of the
building envelope adjoining the thermal bridge and lj, m, is the respective length of the
adjoining part of the building envelope (i.e., flanking element length) described in the
numerical model.
The thermal coupling coefficients L2D for each case were obtained from two-dimensional
numerical models with the respective heat flows divided by the temperature difference
used in the model. The heat flow and thermal bridge calculations were carried out
according to the methodology, boundary conditions and modelling rules described in EN
ISO 10211 (2017). The software package LBNL Therm (LBNL Therm, 2020), which utilises
steady-state finite element methods to numerically calculate two-dimensional heat
flows in complex geometrical models, was used. This software package was selected
because of programmable input and output and the author of this thesis has already
developed pre- and post-processing workflows for this specific software that enables
parametric study.
3.4.2 Studied geometry of thermal bridges

For the assessment were used three well-insulated construction types with three
different insulation materials with an equal overall wall thickness of 480 mm:
A. lightweight timber construction with a 417 mm layer of insulation and repeating
wooden c-beams as load bearing structures (Figure 15 - A; Figure 16 - 1, 2, 5, 6)
with thermal transmittance between 0.060 and 0.094 W/(m2·K) depending on the
thermal conductivity of the insulation material
B. lightweight concrete (thermal conductivity 0.24 W/(m·K)) sandwich element with
a 200 mm layer of insulation (Figure 15 – B, Figure 16 – 3, 4, 7, 8) with thermal
transmittance 0.096–0.158 W/(m2·K) depending on the insulation material
C. heavyweight concrete (thermal conductivity 2.3 W/(m·K)) sandwich element
with a 200 mm layer of insulation (Figure 15 – C, Figure 16 – 3, 4, 7, 8) with
thermal transmittance between 0.106 and 0.189 W/(m2K) depending on the
thermal conductivity of the insulation material.
Figure 15. Three different wall construction types used in numerical analysis: A – lightweight timber
construction, B – lightweight concrete sandwich element, C – heavyweight concrete
sandwich element.
44
Assessment was carried out on five main types of thermal bridges connected to the
external wall part for each construction type. The slab on the ground construction and
the foundation geometry below the ground were similar for all assessed cases with
200 mm of heavyweight concrete on top of 250 mm insulation and thermal conductivity
corresponding to that of the external wall insulation layer. In the case of ground coupled
junctions the length of terrain and soil depth were set to 20 m and the length of the floor
slab inside the building to 4 m according to EN ISO 10211 and the characteristic
dimension of the floors of the model buildings used in this study. An overview of the
assessed geometries is shown in Figure 16 and Figure 17:
• regular external wall to external wall connection (Figure 16 – 1 and 3)
• inverted external wall to external wall connection (Figure 16 – 2 and 4)
• window to external wall connection (Figure 16 – 5 and 7)
• external wall to slab on ground connection (Figure 16 – 6 and 8)
• external wall to intermediate ceiling connection (Figure 17 – A).
Figure 16. Assessed geometry in main analysis: 1 and 3 – regular corner, 2 and 4 – inverted corner,
5 and 7 – window to wall connection, 6 and 8 – floor slab to external wall connection.
The flanking element length for each assessed thermal bridge was varied between
10 % and 100 % (corresponding to 1/3 and 3 times the thickness of the flanking element)
with steps of 10 % (i.e., 0.144 m) totalling 10 different numerical models with flanking
element lengths between 0.144 m and 1.44 m.
An additional geometry was included for further numerical analysis for the external
wall with heavyweight concrete sandwich elements to study thermal bridges with
significantly higher linear thermal transmittances. For this, two suboptimal levels
(’medium’ and ’high’) of thermal bridges were described for the external wall to window
connection and the external wall to balcony connection, as illustrated in Figure 17.
The balcony connection junction with a ’high’ thermal bridge corresponds to a fully
protruding balcony slab while the junction with a ‘medium’ thermal bridge has a special
decoupling element (ISOKORB) (Schöck bauteile GmbH, 2012) with an effective thermal
conductivity of 0.124 W/(m·K) separating the balcony slab and the intermediate floor
slab. The window connection with ‘medium’ and ’high’ thermal bridges correspond to
the suboptimal positioning of the window frame halfway or fully into the internal load
bearing layer. The thermal conductivity λ of different materials used in the numerical
analysis is described in Table 2.
45
Figure 17. Additional geometry for follow-up analysis: A – junctions with ‘low’ thermal bridge,
B – junctions with ‘medium’ thermal bridge, C – junctions with ‘high’ thermal bridge.
Table 2. Variable layer properties in assessed geometric cases
Thermal conductivity λ,
Construction type Material layer
W/(m·K)
0.03 m wind barrier board 0.031
0.008 m fibreboard (OSB) 0.130
Lightweight timber
0.417 m insulation layer 0.022 / 0.031 / 0.040
construction
0.012 m fibreboard (OSB) 0.130
0.013 m gypsum board 0.210
Heavyweight 0.08 m heavyweight concrete 2.300
concrete sandwich 0.2 m insulation layer 0.022 / 0.031 / 0.040
element 0.2 m heavyweight concrete 2.300
Lightweight 0.08 m lightweight concrete 0.240
concrete sandwich 0.2 m insulation layer 0.022 / 0.031 / 0.040
element 0.2 m lightweight concrete 0.240
0.2 m heavyweight concrete 2.300
0.25 m insulation layer 0.022 / 0.031 / 0.040
Slab on ground
20.0 m soil layer 2.000
0.15 m edge insulation layer 0.022 / 0.031 / 0.040
The assessed different insulation materials correspond, for example, to two typical
mineral wool types, along with the PU foam insulation, that are used for nZEBs. In the
scope of this study alternative insulation materials with the same thermal conductivity
can be considered as interchangeable.
3.4.3 Description of whole building model geometry
To assess the potential for simplifications in real life situations, two existing buildings of
different size and geometry were described, featuring several combined thermal bridges
in the thermal envelope. A large non-residential four-storey office building (Figure 18 A)
with mixed construction was used as a model building for bigger and more complex
building geometry featuring 11 regular junctions with a single linear thermal bridge and
73 junctions with two or more combined thermal bridges according to the minimum
flanking element length required by EN ISO 10211 (2017). A prefabricated two-storey
wooden reference building (Figure 18 B) with a well-insulated lightweight timber frame
wall and roof elements was used as an alternative example of detached houses featuring
8 regular junctions with a single linear thermal bridge and 26 junctions with two or more
46
combined thermal bridges. For both buildings, the number of combined thermal bridges
was calculated based on the minimum distance between the different junctions
according to EN ISO 10211 (2017).
Figure 18. Model building envelope geometry of the large non-residential office building (A, 3
storeys + basement) and of the detached house (B, 2 storeys) used for assessment.
Subsequently, a new minimum distance between all junctions was defined based on
numerical cases with the relative deviation of linear thermal transmittances of up to
0.5 %, 1.0 % or 2.0 %. Then the reduced number of combined thermal bridges was
calculated by using these shorter flanking element lengths. This allows estimating the
reduction of working hours for general practitioners when unitary linear thermal
transmittances are combined for overall heat loss calculation.
3.5 A new method for estimating point thermal transmittance

A new methodology, published in PUBLICATION III for estimating the three-dimensional
heat flow caused by a point thermal bridge is based on multiple two-dimensional
numerical heat flow calculations. A multiple regression model was used to estimate the
equivalent length of the thermal bridging element based on several parameters related
to the heat flow through the building envelope.
3.5.1 Numerical finite element analysis

The point thermal transmittance χ , which represents the additional heat flow per 1 K air
temperature difference between the internal and the external environment of this kind
of penetrations is calculated as in equation (9).
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 (9)
𝜒𝜒 = 𝐿𝐿3𝐷𝐷 − ∑𝑖𝑖=1
𝑖𝑖
𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 − ∑𝑘𝑘=1
𝑘𝑘
Ψ𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑙𝑙𝑘𝑘 , W/K
where L3D is the thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a three-dimensional

numerical calculation, Ui is the thermal transmittance of the building envelope adjoining
the thermal bridge, Ai is the respective area of the adjoining part of the building envelope
in the calculation model, Ψk is the linear thermal transmittance of the additional thermal
bridge if present derived from equation (8) and lj is the respective length of the additional
linear thermal bridge.
When the three-dimensional reference calculation without the assessed penetrating
element already contains the effect of the additional linear thermal bridge, the point
47
thermal transmittance of an assessed thermal bridge can also be derived as in equation
(10)
𝜒𝜒 = 𝐿𝐿3𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿3𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 , W/K (10)
where L3Dref is the thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a separate three-dimensional
numerical calculation model with identical boundary conditions, cut-off planes etc., but
without considering the presence of the assessed point thermal bridge.
The thermal coupling coefficients L2D and L2Dref as well as L3D and L3Dref obtained from
two- and three-dimensional numerical models are calculated as respective heat flows
divided by the temperature difference used in the model.
The heat flow and thermal bridge calculations in this study were carried out according
to the methodology, boundary conditions and modelling rules described in EN ISO 10211
(2017) by applying the software package Physibel Trisco (PHYSIBEL, 2020), which uses
the finite difference method to numerically calculate three-dimensional heat flows in
complex geometrical models. For each assessed thermal bridge case four heat flows
were numerically derived:
• three-dimensional heat flow for the actual point thermal bridge
• three-dimensional reference heat flow for the same model omitting the thermal
point penetration
• two-dimensional heat flow for the horizontal cross section taken from the central
plane of the point thermal bridge element and
• two-dimensional reference heat flow for the horizontal cross section omitting the
thermal point penetration.
To avoid the uncertainty generated by using different numerical software tools for
two- and three-dimensional calculation, the two-dimensional heat flow was obtained
from the three-dimensional calculation model in which the third dimension was set to
unitary length (1 m) and modelled with uniform geometry in that dimension.
3.5.2 Description of the assessed thermal bridging elements

An external wall construction with an external insulation layer, wind barrier layer and
ventilated cladding with a penetrating metal bracket fixed to the vertical timber
elements was assessed. Schematic horizontal cross sections for thermal bridge cases and
reference cases are shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Horizontal cross section of the assessed external wall for calculating the thermal coupling
coefficient L2D with a thermal bridge (a) and L2Dref for reference cases (b) without a
thermal bridge.
48
Previous studies have shown that along with the thermal conductivity of the
penetrating element itself the thermal conductivity of the insulation material and its
layer thickness used in the building envelope as well as the resistances of the layers
covering the penetrating element on the internal and external sides have a significant
effect on point thermal transmittance (Theodosiou et al., 2019; Theodosiou et al., 2015).
In the current study the thermal conductivity λ of the internal load bearing structure,
insulation layer and wind barrier layer as well as the metal thermal bridging element was
varied as described in Table 3. The assessed insulation materials correspond to two
different typical mineral wool types along with polyurethane foam insulation that are
used in this kind of construction in nZEBs.
Table 3. Variable parameters used in numerical heat flow analysis
Parameter Description Thermal conductivity λ, W/(m·K)

