Photovoltaic Systems

Module 3 — Physics of Solar Cells

Recombination and
Transport of Charge Carriers
2020 DTU Fotonik — Rasmus Nielsen 1
 Bulk Recombination Mechanisms
• Radiative (band-to-band)
recombination. The
spontaneous transition of
electrons from the conduction
band to unoccupied states in
the valence band.
• Auger recombination.
A third particle (either an
electron or hole) absorbs
the energy emitted.
• Impurity recombination.
Defects introduce electronic
states in the bandgap. May be
limited by fabricating a more
pure and defect-free crystal.

Rrad = Bradnp RAug = np (Cnn + Cp p) Rn, imp = σnvnnpimp

E E E

EC EC EC
Eimp
EV EV EV

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 Recombination at Surfaces and Interfaces

• Surface recombination. • Dangling bonds are caused by • Interface recombination.

A large density of states in interruptions in the crystal lattice. Similarly, electrons and
the bandgap is found on The reduction of dangling bonds is holes may recombine at
the surface of a crystal, known as surface passivation. semiconductor-metal
where the crystal lattice is interfaces.
disrupted.

H
E E
Si H
EC EC
EF

EV EV
a - Si: H

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 Carrier Lifetime and Diffusion Length

• Carrier lifetime is a material • Diffusion length is the average

property describing the average distance a generated charge carrier
time a generated charge carrier (electron or hole) moves between
(electron or hole) exists in an generation and recombination.
excited state before it recombines.

Δn
τbulk = , Δn = n − ni L= Dτ
Rbulk
Rbulk = Rrad + RAug + Rimp

Minority carrier lifetime in silicon The minority carrier diffusion length in

may be as high as 1 millisecond! silicon is typically 100-300 µm!

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 Diffusion currents
Total diffusion charge current
• Particles spread out from regions of Jn, diff = eDn ∇n
high particle concentration to regions of Jdiff = e (Dn ∇n − Dp ∇p)
low particle concentrations
— this process is known as diffusion
Jp, diff = − eDp ∇p
E

∇n ≠ 0 ⟹ ∇n ≠ 0 ⟹ ∇n = 0 ⟹ ∇n, ∇p ≠ 0
Jn, diff = Jn, diff = Jn, diff = 0

EC
EFC
EFV
n n n EV

x
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 Drift currents
Total drift charge current
• In an electric field ξ, forces • Carrier mobility μ is a
act on charged particles. central parameter describing Jdrift = e (nμn + pμp) ξ
The resulting motion of how easily the carrier moves
particles is known as drift through the material E
σn σp
ξ≠0
{

{
Jn, drift = enμnξ Jp, drift = epμpξ
+ + - + EC -
+ - + -
+ - + EFC --
+ - + EFV
-
+ + - +
+ --
+ - +
EV
+ - x
E − field
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 Total Charge Current

• Diffusion and drift are the two driving forces acting on electrons and holes.
The two contributions must be added to give a total resultant current
E
Jtotal = Jdiff + Jdrift
= e (Dn ∇n − Dp ∇p) + e (nμn + pμp) ξ
∇EFC = 0
∇EFV = 0
• The Einstein relation links the Dn Dp kBT
diffusivity D to the carrier mobility μ
= =
μn μp e +
EC -
+ -
+
+
EFC --
• Using more advanced concepts it is possible to describe the total EFV
charge current using the gradients of the quasi-Fermi levels + -
σp
+
+ EV --
σn
Jtotal = ∇EFC + ∇EFV
e e x
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 The Working Principle of a Solar Cell

Thermal Radiant Chemical Electrical

Energy Energy Energy Energy

Thermalization

EFC
Eg Drift + Diffusion

EFV

Drift + Diffusion

Sun Absorber Device

Current x Voltage = Power

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 Summary

• The three bulk recombination mechanisms are radiative, Auger and impurity recombination.
Radiative and Auger recombination are intrinsic, meaning that we have to live with them.

• Surface and interface recombination require special attention, where dangling bonds should be
passivated, and only one type of carrier should be allowed to reach a metallic contact.

• The carrier lifetime and diffusion length are important parameters as they are used as indicators of
material quality.

• Diffusion charge currents results of gradients in the carrier concentrations. Jdiff = e (Dn ∇n − Dp ∇p)

• Drift charge currents results from the presence of an electric field. Jdrift = e (nμn + pμp) ξ

• The total charge current is calculated by summing the drift and diffusion currents.
A gradient in the quasi-Fermi levels is required for the total charge current to be non-zero.

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