Load bearing 0.19 m reinforced concrete 2.50
structure 0.19 m aerated concrete 0.15
typical mineral wool 0.040
Insulation
good mineral wool 0.031
layer
polyurethane foam 0.023
Wind
0.030 m mineral wool board 0.031
barrier
0.030 m fibreboard 0.055
only wind barrier membrane (-)
regular steel 55
Metal
reinforced steel 17
bracket
aluminium 160
In addition to variable thermal conductivity and layer thickness the length of metal
bracket in third dimension was varied to include brackets with the following lengths:
0.06 m, 0.12 m and 0.18 m. The thickness of metal brackets was set to 0.003 m in all
calculated cases. Altogether 102 different combinations were calculated.
The cut-off planes for two- and three-dimensional models were selected according to
EN ISO 10211 (2017) to eliminate the effect of thermal bridges on the heat flow
distribution near the cut-off planes of the calculation model. The total width of the
two-dimensional calculation model was 2.60 m while the width and height of the
three-dimensional calculation model were both 2.60 m as shown in Figure 20.
Based on three-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients, point thermal transmittance
was calculated as in equation (10). The acquired point thermal transmittance was divided
by the difference of two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients to obtain the
equivalent length heq of the thermal bridge. The equivalent length of thermal bridge
therefore expresses the hypothetical length of 2D thermal bridge cross section which
amounts to heat loss equal to point thermal transmittance of real 3D thermal bridge.
As the point thermal transmittance of the bridging element is directly related to the
actual thermal bridge length, this effect is omitted from further analysis by subtracting
the actual physical length of the considered thermal bridge hTB from the equivalent
49
length of the thermal bridge heq. The effect of different parameters is tested against the
additional length of the thermal bridge hadd as in equation (11).
Figure 20. Geometric model of the assessed external wall part containing a thermal bridge (a) and
central part of three-dimensional FED model of the assessed external wall containing a
thermal bridge (b) with indicated mesh density and temperature distribution (the parts
of wind barrier and insulation layers are cut off for visualisation purpose).
(11)
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − ℎ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ,m
The half amount of the additional length of thermal bridge can be considered as an
extra length on both sides of the bridging element to compensate for the heat flows in
the third dimension as shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21. Schematic view of the assessed point thermal bridge with actual length (hTB), equivalent
length (heq) and additional length (hadd) of the thermal bridge in the third dimension.
50
3.5.3 Statistical analysis
The heat flows and thermal coupling coefficients for each combination of input variables
were combined into a database. Based on the calculated point thermal transmittances
and differences of two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients, several multiple linear
regression models were fitted to the numerically calculated data by using the R software
package (R Core Team, 2018). As a first step, the simple linear regression was fitted as
described in equation (12), but additional terms to the basic multiple linear regression
equation were added to improve the model fit as given in equations (13), (14) and (15)
based on preliminary numerically calculated data (altogether 12 different equations
were fitted, but only 4 most relevant are given here).
(12)
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐1 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛
(13)
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐1 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 𝑐𝑐2 ∙ 𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑐𝑐3 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑐𝑐4 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛
(14)
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐1 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 𝑐𝑐2 ∙ 𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑐𝑐3 ∙ ℎ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑐𝑐4 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐1 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 𝑐𝑐2 ∙ 𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑐𝑐3 ∙ ℎ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑐𝑐4 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 𝑐𝑐5 (15)
∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛
where Ril, Rel are respectively the thermal resistances of the layers adjoining the
thermal bridging element from the internal and external sides, λTB is the thermal
conductivity of the thermal bridging element, htb is the actual length of the thermal
bridging element and c1, c2, c3, c4, c5 and cn are the estimated coefficients from the
regression model.
The goodness of fit was assessed by considering the adjusted R-squared for each
model and the p-value for each coefficient estimate. For the analysis and model fitting
by the least squares method the statistical analysis software R (version 3.5.1) (R Core
Team, 2018) was used with several add-on packages to allow statistical analysis and data
visualisation.
51
4 Results
As expected, the median air leakage (q50) of older buildings, which was between
10.7 m3/(h⋅m2) and 13.9 m3/(h⋅m2), has decreased to 1.1 m3/(h⋅m2) after the minimum
requirements for energy performance took effect in 2008 (Table 4). The development is
similar in detached houses and apartment buildings (Figure 22). The variation within the
age groups has also decreased significantly in new wooden buildings allowing the use of
the base value q50 = 3.0 m3/(h⋅m2) for new wooden buildings when no additional
information is available during energy performance calculation.
Figure 22. Air leakage rates of detached (left) and apartment buildings (right) based on the
construction year. The median values with 0.16 / 0.84 quantiles are marked.
Table 4. Air leakage rate and its distribution depending on the time of construction
Number Air leakage rate q50, m3/(h⋅m2)

of
buildings Median 16 % 84 % Mean σq50 q50,base
percentile percentile
All wooden buildings
Built before1945 97 10.7 6.9 16.4 12.5 6.9 17.8
Built in 1946–1994 7 13.9 9.3 28.3 17.1 9.2 26.8
Built in 1995–2008 72 3.2 1.5 8.1 5.2 5.5 9.5
Built since 2009 137 1.1 0.8 3.1 1.8 1.6 3.0
A more detailed analysis on buildings (137 in total) built since 2009 describes the effect
of additional factors on air leakage (Table 5).
52
Table 5. Effect of different factors on the air leakage rate and its distribution in the group of
buildings built since 2009

of
Wooden buildings built since 2009
Single-storey 34 1.1 0.8 3.1 1.9 1.9 3.4
Multi-storey 103 1.1 0.7 3.2 1.8 1.5 3.0
EPC class A 6 0.5 0.3 1.5 0.9 1.0 2.0
EPC class B 10 0.7 0.4 1.4 1.0 1.1 2.1
EPC class C (minimum
121 1.2 0.8 3.3 1.9 1.7 3.2
requirement)
Log building 46 2.2 1.0 3.9 2.5 1.7 3.9
Lightweight timber 91 0.9 0.7 1.6 1.4 1.5 2.6
Irregular
35 2.8 0.9 5.5 3.1 2.4 5.1
measurements
Systematic
102 1.0 0.7 2.1 1.3 0.9 2.0
measurements (>5)
The energy performance certificate (EPC) classification A or B contributed to a slightly

lower median air leakage (0.5 and 0.7 m3/(h·m2) respectively) than in the case of buildings
designed to meet minimum requirements (EPC “C”) (1.2 m3/(h·m2)). The lightweight timber
construction (median 0.9 m3/(h·m2)) had significantly lower median air leakage compared
to log houses (2.2 m3/(h·m2)). This can be due to the fact that airtightness has been
predominantly measured in prefabricated buildings not on site. The companies that
systematically conduct air leakage measurements (5 or more measurements in dataset)
have significantly lower air leakage rates in buildings (1.0 m3/(h·m2)) compared to the
buildings in the irregular measurement group (2.8 m3/(h·m2)). All those differences were
statistically significant (p-value < 0.05, Kruskal-Wallis, post-hoc Conover).
As Table 5 illustrates, the number of storeys did not influence the air leakage of the
building envelope. Both groups have equal median air leakage rates (1.1 m3/(h·m2)).
Surprisingly, the analysis showed no significant difference between buildings with
different compactness factors or different number of storeys (Figure 23) although a
lower air leakage rate was expected for buildings with better compactness through a
favourable ratio of the external envelope area to the internal volume and a generally
smaller number of junctions related to a simpler form factor.
As the construction technique had a great effect on the average air leakage,
both groups (log buildings and lightweight timber buildings) were further analysed to see
if prefabrication has a significant effect as expected. Indeed, as Table 6 shows,
the prefabricated log buildings (median 1.6 m3/(h·m2)) are 55 % more airtight than
hand-made log buildings (median 3.6 m3/(h·m2)). In the case of lightweight timber
buildings, prefabrication has even a larger effect: the air leakage rate of prefabricated
buildings (median 0.9 m3/(h·m2)) is 74 % lower compared to on-site construction (median
3.4 m3/(h·m2)).
53
Figure 23. Correlation of air leakage rate (q50) and building compactness for buildings built since
2009. The envelope area to volume ratio (left) and the envelope area to floor area ratio
(right) are given.
Table 6. Effect of prefabrication on the air leakage rate and its distribution for different construction
subtypes

of
All log buildings built since 2009
Handmade logs 13 3.6 2.7 5.8 4.2 1.9 5.9
Prefabricated logs 33 1.6 0.9 3.1 1.9 1.1 2.8
All lightweight timber buildings built since 2009
Prefabricated
80 0.9 0.7 1.3 1.1 0.7 1.6
elements
On-site building 11 3.4 1.4 6.0 4.0 2.7 6.7
The effect of systematic measurement practice within manufacturing or building

companies was further analysed separately for log buildings and lightweight timber
construction. Like in the case of the full dataset, the effect of systematic measurements
was significant in both groups of construction technologies, but the differences were
smaller (Table 7). Within log buildings the systematic measurements showed 37 % lower
air leakage rates. Within lightweight timber buildings the systematic measurements
showed 47 % lower air leakage rates. This means that systematic measurements give
manufacturers and building companies good feedback about air leakages, thus fostering
improvement of the airtightness and quality control systems used.
54
Table 7. Effect of systematic measurements on the air leakage rate and its distribution for
construction subtypes

of
All log buildings built since 2009
Irregular
11 3.0 1.9 6.3 3.9 2.3 6.1
measurements
Systematic
35 1.9 0.9 3.5 2.1 1.2 3.1
measurements (> 5)
All lightweight timber buildings built since 2009
Irregular
24 1.7 0.8 4.6 2.7 2.4 4.8
measurements
Systematic
67 0.9 0.7 1.3 1.0 0.4 1.2
measurements (> 5)
For visual comparison between different building technologies within companies that
conduct systematic measurements on their buildings the average (median) air leakage
rates along with 16 % and 84 % percentiles are given in Figure 24. It can be seen that log
buildings have a significantly higher variation within the same company compared to
prefabricated lightweight elements.
Figure 24. Comparison of air leakage rates and their distribution between companies that conduct
systematic measurements (A – log buildings, B – volumetric prefabricated modules,
C – prefabricated wall/roof elements).
The prefabricated volumetric and regular modules have a lower variation, and the
median values of air leakages are around q50 = 1.0 m3/(h·m2) or even lower. The higher
55
variation in measurements affects significantly the base values of air leakage rates
for these construction technologies. For handmade log buildings the base value
q50,base = 5.9 m3/(h·m2). For prefabricated log buildings the base value of air leakage is
53 % lower: q50,base = 2.8 m3/(h·m2). Both these construction technologies cannot
compete with prefabricated modular technology, where the base value of the air leakage
rate q50,base = 1.6 m3/(h·m2). For comparison, the base value of the air leakage rate q50,base
for all timber buildings built since 2009 was 3.0 m3/(h·m2).
4.2 Air leakage of joints sealed with PU foam

Preliminary analysis of the measured air leakages over a full range of pressure differences
showed that some test specimens with otherwise identical foam, joint width and surface
treatment had significantly larger air leakage rates. These measurement results are
classified as ‘failing specimens’ and omitted from more detailed statistical analysis.
The failing criterion was defined at 100 Pa pressure difference as V100 > 1.5 l/(min⋅m).
Nevertheless, all measurement results were used to determine the ratio of failed
specimens grouped by foam, lath surface treatment and joint width. The cumulative
distribution of leakage rates at 100 Pa pressure difference for different joint surface types
along with graphical representation of failing test specimens is shown in Figure 25.
The general limiting value of air leakage for airtight joints (0.1 m3/(m⋅h⋅(∆Pa)2/3))
according to German standard DIN 4108-2 is also shown in the figure for the
corresponding pressure difference (Beuth-Verlag, 2013).
Figure 25. Cumulative distribution of leakage rates for different joint surface types at 100 Pa
pressure difference and the limiting value for failing specimens.
The proportion of the test specimens with failed airtightness depended mainly on lath
surface properties. Figure 26 shows that in the case of planed timber, the airtightness
did not fail. In the case of the PVC surface, the proportion of failed test specimens was
16 % and 28 % respectively for 10 mm and 30 mm wide joints. Joints with a sawed
wooden surface performed significantly worse with a failure rate of 33 % and 50 % for
10 mm and 30 mm wide joint respectively.
56
A greater joint width also contributed to a higher failure rate of airtightness. Grouping
by specific foam products had no significant effect on the failure rate of test specimens.
Figure 26. Number of test specimens with failed airtightness depending on lath surface treatment
grouped by joint width (10 mm or 30 mm).
The mean air leakage rates at 400 Pa and 50 Pa pressure differences grouped by foam
product, joint width and lath surface treatment are given in Table 8 along with variation
(standard deviation) within test specimens and under- and overpressure conditions. For
statistical testing air leakage rates at 400 Pa pressure difference were used.
Table 8. Air leakage rates and standard deviation at 400 Pa and 50 Pa pressure difference
Joint type Air leakage rate at 400 and 50 Pa air pressure difference
Width, Foam V400, l/(min⋅m) V50, l/(min⋅m)
Surface
mm product Mean σV400 Mean σV50
K 0.301 0.141 0.203 0.109
10 L 0.604 0.229 0.203 0.076
Planed wood
S 0.299 0.169 0.156 0.054

(PW)
K 0.606 0.618 0.214 0.092

30 L 1.090 0.713 0.404 0.191
S 0.398 0.374 0.172 0.068
K 1.413 0.477 0.293 0.118
10 L 1.084 0.172 0.233 0.078
S 1.007 0.229 0.251 0.070
PVC
K 1.603 0.601 0.313 0.134

30 L 1.758 0.438 0.441 0.123
S 2.067 0.311 0.483 0.071
K 0.616 0.290 0.252 0.097
10 L 1.164 0.334 0.381 0.129
Sawn wood
S 1.216 0.657 0.329 0.147

(SW)
K 1.880 0.217 0.565 0.027

30 L 1.165 0.714 0.392 0.207
S 1.298 0.787 0.402 0.195
57
Figure 27 shows that the mean air leakage rate for joints with a planed wood surface
(V400 = 0.549 l/(min⋅m)) was significantly (p < 0.0001, Anova) lower, by a factor of 2 or
more, compared to sawn wood surfaces (V400= 1.132 l/(min⋅m)) and plastic surfaces
(V400= 1.438 l/(min⋅m)). Also, the deviation was lower for joints with a planed
wood surface (σV400 = 0.501 l/(min⋅m)) compared to sawn wood surfaces
(σV400 = 0.635 l/(min⋅m)) and plastic surfaces (σV400 = 0.524 l/(min⋅m)), meaning higher
reliability in achieving the target result. It was expected that the smooth wood surface
would enable better bonding between the wood surface and PU foam whereas in the
case of the sawn wood surface the foam cannot fill all the small grooves.
Figure 27. Mean air leakage rate (bold line) and standard deviation (white box) at 400 Pa depending
on lath surface treatment (joints of both widths are included).
For plastic coated laths the foam can expand similarly to planed wood laths, but the
humidity transport from surface to foam is limited, which inhibits foam expansion. This
is usually compensated by moistening the plastic surface before applying the foam;
however, exact guidelines with quantities are not given by foam producers. If the plastic
surface is moistened before the foam is applied, water droplets on the plastic surface
may cause random leakage pathways depending on the spraying technique and the
amount of water used. The difference between PVC coating and sawn wood was small,
but still significant (p < 0.01, Anova) contributing on average to approximately 27 %
higher air leakages in the case of plastic coating.
Comparison between different surface treatments within groups of the same foam
product and joint width is illustrated in Figure 28. The air leakage rate in the case of the
planed timber surface stayed significantly lower than for the two other surface treatment
groups even when considering the effect of joint width (10 mm versus 30 mm) and
specific foam products, except for test specimens with 30 mm wide joints and foam
product ‘L’, where all measurements had large variations and the average air flow
differences between all foam products were small. The difference between the sawn
wooden surface and the plastic surface was not significant in most cases.
58
Figure 28. Mean air leakage rate (bold line) and standard deviation (white box) at 400 Pa pressure
difference depending on lath surface treatment grouped by joint width (10 mm or
30 mm) and foam product (K, L and S).
Mean air leakage rate and its variation increase with the increase in joint width (Figure
29). The mean air leakage through a 10 mm joint with all surfaces filled with all foams
(V400 = 0.801 l/(min⋅m)) was significantly lower (p < 0.0001, Anova) than the mean air
leakage through a 30 mm joint (V400= 1.194 l/(min⋅m)). The same was observed when the
different lath surface treatments were assessed separately, but for sawn wooden
surfaces the difference was not statistically significant due to the large variation in
measurement results (Figure 30).
Even though different analysed foam products performed slightly differently in the
case of the wider joint width, the overall difference between these products was not
statistically significant, mainly due to a large variation in measured performance of
test specimens. This shows that there are no major differences between specific
premium-class PU foams.
59
on joint width (10 mm (left) or 30 mm (right)).
on joint width (10 mm or 30 mm) grouped by lath surface treatment.

4.3.1 Observed installation situations
Hundreds of photos taken on building sites and in prefabrication factories in Estonia were
qualitatively assessed to identify the most typical situations where cavities and other
nonidealities occur. Based on observations, typical situations for different kinds of
insulation materials and construction types are presented below to show ideal
workmanship compared to typical nonideality as well as defective installation solutions
commonly found on construction sites or in prefabrication.
60
Figure 31. Ideal workmanship (left) and typical nonideality (right) for a timber frame construction
with mineral wool insulation batts.
Most typical nonidealities in the case of wool insulation batts with a lightweight
timber frame construction are small cavities between the wool batt and the timber frame
and rounded corners that form when a slightly wider insulation batt is tucked between
the timber frame (Figure 31). When the formed cavity does not penetrate the entire layer
and does not enable air circulation between the warm and cold sides, the effect on
measured thermal transmittance is low, corresponding to an increase of 5–10 % at 35 K
temperature difference (Huttunen & Vinha, 2013). Other observed workmanship failures
related to wool insulation, such as shown in Figure 32, are not typical, should be classified
as defective work and are not covered by EN ISO 6946 (2017) or assessed in this study.
Figure 32. Non-acceptable installation of mineral wool insulation batts in timber framed
construction.
61
An example of nonideality for rigid insulation boards used in an ETICS system on
masonry or a similar structural layer contains vertical and horizontal cavities, which may
occur due to several factors. Smaller cavity widths of up to 5–10 mm can be caused by
material shrinkage through ageing or cycling exposure to high temperatures in dark
coloured facades or roofs or by squareness tolerance of insulation boards. Wider cavities
are typically caused by poor workmanship but may also occur in the case of complex
building envelopes with curved or otherwise non-uniform geometry when insulation
boards must be precisely cut to a specific size on the building site. It is recommended
that PU foam be used to fill the cavities between the rigid insulation boards during the
installation (Figure 33 left), but this is often omitted in practice (Figure 33 right). The most
typical nonideality observed on site occurs within the wall insulation layer where up to
10 mm wide vertical cavities between insulation boards running along the full floor
height are not filled with foam.
Figure 33. Ideal workmanship (left) and typical nonideality (right) for rigid insulation boards of walls
(above) and roof (below).
When PU foam is used to close such cavities, it is not technically possible to fill the
entire cavity in a well-insulated building envelope, due to layer thickness. The nozzle of
the foam gun does not fit properly into thinner cavities and if the cavity is deep and
narrow, only its small external part can be filled. According to montage foam
manufacturers, the PU foam applied through the nozzle to the cavity between insulation
boards can fill approximately 50 mm deep outermost part of the cavity if the cavity width
is below 20 mm. A typical penetrating air cavity formed due to cyclic thermal expansion
and shrinkage is shown in Figure 34.
62
Figure 34. Penetrating air cavity formed due to aging and cyclic thermal expansion and shrinkage
in the roof insulation layer.
4.3.2 Validation of the CFD model

The measured heat fluxes from the climate chamber experiment are given in Table 9.
The heat flux at the top of the penetrating cavity is small but increases significantly
towards the lower part of the cavity. Due to the natural convection occurring inside the
penetrating cavity, the cooling air moves downwards at the external side of the cavity
and creates a large temperature gradient on the bottom end corresponding to the
maximum measured heat flux. The heat flux on the bottom part of the cavity depends
significantly on the temperature difference between the internal and external
environments. In the case of approximately 10 K temperature difference the maximum
heat flux was 16.1 W/m2 while in the case of approximately 50 K temperature difference
the maximum heat flux increased up to 151.2 W/m2.
Table 9. Average measured heat fluxes through a penetrating air cavity between insulation boards
Temperature Measured average heat flux

difference, K at different heights from bottom of cavity, W/m2
20 mm 100 mm 800 mm 1600 mm 2110 mm 2360 mm
9.8 16.1 14.0 3.5 2.8 2.1 2.6
19.7 38.0 35.6 10.1 6.4 4.0 3.1
29.5 61.6 59.5 18.8 10.9 6.1 4.0
39.5 111.9 95.2 28.6 15.5 7.4 3.0
49.3 151.2 122.2 35.9 19.0 8.6 2.6
The experimental and computational heat fluxes through the penetrating air cavities
of the test wall were found to be in relatively good agreement as shown in Figure 35.
63
Figure 35. Comparison of simulated and measured interior surface heat fluxes at different heights
of the penetrating air cavity at 20 K and 40 K ambient temperature difference.
4.3.3 Convective heat loss of penetrating air cavities

The results from numerical models show that the heat loss through a penetrating air
cavity within the insulation layer is strongly dependent on the temperature difference
across the building envelope. Figure 36 shows the numerically derived thermal
transmittance UCFD for a wall, roof and floor construction with 200 mm of insulation with
the thermal conductivity of 0.040 W/(m·K), including the effect of 5, 10 and 20 mm
penetrating rectangular air cavities.
Figure 36. Corrected thermal transmittance UCFD of a building envelope (insulation thermal
conductivity 0.040 W/(m∙K)) incorporating the effect of air cavities depending on the
temperature difference and penetrating cavity width and location.
The results from numerical models show that penetrating vertical air cavities inside
the floor construction and horizontal air cavities in the wall construction have no
significant effect on the thermal transmittance. In the case of vertical air cavities inside
64
the wall and roof construction, the convective heat flow inside the cavity increases the
corrected thermal transmittance UCFD well over the normative correction level at higher
temperature differences. At 40 K temperature difference and a 20 mm wide vertical
cavity, the corrected thermal transmittance UCFD = 0.296 W/(m2∙K) for the roof
construction and UCFD = 0.259 W/(m2∙K) for the wall construction. These values
correspond to 53 % and 34 % increase in the respective thermal transmittances.
For better comparison, instead of corrected thermal transmittances correction factors
∆U’’ were derived for thermal transmittance from the numerical models for penetrating
air cavities in different locations. Figure 37 depicts these factors depending on the cavity
width, insulation material and temperature difference across the entire building envelope.
Figure 37. Correction factor of air cavities ∆U’’ depending on the temperature difference, thermal
conductivity of the insulation layer and penetrating cavity width and location
(IL 0 … IL 2 refer to installation levels described in EN ISO 6946).
Horizontal penetrating cavities within the wall insulation layer do not affect the
thermal conductivity of the wall because no convective air flow between the warm
internal and the cold external side takes place due to the very small height of the air
cavity. In the case of some insulation materials with a higher thermal conductivity,
the air cavity even slightly decreases the heat loss due to the lower thermal conductivity
of still air. A similar situation can be seen with vertical air cavities in the floor
construction, where thermal stratification takes place between the warm boundary on
the top and the cold boundary at the bottom and convective air flow is suppressed.
Similarly to horizontal air cavities, the still air with lower thermal conductivity decreases
the heat loss in cases with inferior insulation materials.
In the case of vertical penetrating air cavities within a wall insulation layer, the
convective heat flow is strongly dependent on the temperature difference and cavity
width. At 10 K temperature difference, the numerically estimated correction factor ∆U’’
was similar to simplified values according to EN ISO 6946 (2017) but increased from
0.002 to 0.010 W/(m2∙K) for 5 mm and from 0.010 to 0.035 W/(m2∙K) for 10 mm wide
penetrating air cavities at the 40 K temperature difference. This corresponds
approximately to one level of increase in the normative installation level. For a wider
penetrating cavity, the estimated correction factor increases from 0.040 up to
65
0.070 W/(m2∙K) and at the 40 K temperature difference, is well over the maximum
correction level proposed by EN ISO 6946 (2017). The increase of the thermal
transmittance due to a higher temperature difference is greater in the roof construction
for all assessed cases with the estimated correction factor ∆U’’ value over 0.1 W/(m2∙K)
in a worst-case scenario. The simplified procedure defined in EN ISO 6946 (2017) is
unable to describe this for any of the cases where the penetrating cavity is wider than
5 mm.
The effect of the insulation material is small for 5 mm and 10 mm wide cavities. In the
case of wider cavities (20 mm), the heat loss increases with the increase in thermal
conductivity. This effect is more prominent in vertical cavities inside the roof construction.
4.3.4 The effect of air cavities in dual-layer insulation with a rebate edge or
partial filling with PU foam
Additionally, cases with non-penetrating cavities were assessed to see if their effect
on the thermal transmittance is significantly lower when the air circulation between
internal and external boundaries is prevented by partial filling with PU foam or with the
use of dual-layer insulation with a rebate edge (Figure 12 in Methods chapter).
The results from both geometric cases in comparison with fully penetrating air cavities
are given in Figure 38.
Figure 38. Correction factor of air cavities ∆U’’ depending on the temperature difference, the
thermal conductivity of the insulation layer and the penetrating cavity width at a dual
insulation layer or partially foamed cavity(IL 0 … IL 2 refer to installation levels described
in EN ISO 6946).
Compared to both two-layer insulation and partial foaming, the penetrating air cavity
decreased the correction factor ∆U’’ by a factor of 2 or more depending on the
temperature difference. However, at the temperature difference of ∆t = 35 K, the
numerically derived correction factor was still above the normative installation levels 0
and 1 although both alternatives are listed as level 0 installation solutions in EN ISO 6946
(2017). Nevertheless, compared to the penetrating cavity, the additional heat loss through
these cavities was only slightly dependent on the temperature difference across the
entire building envelope, which is to be expected.
66
4.3.5 The effect of triangular air cavities
Additionally, the effect of the penetrating triangular (wedge-shaped) air cavity and
penetrating air cavity with additional triangular cut-outs (Figure 12 in Methods chapter)
on the thermal conductivity was assessed (Figure 39).
Figure 39. Correction factor of air cavities ∆U’’ depending on the temperature difference and on the
thermal conductivity of the insulation layer in the case of triangular air cavities
(IL 0 … IL 2 refer to installation levels described in EN ISO 6946).
As Figure 37 shows, additional heat loss will be notably reduced if the penetrating air
cavity is wedge-shaped so that the width decreases perpendicular to the insulation layer
down to 5 mm. The effect of a vertical 10 mm wide cavity in the wall construction is in
the range of normative installation level 1 and the effect of a vertical 20 mm wide cavity
is well below normative installation level 2 where the correction factor will remain
between 0.01 and 0.025 W/(m2∙K) in the wall insulation layer. This is roughly a reduction
by one level compared to a rectangular penetrating air cavity. Compared to the
penetrating cavity, the additional heat loss through the wedge-shaped air cavity depends
only slightly on the temperature difference across the entire building envelope.
If additional triangular cut-outs are added to the penetrating air cavity, the correction
factor will increase significantly and for all cases the additional thermal transmittance
will be well above normative correction values. This suggests that errors of that kind
during installation should be classified as inadequate workmanship.
4.3.6 Heat loss of a building envelope with cavities in different climate
conditions
The natural convection and radiation inside assessed air cavities was found to be strongly
dependent on the temperature difference between the warm and cold sides. Therefore,
the actual increase in the heat loss will vary depending on the location and climate.
To account for cumulative temperature differences and their effect in different climates,
67
the heat loss through a wall or roof construction with a unitary area including vertical
penetrating air cavities was calculated for five different locations in Europe, including
Barcelona (Spain) from Southern Europe, Kiruna (Sweden) from cold Northern Europe
and Tartu (Estonia), Kaunas (Lithuania) and Frankfurt (Germany) in between these
locations.
The linear model was fitted using the results from previous sections for each assessed
case, and the intercept along with the slope parameter from the regression model were
used to calculate the corrected thermal transmittance Uch for each hour of the year based
on outdoor temperature in a typical year in each location. The estimated heat losses
using the corrected thermal transmittance in the case of an insulation material with
thermal conductivity of 0.019 W/(m·K) are given below as an example (Figure 40).
Figure 40. Heat loss of a unitary envelope area with a vertical penetrating air cavity in different
climates depending on the air cavity configuration inside the insulation layer.
In the warm climate (Barcelona), the difference in the estimated annual heat loss is
marginal. In Frankfurt (Germany) and Kaunas (Lithuania), the annual heat loss through
the unitary envelope area is in the range of 3.1 to 9.1 kWh/(m²·a), depending on the air
cavity width and location. In Tartu (Estonia), the estimated annual heat loss in a typical
year is between 5.6 to 10.2 kWh/(m²·a) and in northernmost part of Europe (Kiruna,
Sweden), it is in the range of 10.3 to 19.1 kWh/(m²·a). The relative increase in annual
heat loss for a worst-case scenario (20 mm wide air cavity in the roof construction) ranges
from 75 % to 86 %, depending on the climate (Figure 41). The absolute increase of heat
loss in Kiruna (Sweden) is 8.8 kWh/(m²·a) for each square metre of the envelope area.
Compared to a regular penetrating 10 mm and 20 mm wide air cavities, the use of PU
montage foam to fill the outermost 50 mm of the cavity will reduce the heat loss
respectively by 0.8 and 1.9 kWh/(m²·a) in Estonian climate.
68
Figure 41. Relative increase of the heat loss of the unitary envelope area in different climates
depending on the air cavity configuration inside the insulation layer.
4.4 Assessment of combined thermal bridges

Altogether, 5 typical junctions with 3 different insulation materials and 3 construction
types were numerically assessed with 10 different flanking element lengths, totalling to
450 models. The linear thermal transmittance of these junctions considering the flanking
element length according to EN ISO 10211 (2017) requirements was between -0.130
and 0.341 W/(m·K) depending on the junction, construction type and thermal
conductivity of the insulation layer.
Additional analysis included more severe thermal bridges in the window to wall
connection and balcony slab to wall connection with 3 different insulation materials and
with 10 different flanking element lengths for the construction type with heavyweight
concrete as the internal load bearing layer. The calculated linear thermal transmittance
was between 0.101 and 1.111 W/(m·K).
The tabulated linear thermal transmittance values of all assessed thermal bridge
combinations are given in PUBLICATION III in full detail along with the corresponding
deviations at different relative flanking element lengths.
4.4.1 The effect of flanking element length
The numerical analysis of different junctions showed that the minimum flanking element
lengths for well-insulated wall construction were significantly lower than defined in the
EN ISO 10211 standard. The deviation of linear thermal transmittance compared to a
reference case according to EN ISO 10211 for the external wall corner was less than 3 %.
For a regular wall corner (Figure 42), the construction with a highly conductive internal
structural layer (200 mm heavyweight concrete) had a higher deviation compared to the
69
lightweight timber construction. In the case of an inverted (inward) corner with a highly
conductive internal structural layer (Figure 43) the effect was inverted, but negligible.
For both junctions, the insulation material with higher thermal conductivity caused a
slightly higher deviation from the normative calculation results. The absolute deviation
of linear thermal transmittance ∆Ψ for all assessed cases was less than 0.002 W/(m·K).
Figure 42. Effect of flanking element length on linear thermal transmittance of external wall corner
with relative and absolute deviations shown.
Figure 43. Effect of flanking element length on linear thermal transmittance of inverted external
wall corner with relative and absolute deviations shown.
In the case of window to external wall connections (Figure 44), the deviation from the
standardised calculation was less than 2 % for constructions with a highly conductive
internal structural layer (heavyweight concrete) and similar for all assessed insulation
materials. In the case of lightweight timber frame construction, the relative deviation
varied more and for very short flanking element lengths (10 % of the standardised flanking
element length) the deviation was in the range of 6 % to 8 %. However, the absolute
deviation for all cases was 0.002 W/(m·K) or less.
70
Figure 44. Effect of flanking element lengths on linear thermal transmittance of window to wall
connection.
When a ground coupled element such as a slab on the ground is part of the numerical
model, the deviation from the standardised case is significantly higher (Figure 45). When
both flanking element lengths (i.e., of the external wall part and the slab on the ground
part) decrease, at least two different processes seem to affect the heat flows.
Figure 45. Effect of flanking element lengths on linear thermal transmittance of the ground floor
slab to wall connection (the flanking element length for both the external wall and
ground floor slab was changed).
The steady increase of the calculated linear thermal transmittance is caused by the
increasing edge effect when the length of the slab on the ground part is reduced, which
is expected (Hagentoft, 1988). Nevertheless, for all assessed material and construction
combinations, the deviation of linear thermal transmittance is rapidly decreasing when
the ground slab length in the model is 30 % or less from the standardised slab length (i.e.,
4 m). This can be caused by the mutual effect of vertical foundation insulation and very
short geometric boundaries of the floor slab and the ground domain, meaning that in
71
these small models, the heat must travel a significantly longer path to reach exterior
conditions. This is highly dependent on the foundation geometry and the subsoil
insulation and shows that it is not possible to decrease the length of ground coupled
flanking elements without introducing a lot of uncertainty.
To exclude this effect another set of calculations were performed with a constant slab
on ground length of 4 m and only the flanking element length of the external wall was
altered (Figure 46). As expected, the effect of ground losses was eliminated and only the
effect of wall part length is seen. The effect is similar to that of other junctions where
linear thermal transmittance in the case of short flanking element lengths is lower than
for the full-size model. However, the difference between different construction types is
significant. For lightweight timber frame construction, the deviation is less than 1 % for
all cases but a highly conductive internal structural layer (heavyweight concrete) coupled
to the floor slab and foundation causes deviations of up to 8 % at very short wall lengths
(0.144 m) due to the limited heat flow at the internal boundary condition compared to
the standard geometry of the model. Absolute values of deviation are in the range
of -0.03 to -0.02 W/(m·K), underestimating the actual linear thermal transmittance.
Figure 46. Effect of flanking element lengths on linear thermal transmittance of the ground floor
slab to wall connection.
To confirm these findings for thermal bridges with higher thermal transmittance, a
wall construction with a highly conductive internal load bearing layer was further
assessed in combination with junctions where the insulation layer was significantly
reduced by a protruding balcony slab or by suboptimal positioning of the window frame
as described in the Methods chapter (see Figure 17). The results are given in Table 10
along with linear thermal transmittances and corresponding deviations for all assessed
junctions and combinations.
72
Table 10. Deviation of linear thermal transmittance ∆Ψ depending on the flanking element length
in the numerical model for with medium and high linear thermal transmittance
ΔΨ, W/(m·K) at different relative lengths of

λinsulation, Ψ, flanking element lj
Junction
W/(m·K) W/(m·K) 60 %–
10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 %
100 %
Window–wall 0.022 0.105 -0.006 -0.002 -0.001 0 0 0
connection (medium 0.031 0.104 -0.006 -0.002 -0.001 0 0 0
thermal bridge) 0.040 0.101 -0.006 -0.002 -0.001 0 0 0
Window–wall 0.022 0.422 -0.076 -0.025 -0.009 -0.003 -0.001 0
connection (high 0.031 0.418 -0.074 -0.025 -0.008 -0.003 -0.001 0
thermal bridge) 0.040 0.415 -0.073 -0.024 -0.008 -0.003 -0.001 0
Wall–inter. ceiling 0.022 0.300 -0.006 -0.002 -0.001 0 0 0
connection (medium 0.031 0.308 -0.006 -0.002 -0.001 0 0 0
thermal bridge) 0.040 0.316 -0.005 -0.002 -0.001 0 0 0
Wal–-inter. ceiling 0.022 1.111 -0.089 -0.029 -0.01 -0.003 -0.001 0
connection (high 0.031 1.104 -0.086 -0.028 -0.01 -0.003 -0.001 0
thermal bridge) 0.040 1.097 -0.082 -0.027 -0.009 -0.003 -0.001 0
The deviation of the linear thermal transmittance for medium thermal bridges was
similar to previous results with deviations occurring at 30 % relative length of the flanking
element compared to EN ISO 10211 (2017) requirements. Although the absolute
deviation of the linear thermal transmittance of high thermal bridges was higher at very
short flanking element lengths, the deviation at 40 % and 50 % of the required flanking
element was negligible compared to the linear thermal transmittance of the junction
itself.
These findings indicate that for a well-insulated building envelope and for a wide
range of thermal bridges and construction types, the minimum flanking element length
can be significantly lower than required by EN ISO 10211 (2017). For most of the assessed
junctions, using 50 % of the standard flanking element length provided the same
numerical results for linear thermal transmittance. In Figure 47 the required length of
the flanking element is shown for each assessed combination of connection, construction
and insulation that keeps the deviation ΔΨ below three limiting values – i.e., the allowed
deviation from the standard calculation for the same junctions is less than 0.5 %, 1.0 %
or 2.0 %.
For minimal deviation, a flanking element length around 40 % to 50 % should be used
compared to EN ISO 10211 (2017) requirements. If a deviation of up to 2 % is allowed, a
junction with a minimum flanking element length of 20 % can be used for junctions with
linear thermal transmittance Ψ < 0.2 W/(m·K) and 30 % for junctions with higher linear
thermal transmittance. In this case, the required flanking element length in the numerical
model corresponds roughly to the flanking element thickness or less.
73
Figure 47. Minimal relative length of flanking elements in all assessed junctions that keep the
deviation of linear thermal transmittance below 0.5 % (left), 1.0 % (middle) or 2.0 %
(right) compared to EN ISO 10211 reference case depending on linear thermal
transmittance of the junction.
This shows that for well-insulated building envelopes, the effect of thermal bridges
seems to be localised near the junction and interaction of multiple thermal bridges is
very small at distances corresponding roughly to wall or roof thickness. This is to be
expected as a thicker insulation layer and a higher thermal resistance of the wall or roof
part reduce the proportion of perpendicular heat flow through the flanking elements
compared to the theoretical heat flow limited by surface resistances as well as provide
higher and more even surface temperatures along the flanking element length.
4.4.2 Simplification of combined thermal bridges

Based on these findings, the linear thermal transmittances of single connections can be
arithmetically pooled to estimate the linear thermal transmittance of combined thermal
bridges with good accuracy. For ground coupled flanking elements such as slab on grade
etc. this simplification is not possible and flanking element length according to EN ISO
10211 (2017) must be used.
To estimate the potential of this simplification on time and effort for general
practitioners a number of regular and combined thermal bridges were identified on two
different building geometries as described in Methods chapter (Figure 18). The assessed
building envelopes included a total of 84 office building junctions and 34 detached house
junctions. By using shorter flanking element lengths based on the previous section
corresponding to three alternative levels of accuracy, the number of different junctions
was recalculated. As Table 11 illustrates, in the case of office buildings the numerical
calculation of linear thermal transmittance is needed for only 45 different junctions (46 %
reduction) when deviation of up to 0.5 % is allowed. If deviation of up to 2.0 % is allowed,
the reduction in the number of different junctions will be 76 %, which will significantly
reduce the time needed for thermal bridge calculation. For detached houses, the reduction
in the number of different thermal bridge combinations is lower as expected, but still
between 35 % and 50 %.
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Table 11. Number of thermal bridges that need separate numerical calculation when considering
different flanking element lengths
Allowed relative Office Detached

Thermal bridge type
deviation building house
According to EN ISO
Regular thermal bridges 11 8
10211
According to EN ISO
73 26
10211
Combined thermal
< 0.5 % 34 14
bridges
< 1.0 % 28 10
< 2.0 % 19 9
4.5 Simplified estimation of point thermal transmittance

4.5.1 The effect of thermal properties
Altogether 102 different combinations of thermal bridging situations were numerically
calculated. For testing the effect of thermal bridge length in the third dimension,
a concrete wall with a regular steel fixation bracket of 60 mm length combined with three
alternative insulation materials and a 9 mm gypsum wind barrier layer was selected as
the base case. Other variable parameters were tested in all possible combinations.
The correlation between the point thermal transmittance and the difference of
two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients can be seen in Figure 48.
Figure 48. Correlation between the point thermal transmittance and the difference of two-dimensional
thermal coupling coefficients.
The difference caused by bracket length is expected as the thermal bridge itself has a
greater length, but other factors causing variation need further analysis. To omit the
direct effect of bracket length in the third dimension, the additional length of the thermal
75
bridge hadd (i.e, the difference between equivalent length heq and actual length hTB of the
thermal bridge in the third dimension) is used instead of point thermal transmittance to
test the correlation between different input variables and the additional heat loss from
the third dimension. The additional length of the thermal bridge increases when the
difference between two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients decreases (Figure
49). However, the variation due to other factors is high and is mainly described by the
thermal conductivity of the bridging element and the thermal resistance of the external
(i.e., the wind barrier) layer (Figure 50).
Figure 49. Correlation between the additional thermal bridge length hadd and the difference of
two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients.
Figure 50. Correlation between the additional thermal bridge length hadd and the difference of
two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients grouped by the thermal resistance of the
external wind barrier.
76
The correlation between the additional length of the thermal bridge and the
difference between thermal coupling coefficients is strongly affected by the thermal
resistances of the outermost layers. With higher thermal resistances (mineral wool or
wood fibre wind barrier) the additional length of the thermal bridge has a strong positive
correlation with the difference between respective thermal coupling coefficients. With
low thermal resistance (wind barrier membrane or gypsum board) this effect is not
present. This means that the interaction of these variables must be described when
fitting the model.
Surprisingly, the thermal resistance of the load bearing layer and other internal layers
adjoining the thermal bridge as well as the thermal conductivity of the insulation layer
have no significant effect on the additional thermal bridge length. Although the point
thermal transmittance depends on these parameters, the effect is already included in
the thermal coupling coefficients and the additional length of the thermal bridge is not
directly affected. This allows more simplification in the multiple regression model fitting
as these parameters can be omitted.
4.5.2 Model fitting

Altogether 12 different model fits were tested to find a satisfactory balance between a
good fit and the minimum number of terms in the multiple linear regression equation.
As the difference between two-dimensional thermal coupling coefficients and the
additional model length is strongly related to the thermal conductivity of the point
thermal bridge and the thermal resistance of the wind barrier layer, it was expected
that like in equation (12) the simple correlation has no predictive power (adjusted
R2 = 0.072). Other models, based on equations (13), (14) and (15), had better predictive
power. The final empiric equation with estimated coefficients (all parameters with
p-value < 0.001) that can be used to derive the additional thermal bridge length is given
as equation (16).
ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −1.078 ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 0.001732 ∙ 𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 1.480 ∙ ℎ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 4.162 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (16)
∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 � + 0.2529
The point thermal transmittance of a given thermal bridge can then be calculated
according to equation (17).
(17)
𝜒𝜒 = (ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − ℎ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ) ∙ �𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿2𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 �
Point thermal transmittances retrieved from three-dimensional numerical

calculations are plotted against estimated point thermal transmittances in Figure 51 for
the same thermal bridges.
77
Figure 51. Correlation between calculated and estimated point thermal transmittance (the blue line
represents x=y).
The relative error varies between –9.2 % (underestimation) and +15.1 %

(overestimation) although typical deviations from the numerically calculated values
were significantly lower with 0.25 and 0.75 quantiles at –2.7 % and +3.2 %, respectively.
The equation and the calculation methodology can be used for thermal bridges which
embrace similar situations with local point thermal bridges incorporating metal
penetrations through the insulation layer, such as metal brackets supporting or fixing the
window frame to the load bearing structure etc. Analysis showed that the thermal
conductivity of the insulation material of the layer that is penetrated and the thermal
resistance of the internal (load bearing) structure have no significant effect on the
equivalent length of the thermal bridge. This makes it possible to use the method on a
wide array of different envelope configurations. A detailed calculation example using the
proposed method to estimate the point thermal transmittance of a metal sheet in
window-to-wall connection is given in PUBLICATION III.
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5 Discussion
The results confirm that buildings constructed after the energy performance
requirements took effect have significantly lower air leakage than older buildings with
the median q50 of 1.1 m3/(h·m2) and range from 0.8 to 3.1 m3/(h·m2), which correspond
to 16 % and 84 % quantiles. This conforms well with other countries where new buildings
had similar air leakage rates. In Poland, typical new building construction is characterised
by airtightness n50 in the range of 1.6 to 2.6 h-1 (Górzeński et al., 2014). Similar results
have been achieved for timber-frame low-energy houses in Norway, where measured
apartments had airtightness n50 in the range of 0.5 to 1.3 h-1 (Holøs & Relander, 2010).
According to a previous study of the Estonian building stock, the most significant
factors affecting the airtightness are the quality of workmanship and supervision as well
the number of storeys of the house, both showing a more than a two-fold effect
(Kalamees, 2007). This study shows that, for newer buildings, the number of storeys no
longer has any effect on airtightness. This refers to the fact that a systematic approach
to designing the airtight envelope avoids large air leakages characteristic of external wall
and intermediate ceiling junctions in older buildings. Furthermore, the non-existent
correlation between airtightness and compactness of the building envelope suggests that
if a systematic quality assurance procedure with a proper airtightness concept in all
junctions is followed, the geometric and structural complexity of the building envelope
will no longer be a key factor for achieving airtightness. It must be noted that similar
studies in Finland have shown significant differences in building airtightness depending
on the number of storeys, with timber-frame multi-storey buildings (4.8 m3/(h·m2))
having higher air leakage rates than single-storey buildings (3.4 m3/(h·m2)), referring to
the fact that such effects are related to local building technologies and overall quality
assurance mechanisms (Vinha et al., 2015).
The quality of workmanship through systematic measurements as well as
prefabrication showed significant improvement in the full dataset and in both subgroups
(log buildings and lightweight timber buildings) corresponding to a 37 % to 74 %
improvement, depending on the factor and group. The differences in other grouping
factors were significantly smaller. For buildings with more ambitious airtightness targets,
including buildings with higher designed energy efficiency and quality management,
similar sealing measures are taken. Such measures include systematic use of specialised
membranes and sealing tapes with a significant attention to connections between
openings and external walls.
The results from this study give an overview of average air leakage rates along with
the variation of different grouping factors related to building geometry and construction
technology. Assuming consistency in construction technologies and in quality assurance
mechanisms, these average values with appropriate safety margins can be used for
energy calculation in Estonian conditions for new buildings as well as buildings in
respective age groups. The base values calculated (see Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6) take
into consideration the variation of the measured results and try to give estimates for
each grouping factor with a 75 % margin and 84 % confidence interval. Due to the high
variation in measured values, the base values are much higher than median or mean air
leakage rates. The base values for buildings built since 2009 are in a range of 1.6 to
3.9 m3/(h·m2) with a value of 3.0 m3/(h·m2) for all measured buildings. The lowest base
79
value of the air leakage rate is for the group of prefabricated lightweight timber buildings
with a value of q50,base = 1.6 m3/(h·m2). The groups with an energy classification target of
A or B energy class, or systematic measurement practice within a single company
achieved a base value q50,base around 2.0 m3/(h·m2), while on-site construction and
handmade log buildings achieved a base value q50,base 6.7 m3/(h·m2) and 5.9 m3/(h·m2),
respectively.
5.2 Air leakage of joints sealed with PU foam

Although the airtightness properties of foam joints have been previously tested and
proved to be almost perfect (Ift Rosenheim, 2007) and good airtightness performance of
the window-to-wall interface in cavity brick walls was reported (Van Den Bossche et al.,
2012), the current study showed that the airtightness of actual joints could vary a lot and
depends strongly on many parameters. A previous study in Belgium (Van Den Bossche et
al., 2012) assessed the airtightness of PU foam joints among other insulating and sealing
techniques (tapes, mineral wool). Several joints with PU foam filling half of the cavity, full
cavity and full cavity with plaster coating were measured for airtightness. Air leakage
rates in the range of 1.06 to 1.77 m3/(h⋅m) were measured at 50 Pa pressure difference
for test specimens with pure PU foam treatment, which correspond respectively to 17.6
to 29.5 l/(min⋅m). Additional coating with plaster or additional sealing with caulking
lowered the air leakages below 0.10 m3/(h⋅m), which corresponds to 1.67 l/(min⋅m). In
this study the air leakages at 50 Pa pressure difference remained in the range of 0.156 to
0.565 l/(min⋅m) depending on surface treatment and joint width. Other studies of
window-to-wall interfaces sealed with PU foam have also shown somewhat higher air
leakages ranging from 0.0 to 0.155 (mean 0.03) m3/(h⋅m) (Proskiw, 1995) and
0.10 m3/(h⋅m) (Höglund & Bengt, 1984). Compared to other joint sealing measures
studied by Relander et al. (2008a) the PU foam performed worse than well installed
sealing tape but was comparable to backer rod and vapour barrier technique as well as
sealing tapes with few holes. Self-expanding sealing strips and more traditional use of
nailed vapour barrier was found to cause significantly higher leakage rate in the case of
15 mm wide joint in a range of 1.09 to 3.02 l/(min⋅m) at 50 Pa pressure difference.
Expanding montage foams need additional moisture from the air and through
adjacent surfaces to fully expand and fill the grooves and concavities. It was expected
that the smooth planed surface of timber joints would provide good conditions for foam
bonding, and the measured results confirmed this. The air leakages in the case of planed
timber surfaces were significantly lower compared to other surface types averaging
V400 = 0.549 l/(min⋅m) at 400 Pa pressure difference. During repetitive testing with three
identical test specimens for each configuration there were no measurements with failing
airtightness. The joints with sawn timber laths performed worse by more than a factor
of 2 averaging V400 = 1.132 l/(min⋅m) at 400 Pa pressure difference and the failure rate
under repetitive testing was huge, totalling 33 % and 50 % for 10 mm and 30 mm joint
widths, respectively. This shows that the studied foams were often unable to bond with
the uneven surface and although some test specimens have comparable air leakages to
planed timber surfaces, the foam–timber interface is systematically not airtight.
The failure rate of plastic-coated laths was significantly lower compared to sawn
timber. However, a failure rate of more than 28 % in the case of the wider joint width
still contributes to a situation where a foam–PVC interface has some bonding problems.
The surface of PVC-coated laths is smooth, but the inhibited transport of moisture
80
through the plastic surface and water droplets caused by moistening the surfaces can, in
some cases, create pathways for air leakages. Although this does not always cause major
air leakages, the systematic effect contributes to even higher average air leakage rates
compared to sawn timber (V400 = 1.438 l/(min⋅m) at 400 Pa pressure difference).
The leakage rate through the window–wall interface can be compared to the leakage
rate of the window itself to assess the additional effect of leakages on overall
airtightness. A large number of window products were tested in Belgium to assess the
distribution and average airtightness of different window types (Van Den Bossche &
Janssens, 2016). Although the variation within the test specimens was high, the median
airtightness of single and double frame windows (independently from their material) was
respectively 0.82 m3/(h⋅m2) and 1.36 m3/(h⋅m2) for 50 Pa pressure difference. For a
hypothetical window with a size of 1.0 m × 1.0 m (joint length 4.0 m) this corresponds to
air leakages of 0.82 and 1.36 m3/(h⋅m2), respectively, for single and double frame
windows at 50 Pa pressure difference. The average air leakage rate of joints in the range
of 0.156 to 0.565 l/(min⋅m) would, according to this study, add 0.04 m3/(h⋅m2) to
0.14 m3/(h⋅m2), corresponding to a 5 % to 17 % increase in the case of a single window
and a 5 % to 10 % increase in the case of a double window. For larger windows with a
favourable aspect ratio, the additional effect of the window–wall interface would be
lower.
Similarly, the potential effect of measured joint air leakage can be calculated for an
entire building envelope. For this a cumulative joint length for all connections between
the building envelope elements was calculated for a prefabricated two-storey wooden
reference building with very good airtightness and optimised window connection details
(Kalbe & Kalamees, 2019). The good airtightness was achieved with systematic use of
special tapes and on-site quality assurance measures. The building was included in a
larger study (PUBLICATION I) of airtightness of Estonian wooden buildings. Its average
measured air leakage rate q50 = 0.24 m3/(h⋅m2) at 50 Pa pressure difference, which
corresponds to the measured air flow rate V50 = 91 m3/h. According to this study, with
the cumulative joint length of 206 m and external envelope area of 373.5 m2 the average
air leakage rate of joints in the range of 0.156 to 0.565 l/(min⋅m) at 50 Pa pressure
difference would contribute to additional 1.93 m3/h to 6.98 m3/h respectively
corresponding to less than 0.02 m3/(h⋅m2) increase in the air leakage of an entire building
envelope. In PUBLICATION I it was shown that the actual average air leakage rate of the
envelope in newer wooden buildings is around 1.1 m3/(h⋅m2) with a very high (standard
deviation 1.6 m3/(h⋅m2)) variation. This strongly suggests that the actual air leakage of
the building envelope mainly depends on the ‘failure rate’ of sealing measures rather
than on the leakage properties of the sealed joints. Previous studies have found that
workmanship quality plays a critical role in achieving adequate airtightness. Kalamees et
al. (2017) showed that comparison of air leakage readings measured in field conditions
and those calculated based on laboratory measurements have significant differences.
Relander et al., (2008b, 2008a) studied 7 different sealing techniques typical in Norway
to assess the air leakage effect in the case of wall to window connection and showed that
tapes provide most airtight solution with other sealing measures performing significantly
worse. It was stated that for all the measures the effect of faulty workmanship can higher
than expected air leakages.
Joint width and thus the volume of the joint are important factors when considering
the use of expanding PU foam to achieve airtight connections. Although more foam is
used for wider joints, the pressure during foam expansion is expected to be higher in the
81
case of a smaller volume. This can be systematically seen from the measurements, where
the 10 mm wide joints performed significantly better for all surface types. The variation
of measured air leakages along with the failure rate during repetitive testing was always
higher with a 30 mm joint width compared to a 10 mm joint width. The effect of
long-term expansion and periodic movement of building elements should be further
studied as a wider joint width with the same elasticity can withstand larger movements.
It is shown that PU foams are prone to fast chemical degradation (Pellizzi et al., 2014),
which changes the mechanical properties of the foam. In this study the measurements
were carried out within a few months after the foam was applied and the effect of ageing
and chemical degradation was not considered.
Different foam products were compared in this study and although detailed analysis
within subgroups of different lath surfaces and joint widths indicated some differences
between specific foam products in some cases, no statistically significant differences
were found. It should be noted that top-of-the-line high quality PU foams from each
producer applied by skilled workers in a laboratory setup were measured in this study.
The skill level of workers and real-life application conditions can induce significant
discrepancies between different foams and cause higher air leakages compared to
laboratory measurements. However, this needs to be further studied.

The current study showed that in a fully penetrating vertical air cavity within a wall
insulation layer, the convective heat flow was strongly dependent on the temperature
difference and cavity width. At a small temperature difference (∆t = 10 K), the correction
factor ∆U’’ was similar to simplified values defined in EN ISO 6946 (2017), but at a higher
temperature difference (∆t = 40 K) the heat loss significantly increased, corresponding
approximately to one level of increase in the standardised installation level. For a 20 mm
wide fully penetrating cavity, the correction factor at the 40 K temperature difference
was well over the maximum correction level proposed by EN ISO 6946 (2017). Although
direct comparison is not possible, an older empirical study in Sweden (Bankwall, 1972)
measured the reduction of thermal resistance under a heat flow plate over vertical and
horizontal 5 mm, 10 mm and 30 mm cavities in a 95 mm thick insulation layer and found
similar effects. At the temperature difference around 20 K, the thermal resistance
decreased up to 5 %, 21 % and 55 % on average under the heat flow plate respective to
the cavity width from 5 mm to 30 mm (Bankwall, 1972). If approximate length-to-area
ratios are derived from the assessed cavity widths and the measurement plate diameter
of 100 mm, the scaled down increase in thermal transmittance will be very similar to our
study. In the current study, the numerically calculated correction factors for vertical air
cavities ∆U’’ were 0.004 and 0.015 W/(m2∙K) for 5 mm and 10 mm wide air cavities and
0.055 W/(m2∙K) for 20 mm wide air voids. In the Swedish study, the results for
penetrating horizontal cavities in the insulation layer did not differ from vertical cavities,
which could not be reproduced in our study. In their study Huttunen & Vinha (2013) also
concluded that horizontal air cavities have no significant effect on the overall thermal
transmittance.
The increase of the thermal transmittance due to higher temperature differences was
higher in the roof construction for all assessed cases. The simplified procedure defined
in EN ISO 6946 (2017) is unable to describe this problem for all cases with cavities wider
than 5 mm. Šadauskiene et al. (2009) studied cavities within the roof insulation layer and
showed that cavity widths below 5 mm have no significant effect on thermal transmittance;
82
however, their measurements were conducted only with the temperature difference of
∆t = 20 K. Our study showed that a further rise of temperature difference significantly
increased the additional heat loss due to a 5 mm wide cavity in the roof construction. In
the case of roof construction, the external surface temperature may be even higher and
the temperature difference may be even greater (Tatara & Ricketts, 2017). For wider
cavities in the roof insulation layer Šadauskiene et al. (2009) found an up to 20 % increase
of thermal transmittance considering the least favourable estimated combination of air
cavity length-to-area ratios of 0.25 m/m2 (1.3 mm wide cavity), 0.25 m/m2 (3.0 mm wide
cavity), 0.556 m/m2 (9.0 mm wide cavity) and 0.556m/m2 (18.0 mm wide cavity).
Our study determined the correction factor for 10 mm and 20 mm air cavities for the
thermal conductivity of 0.040 W/(m∙K) around 0.07 and 0.10 W/(m2∙K) when the cavity
length-to-area ratio was 1.67 m/m2. For the 3 lower cavity length-to-area ratio, this
means an approximately 12 % increase in the thermal transmittance due to a 10 mm
cavity and 17 % increase due to a 20 mm cavity. In general, the increase is similar to that
reported by Šadauskiene et al. (2009).
According to Kuusk et al. (2021), in the case of circular use of materials the possible
deviation from nominal material dimensions could be larger than set for new materials:
up to 2 % for mineral wool (EN 13162, 2016) or 3 % for expanded PU (EN 13163, 2016).
Therefore, estimation of crack dimensions in the construction of the building envelope
from materials from urban mines or reused material banks should be even more
conservative.
The effect of insulation material is small for 5 mm and 10 mm wide penetrating
cavities. For wider cavities (20 mm), the heat loss increases with the increase in the
thermal conductivity. This effect is more prominent in vertical cavities inside the roof
construction. This also suggests that additional heat loss in wider penetrating cavities
occurring between the edge of the insulation board and the timber frame or steel battens
can be even higher due to conductive materials. Still, this needs to be studied further.
Two types of non-penetrating cavities were assessed to see if the effect on the thermal
transmittance is significantly lower when the air circulation between internal and
external boundaries is prevented by partial filling with PU foam or with the use of
dual-layer insulation with rebate edge. Both alternatives decreased the correction factor
∆U’’ by a factor of 2 or more depending on the temperature difference. In the case of a
10 mm wide cavity the correction factor stayed slightly below normative installation level
1, which corresponds to 4.6 % to 9.5 % increase in the thermal transmittance depending
on the insulation material. A previous study showed that cavities formed due to poor
workmanship do not dramatically increase (observed increase 5 % to 10 %) thermal
transmittance if they prevent air circulation from the hot side to the cold side (Huttunen
& Vinha, 2013). Nevertheless, at the temperature difference of ∆t = 35 K, the numerically
derived correction factor for a 10 mm wide cavity was above normative installation level
0 and for a 20 mm wide cavity above normative installation level 1. Both alternatives are
listed as level 0 installation solution in EN ISO 6946 (2017), which should be updated.
The current study and previous studies show that along with the temperature
difference, the length-to-area ratio (average cavity length for unitary envelope area)
has a significant effect on additional heat loss through the building envelope. Our study
was based on typical dimensions of insulation boards and typical timber frame step size
with an approximate width of 600 mm corresponding to the cavity length-to-area ratio
of 1.67 m/m2 when only vertical cavities are accounted for. If the step size between timber
or steel battens is smaller due to architectural or structural constraints, the length-to-area
83
ratio will increase along with additional heat loss. The average step size of 400 mm,
for example, increases the additional losses through vertical cavities by 50 %. Currently,
the correction factors for air cavities defined in EN ISO 6946 do not quantify the number
of cavities and should be updated.
Our study showed that there are smaller or larger cavities present between the
insulation boards and batts installed on construction sites and in the factory of the
prefabricated building elements, so the insulation does not always fill the space
provided. According to our results, the actual heat loss due to cracks and cavities is higher
than the calculated ideal situation. Hamburg & Kalamees (2019) showed that the
performance gap between the measured and the calculated energy consumption is 2 %
to 30 %, and the delivered energy for room heating after refurbishment works is on
average more than 35 % larger than the calculated values in the design phase. In addition
to higher room temperature, energy for heating depends directly also on the heat loss of
the building envelope (Hamburg & Kalamees, 2018). The standard EN ISO 6946 (2017) is
based on the ideal electrical-thermal analogy and it is necessary to consider appropriate
corrections to the thermal transmittance in the calculations of the heat loss of the
building envelope.
The results are summed up in Table 12 where for each assessed situation the suitable
normative installation level is given, which does not underestimate the actual heat loss
in the case of typical insulation panel width of 600 mm.
Table 12. Proposal for standardised installation levels (EN ISO 6946) for each assessed case (cc 600
mm) that can be used and will not underestimate the actual thermal transmittance
caused by air cavities inside the insulation layer in well-insulated building envelopes.
Reclassified standardised installation levels according to cavity geometry

(see Figure 12) for floor, wall and roof construction
Cavities in
Cavity filled Penetrating Penetrating
2-layer
Cavity Penetrating cavity with PU foam cavity with cavity with
insulation with
width with rectangular cross (50 mm) wedge- additional
rebate, tongue
section from shaped triangular
and groove
external side cross-section cut-outs
edge
Wall Wall
Floor Roof Wall Roof Wall Roof Wall Roof Wall
(hor.) (vert.)
= 5 mm 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 n/a
≤ 10 mm 0 0 2 n/a 1 2 2 2 1 2 n/a
> 10 mm
0 0 n/a n/a 2 n/a 2 n/a 2 n/a n/a
(20 mm)
n/a – not applicable
84
Previous research shows that in the case of impermeable insulation
materials convective heat transfer can take place in air gaps wider than 5 mm
(Šadauskiene et al., 2009; Stankevičius et al., 2013), but the influence of natural
convection on general heat transfer is insignificant when a joining small air gap of
up to 3 mm thickness occurs around the thermal-insulating layer. Therefore, cavities with
the thickness below 5 mm are not assessed in this study. In practice, insulation
installation level 0 (i.e., no effect due to cavities) is not achievable with most insulation
solutions where the formation of vertical cavities with the thickness around 5 mm or
more is expected. A few notable exceptions to this in practice would be spray-on foam
insulation and blown-in cellulose insulation inside wall and roof elements when high
density blow in insulation is used to avoid the forming of creeps and cavities through
vibration and ageing. Many other insulation solutions should be reclassified (currently
level 0) to levels 1 or 2: dual layer insulation, sealed or partly foamed cavities within single
insulation layers. The effect is strongly climate dependent; however, the current
definition of the thermal transmittance neglects this.
5.4 Possible simplifications regarding thermal bridging

The current study confirmed that for well-insulated constructions, the minimum flanking
element length required in the numerical model is significantly lower than described in
EN ISO 10211 (2017) without compromising the accuracy of steady-state calculations of
linear thermal transmittance. Similar findings have been reported in previous studies
related to dynamic modelling of thermal bridges with equivalent wall and mixed
equivalent wall methods where new shorter flanking element lengths were accompanied
by a limited change in surface temperature along the flanking element (Martin et al.,
2012; Quinten & Feldheim, 2016, 2019). The length of equivalent wall parts in these
studies was strictly related to fixed geometry and material layers; nevertheless,
compared to the requirements of EN ISO 10211 (2017), only 40 % to 50 % of the flanking
element length was needed (Ge & Baba, 2015) to define equivalent wall parts.
The current study shows that even shorter flanking element lengths are acceptable
for most junctions. In the case of regular junctions adjacent to external air within
well-insulated constructions with linear thermal transmittance below 0.1 W/(m·K),
the reduction of flanking element length from 1.44 m to 0.288 m (80 % reduction) had
no effect on numerically calculated linear thermal transmittance. For junctions with
significantly higher linear thermal transmittance, especially above 0.3 W/(m·K) and up to
1.1 W/(m·K), a reduction of only half of the flanking element length (0.72 m) was possible
without a change in calculated linear thermal transmittance, but this occurred only in
constructions with a highly conductive internal load bearing layer (heavyweight concrete
in this study). The junctions with lightweight concrete or timber frame construction
behaved similarly to thermally good junctions, with the deviation of the linear thermal
transmittance ΔΨ around 0.001 W/(m·K) when the flanking element length was reduced
from 1.44 m to 0.288 m (80 % reduction). The thermal conductivity of insulation material
had no significant effect on ΔΨ in all assessed cases.
Contrary to the objective of the equivalent wall method, the shorter distance to the
adiabatic cut-off plane in this study was used to disaggregate more complex thermal
bridges with multiple combined junctions, allowing the separation of the thermal
bridges, which can then be summed up arithmetically. The results show that when
minimum flanking element lengths identified in this study are used instead of standard
values, the amount of different complex thermal bridges in two reference buildings can
85
be reduced by 35 % to 76 % depending on the allowed deviations in the range of 0.5 %
to 2.0 %. This would significantly reduce the working hours of practitioners.
A previous study on the application of infrared thermography for the assessment of
combined thermal bridges also suggests that despite EN ISO 10211 requirements the
adjacent thermal bridges can be assumed to interact only if the surface temperature
between the thermal bridges remains lower than the uniform surface temperature and
shorter flanking elements are possible depending on the detail (O’Grady et al., 2018).
The authors refer to the remark in a BRE report (Ward et al., 2016) that allows separate
assessment of combined thermal bridges if these are more apart from each other than
the thickness of the building element.
For point thermal bridges in building facades the current study proposes a new
method for predicting three-dimensional heat flow and the point thermal transmittance
of thermal bridges caused by full or partial penetration of the building envelope with
metal elements with uniform geometry in the third dimension using two-dimensional
numerical calculation. This would enable estimation of the point thermal transmittance
of different mounting brackets etc. in cases where a three-dimensional calculation
procedure is not possible due to lack of time, software tools or skills within the design
team.
Analysis revealed that the effect of insulation material as well as the thermal
resistance of the internal layers (load bearing part of the building envelope) did not have
any significant effect on the linear regression between the additional length of the
thermal bridge and the difference in thermal coupling coefficients derived from the
respective cross sections.
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6 Conclusions
This thesis studied the effect of air leakages and thermal bridges along with other
nonidealities in the context of well-insulated building envelopes in order to provide input
for robust, updated and more accurate methods to estimate the heat loss through
building envelopes.
Based on field measurements it was concluded that the airtightness of Estonian
wooden buildings has improved by a factor of 10 since the minimum requirements for
energy efficiency took effect.
The improved quality of workmanship has helped to significantly reduce air leakages.
Prefabrication with the light-weight timber construction technology provides
substantially better airtightness compared to traditional timber log building construction
technology. Besides, prefabrication improves airtightness also within log wood and
lightweight timber building groups, because on-site building or the use of handmade logs
corresponds to significantly higher air leakages.
The compactness factor and number of storeys did not have a significant effect on air
leakage. This refers to the fact that if systematic quality assurance with a proper
airtightness concept is used, the geometric and structural complexity of the building
envelope will no longer be a key factor for achieving airtightness.
The tabulated base values of the air leakage rate for buildings erected since 2009 are
in a range of 1.6 to 3.9 m3/(h·m2) with a value of 3.0 m3/(h·m2) for all buildings. The lowest
base value of air leakage rate is for a group of prefabricated lightweight timber buildings
with q50,base = 1.6 m3/(h·m2). The groups with an energy classification target of A or B
energy class and systematic measurement practice within a single company achieved a
base value q50,base around 2.0 m3/(hm2), while on-site construction along with handmade
log buildings achieved a base value q50,base 6.7 m3/(h·m2) and 5.9 m3/(h·m2), respectively.
Assuming consistency in construction technologies and in quality assurance mechanisms,
these tabulated base values can be used for energy calculation in Estonian conditions for
new buildings or buildings in the respective age groups.
Based on laboratory measurements in this study, it can be concluded that thickness
and surface property of the joints in building envelope had a significant effect on the air
leakage of joints filled with PU foam. In laboratory conditions consistent and a very low
air leakage rate was obtained with planed timber surfaces. Joints with plastic-coated and
sawn timber surfaces performed worse by a factor of 2 or more on average and
contributed to a very variable airtightness with up to 28 % and 50 % test specimens
failing the airtightness testing.
Increasing the joint width increased the air leakage along with its variation within all
other analysed factors. Contrary to assumption, no significant differences between
different premium class foam products could be shown. Comparison of estimated and
previously measured overall airtightness of an entire building envelope showed
dependence on the 'failure rate' rather than on the average measured leakage rate. It
should be taken into consideration that the results obtained in laboratory conditions may
be better than the ones obtained on site. Besides, the effect of ageing needs to be further
studied. The tabulated joint air leakage rates grouped by main effecting factors can be
useful for predictive leakage modelling in the future.
Air convection through gaps and nonidealities between building envelope parts and
within the insulation layer causes additional heat loss of the building envelope.
Numerical analysis of additional heat loss induced by air cavities between insulation
87
boards due to nonidealities led to the conclusion that certain insulation solutions
described in EN ISO 6946 Annex F should be reclassified (currently level 0), e.g., dual layer
insulation, sealed or partly foamed cavities within single insulation layers. While the
additional heat loss is insignificant through a penetrating horizontal air cavity, the heat
loss through vertical air cavities inside wall and roof insulation layers is highly dependent
on the cavity diameter and temperature difference. The rise of the temperature
difference from 10 K to 40 K increased the correction factor for air cavities one level up
compared to the estimation based on EN ISO 6946. For an upward heat flow (roof
construction), the effect was even more adverse. Insulation material has only a marginal
effect (higher thermal conductivity contributes to a slightly higher additional heat loss).
The presence of penetrating air cavities with 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm diameters will
increase the thermal transmittance in the wall construction by up to 10 %, 33 % and 59 %
at 40 K temperature difference. This phenomenon is not adequately covered in the
current standard. Penetrating cavities with a width of more than 10 mm inside roof
insulation have a huge effect and should be classified as inadequate workmanship and
an inappropriate solution.
The results from numerical assessment of different thermal bridges in lightweight and
heavyweight constructions show that the minimal flanking element length can be
significantly reduced. This simplifies the assessment of combined linear thermal bridges
where two or more separate simple junctions are in close proximity such as window
connection to intermediate ceiling, ground floor slab and several short wall segments in
between. In the case of a well-insulated building envelope, the sufficient length of the
flanking element to adequately describe the linear thermal transmittance in a
steady-state situation is equal to approximately its thickness. Compared to EN ISO 10211
requirements, this makes it possible to reduce the proportion of different complex
thermal bridges from between 35 % to 76 %, depending on the allowed deviations in the
range of 0.5 % to 2.0 %. This would significantly reduce the working hours of
practitioners.
A new method was proposed for predicting the three-dimensional heat flow and the
point thermal transmittance of thermal bridges caused by full or partial penetration of
the building envelope with metal elements with uniform geometry in the third dimension
using two-dimensional numerical calculation. This would make it possible to estimate the
point thermal transmittance of different mounting brackets etc. in cases where the
three-dimensional calculation procedure is not possible due to lack of time, software
tools or skills within the design team. The results of this thesis can be used as input to
further research on this topic to generate a generalised set of requirements for a future
version of EN ISO 10211 standards and provide a more detailed workflow for the
assessment of combined thermal bridges in steady-state calculations.
88
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Acknowledgements
This industrial PhD study was completed in cooperation with wooden building
manufacturing company Sense OÜ. The study was financially supported by Tallinn
University of Technology, Foundation Archimedes Programme DoRa Pluss and Smart
specialisation scholarship, by Estonian Research Council, European Regional
Development Fund and the scholarship of Foundation of Karl Õiger Scholarship Fund.
This work would not have been possible without their financial support.
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Targo Kalamees for the guidance,
exceptional support, patience and trust in me throughout my studies. I would also like to
thank Tiia Kaare for thoroughly revising and editing this thesis at such short notice.
My sincere gratitude goes out to all my lovely colleagues from Tallinn University of
Technology – Paul Klõšeiko, Endrik Arumägi, Karl-Villem Võsa, Raimo Simson, Tuule-Mall
Parts, Alo Mikola, Laura Kadaru, Martin Kiil, Villu Kukk, Kalle Kuusk, Kristo Kalbe, Simo
Ilomets, Helena Kuivjõgi, Meril Tamm, Eero Tuhkanen and many others. Thank you for
fruitful discussions, collaborations and sharing your knowledge no matter the topic or
time. And thank you for sharing all those early mornings and late evenings on the trails
running, skiing and cycling that kept the spirit high throughout these years.
I would like to thank all my friends for the greatest support imaginable, for all the
smiles and laughter in-between the working hours.
My gratitude goes out to my parents and family for all the support, encouragement
and freedom to find my own path.
Above all, my greatest gratitude goes out to my loved ones. My daughter Anette for
showing exceptional talent in many fields and determination in pursuing her dream to
become a scientist – greetings to University of Groningen. My son Lennart for keeping
the spark in my eyes with all the talks and walks together, for showing such a great
knowledge and understanding of space and beyond at such a young age. And finally, to
my lovely wife for inspiring me and leading the way in academic life and for all the deep
and meaningful conversations, advice and good words over the years.
96
PUBLICATION I
I
Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2019). Development of Airtightness of Estonian Wooden

Buildings. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 24 (1), 36−43. DOI:
10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.23231.
97
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PUBLICATION II
II
Hallik, J.; Gustavson, H.; Kalamees, T. (2019). Air Leakage of Joints Filled with
Polyurethane Foam. Buildings, 9 (7), 172. DOI: 10.3390/buildings9070172.
107
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PUBLICATION III
III
Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2020). A new method to estimate point thermal transmittance
based on combined two-dimensional heat flow calculation. 12th Nordic Symposium on
Building Physics, NSB 2020, Tallinn; Estonia; 6 September + 9 September 2020. Ed.
Kurnitski, J., Kalamees, T. EDP Sciences, #08005. (E3S Web of Conferences; 172). DOI:
10.1051/e3sconf/202017208005.
125
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PUBLICATION IV
IV
Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2021). The effect of flanking element length in thermal bridge
calculation and possible simplifications to account for combined thermal bridges in well
insulated building envelopes. Energy and Buildings, 252 (111397). DOI:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111397.
135
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PUBLICATION V
Hallik, J.; Klõšeiko, P.; Piir, R.; Kalamees, T. (2022). Numerical analysis of additional heat
loss induced by air cavities between insulation boards due to non-ideality. (Under review,
submitted to: Journal of Building Engineering 06.04.2022)
147
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Curriculum vitae
Personal data
Name: Jaanus Hallik
Date of birth: 14.12.1981
Place of birth: Võru, Estonia
Citizenship: Estonian
Contact data
E-mail: jaanus.hallik@taltech.ee
Education
2017–… Tallinn University of Technology, Department of Civil
Engineering and Architecture: Nearly Zero Energy
Buildings Research Group, PhD studies in Civil and
Environmental Engineering
2005–2008 University of Tartu, Faculty of Biology and Geography,
MSc degree in environmental technology (ecological
engineering)
2000–2005 University of Tartu, Faculty of Biology and Geography,
BSc degree in environmental technology (ecological
engineering)
1997–2000 Gustav Adolf Grammar School, specialization in
mathematics and physics
Special courses
12.04.2021 – 16.04.2021 RILEM EACCOURSE “Computational Methods for
Building Physics and Construction Materials” in
Darmstadt, Germany
02.10.2017 – 07.10.2017 IDA ICE simulation software advanced course
“EQUA Academy ́s 3rd Simulation Summit” in Vilifau,
Austria
Language competence
Estonian native speaker
English Fluent
Finnish Average
Professional employment
2019–… Tallinn University of Technology , School of
Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, Expert
2015–2021 Modular building factory Sense OÜ, specialist of
energy efficiency
2009–2015 Energy efficiency in buildings consultancy company
PassiveHouse OÜ, consultant
2007–2017 University of Tartu, Energy efficient building core lab,
specialist
2004–2007 Alkranel LCC, environmental consultant
172
Scientific publications and conference proceedings
loss induced by air cavities between insulation boards due to non-ideality.
(Submitted to: Journal of Building Engineering 06.04.2022)
calculation and possible simplifications to account for combined thermal bridges
in well insulated building envelopes. Energy and Buildings, 252. DOI:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111397.
Klõšeiko, P.; Arumägi, E.; Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2021). Dependence of measured specific
air leakage rate (qE50) on envelope pressure measurement position: a case study
in an apartment building in winter conditions. Journal of Physics: Conference
Series: 8th International Buildings Physics Conference 2021, Copenhagen, 25-27
August 2021. IOP Publishing, #012229. DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/2069/1/012229.
based on combined two-dimensional heat flow calculation. 12th Nordic
Symposium on Building Physics, NSB 2020, Tallinn; Estonia; 6 September + 9
September 2020. Ed. Kurnitski, J.,,Kalamees, T. EDP Sciences, #08005. (E3S Web of
Conferences; 172). DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/202017208005.
Buildings. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 24 (1), 36−43.
DOI: 10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.23231.
Kuusk, K.; Kaiser, A.; Lolli, N.; Johansson, J.; Hasu, T.; Gunnarshaug Lien, A.; Arumägi, E.;
Kalbe, K.; Hallik, J.; Kurnitski, J.; Kalamees, T. (2019). Energy Performance, Indoor
Air Quality and Comfort in New Nearly Zero Energy Day-care Centres in Northern
Climatic Conditions. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 24
(1), 7−16. DOI: 10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.23228.
Kuusk, K.; Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T.; Mauring, T. (2015). Performance of Heat Recovery
Ventilation System with Ground Source Brine Heat Exchanger Pre-Heating System
in the Context of nZEB. Proceedings of REHVA Annual Conference: Latvia, Rīga, 6-
9 May, 2015. RTU Press, 17−22. DOI: 10.7250/rehvaconf.2015.002.
Hallik, J.; Kalbe, K.; Mauring, T. (2014). The performance of subsoil frost protection
system of mechanical heat recovery ventilation unit in a cold climate in the
context of net zero energy building. 10th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics,
Lund, Sweden, 15-19 June 2014.
Mauring, T., Hallik, J., Kalbe, K., Valge, M. (2014). Winter performance of certified Passive
House building in Northern European cold climate. 18th International Passive
House Conference, Aachen, Germany, 25-26 April 2014.
Mauring, T.; Reinberg, GW.; Hallik, J.; Valge, M.; Kalbe, K. (2013). A prototype
architecture for passive and plus energy building in Estonia. Proceedings of 6th
Passive House Conference in the Nordic Countries, 6: 6th Passive House
Conference in the Nordic Countries; Göteborg, Sweden; 15.-17. Oct 2013. Ed. Jan-
Olof Dalenbäck. Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology, 18−29.
Reinberg, G. W.; Mauring, T.; Hallik, J.; Valge, M.; Kalbe, K. (2013). First Certified Passive
House in Estonia. Proceedings of 17th International Passive House Conference, 17:
17th International Passive House Conference; Frankfurt, Germany; 19.-20. April
2013. Ed. Feist, Wolfgang. Darmstadt: Passivhaus Institut Darmstadt.
173
Elulookirjeldus
Isikuandmed
Nimi: Jaanus Hallik
Sünniaeg: 14.12.1981
Sünnikoht: Võru, Eesti
Kodakondsus: Eesti
Kontaktandmed
E-post: jaanus.hallik@taltech.ee
Hariduskäik
2017–… Tallinna Tehnikaülikool, Inseneriteaduskond, Ehituse
ja arhitektuuri instituut, doktoriõpe ehituse ja
keskkonnatehnika erialal
2005–2008 Tartu Ülikool, Bioloogia-geograafiateaduskond,
keskkonnatehnoloogia magistriõpe
2000–2005 Tartu Ülikool, Bioloogia-geograafiateaduskond,
keskkonnatehnoloogia bakalaureuseõpe
1997–2000 Gustav Adolf Grammar School, specialization in
mathematics and physics
Erikursused
12.04.2021 – 16.04.2021 RILEM EACCOURSE “Computational Methods for
Building Physics and Construction Materials” in
Darmstadt, Germany
02.10.2017 – 07.10.2017 IDA ICE simulation software advanced course
“EQUA Academy ́s 3rd Simulation Summit” in Vilifau,
Austria
Keelteoskus
Eesti keel Emakeel
Inglise keel Kõrgtase
Soome keel Kesktase
Teenistuskäik
2019–… Tallinna Tehnikaülikool, Inseneriteaduskond, Ehituse
ja arhitektuuri instituut, ekspert
2015–2021 Sense OÜ, energiatõhususe spetsialist
2009–2015 PassiveHouse OÜ, konsultant
2007–2017 Tartu Ülikool, Energiatõhusa ehituse tuumiklabor,
spetsialist
2004–2007 Alkranel OÜ, keskkonnaspetsialist
Teaduspublikatsioonid ja konverentsiettekanded
loss induced by air cavities between insulation boards due to non-ideality.
(Submitted to: Journal of Building Engineering 06.04.2022)
174
calculation and possible simplifications to account for combined thermal bridges
in well insulated building envelopes. Energy and Buildings, 252. DOI:
10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111397.
Klõšeiko, P.; Arumägi, E.; Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T. (2021). Dependence of measured specific
air leakage rate (qE50) on envelope pressure measurement position: a case study
in an apartment building in winter conditions. Journal of Physics: Conference
Series: 8th International Buildings Physics Conference 2021, Copenhagen, 25-27
August 2021. IOP Publishing, #012229. DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/2069/1/012229.
based on combined two-dimensional heat flow calculation. 12th Nordic
Symposium on Building Physics, NSB 2020, Tallinn; Estonia; 6 September + 9
September 2020. Ed. Kurnitski, J.,,Kalamees, T. EDP Sciences, #08005. (E3S Web of
Conferences; 172). DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/202017208005.
Buildings. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 24 (1), 36−43.
DOI: 10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.23231.
Kuusk, K.; Kaiser, A.; Lolli, N.; Johansson, J.; Hasu, T.; Gunnarshaug Lien, A.; Arumägi, E.;
Kalbe, K.; Hallik, J.; Kurnitski, J.; Kalamees, T. (2019). Energy Performance, Indoor
Air Quality and Comfort in New Nearly Zero Energy Day-care Centres in Northern
Climatic Conditions. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 24
(1), 7−16. DOI: 10.5755/j01.sace.24.1.23228.
Kuusk, K.; Hallik, J.; Kalamees, T.; Mauring, T. (2015). Performance of Heat Recovery
Ventilation System with Ground Source Brine Heat Exchanger Pre-Heating System
in the Context of nZEB. Proceedings of REHVA Annual Conference: Latvia, Rīga, 6-
9 May, 2015. RTU Press, 17−22. DOI: 10.7250/rehvaconf.2015.002.
Hallik, J.; Kalbe, K.; Mauring, T. (2014). The performance of subsoil frost protection
system of mechanical heat recovery ventilation unit in a cold climate in the
context of net zero energy building. 10th Nordic Symposium on Building Physics,
Lund, Sweden, 15-19 June 2014.
Mauring, T., Hallik, J., Kalbe, K., Valge, M. (2014). Winter performance of certified Passive
House building in Northern European cold climate. 18th International Passive
House Conference, Aachen, Germany, 25-26 April 2014.
Mauring, T.; Reinberg, GW.; Hallik, J.; Valge, M.; Kalbe, K. (2013). A prototype
architecture for passive and plus energy building in Estonia. Proceedings of 6th
Passive House Conference in the Nordic Countries, 6: 6th Passive House
Conference in the Nordic Countries; Göteborg, Sweden; 15.-17. Oct 2013. Ed. Jan-
Olof Dalenbäck. Göteborg, Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology, 18−29.
Reinberg, G. W.; Mauring, T.; Hallik, J.; Valge, M.; Kalbe, K. (2013). First Certified Passive
House in Estonia. Proceedings of 17th International Passive House Conference, 17:
17th International Passive House Conference; Frankfurt, Germany; 19.-20. April
2013. Ed. Feist, Wolfgang. Darmstadt: Passivhaus Institut Darmstadt.
175
ISSN 2585-6901 (PDF)
ISBN 978-9949-83-834-9 (PDF)

Hallik PHD Final Raamatukogust

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DOCTORAL THESIS

On Design Principles and

On Design Principles and Calculation

Supervisor: Prof. Targo Kalamees

Opponents: Prof. Tore Kvande

Prof. Raimondas Bliūdžius

Defence of the thesis: 17/06/2022, Tallinn

Copyright: Jaanus Hallik, 2022

Õhulekete ja külmasildade mõju hindamise

These publications are referred to in the thesis by their Roman numbers

1.2 Objectives and content of the study

In PUBLICATION I a large number of whole-building airtightness measurements of

Practical application discussed in this thesis relates to

where Ui is the thermal transmittance of element i of the building envelope in

2.2 Heat loss and thermal transmittance in well insulated building

2.2.1 Airtightness and factors affecting it

2.2.4 Thermal bridging

Figure 2. Measurement of building envelope airtightness with pressurization and depressurization

3.2 Air leakage of joints

Figure 6. Schematic of equipment for air leakage tests (dimensions in mm).

𝑉𝑉̇ = 𝐶𝐶 ∙ ∆𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 , m3/h (4)

3.3 Heat loss due to cavities within the insulation layer

Installation Correction factor

Figure 12. Assessed geometric cases of different cavities.

3.3.5 Calculation of annual heat loss in different climate conditions

where QH is annual heat loss through 1 m2 of the building envelope, kWh/(m²·a);

3.4 Assessment of combined thermal bridges

3.4.1 Numerical finite element analysis

3.4.2 Studied geometry of thermal bridges

Table 2. Variable layer properties in assessed geometric cases

3.5 A new method for estimating point thermal transmittance

3.5.1 Numerical finite element analysis

where L3D is the thermal coupling coefficient obtained from a three-dimensional

𝜒𝜒 = 𝐿𝐿3𝐷𝐷 − 𝐿𝐿3𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 , W/K (10)

3.5.2 Description of the assessed thermal bridging elements

Table 3. Variable parameters used in numerical heat flow analysis

Parameter Description Thermal conductivity λ, W/(m·K)

Number Air leakage rate q50, m3/(h⋅m2)

Number Air leakage rate q50, m3/(h⋅m2)

The energy performance certificate (EPC) classification A or B contributed to a slightly

Number Air leakage rate q50, m3/(h⋅m2)

The effect of systematic measurement practice within manufacturing or building

Number Air leakage rate q50, m3/(h⋅m2)

4.2 Air leakage of joints sealed with PU foam

S 0.299 0.169 0.156 0.054

K 0.606 0.618 0.214 0.092

K 1.603 0.601 0.313 0.134

S 1.216 0.657 0.329 0.147

K 1.880 0.217 0.565 0.027

4.3 Heat loss due to cavities within the insulation layer

4.3.2 Validation of the CFD model

Temperature Measured average heat flux

4.3.3 Convective heat loss of penetrating air cavities

4.4 Assessment of combined thermal bridges

ΔΨ, W/(m·K) at different relative lengths of

4.4.2 Simplification of combined thermal bridges

Allowed relative Office Detached

4.5 Simplified estimation of point thermal transmittance

4.5.2 Model fitting

Point thermal transmittances retrieved from three-dimensional numerical

The relative error varies between –9.2 % (underestimation) and +15.1 %

5.2 Air leakage of joints sealed with PU foam

5.3 Heat loss due to cavities within the insulation layer

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