SAN JOSE COMMUNITY COLLEGE

San Jose, Malilipot, Albay

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY

FINAL MODULE – ACTIVITY
COURSE CODE: GE6
INSTRUCTOR: ANDREW F. BOHOLANO

Introduction to the Module

You must have seen a variety of grass, plants, bushes, trees, insects, birds, animals or
beautiful landscapes around you. We rely on this diversity of plants and animals to
provide us food, fuel, medicine and other essentials without which we cannot live.
These species are the product of more than four billion years of evolution. This rich
biodiversity is being lost at an
alarming rate largely because of
human activities. However, there
are many things that each one of us
can contribute in preserving these
species, plants, animals and other
living organisms. There are lots of
things which you can help in saving
these precious diversities. It is very
important for us to know about the
diversity of plants, animals and
microorganisms. In this lesson, we
will learn about some of these
plants, animals, their importance
and distribution and need for their
conservation.

Biodiversity is a short form of biological diversity. In simple terms biodiversity is the

total number of genes, species and ecosystems of a region. It includes (i) genetic
diversity, (ii) species diversity and (iii) ecosystem diversity. Plants and animals
constitute only a small component of biodiversity. Genes of an individual belonging to
the same species are similar and genes control the characteristics of particular species.
Species: A group of very similar having some common characteristics or qualities and
capable of interbreeding. Ecosystem – Any segment of the landscape that includes
biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components is known as ecosystem.

Biodiversity is fundamental to the existence of life on the earth. There are varieties of
living things that exist in a given physical environment. These are interdependent and
interrelated in the form of an ecosystem. The nature of vegetation in any area
determines the animal life. When the vegetation of a place is altered, animal life also
changes and simultaneously it affects mankind. Loss of any component in the system
adversely affects other components of the system. We are an integral part of the
ecosystem. By cutting trees and killing animals, human beings lead to ecological
imbalance. How does the ecosystem get influenced by human beings? Collect some
articles from the newspaper and magazines which will help you in understanding
human impact on the ecosystem. We must understand that all plants and animals in an
area are interdependent and interrelated in their physical environment? Ecosystem is
extremely valuable in different facets of human life which includes the following: l
Providing food, water, fiber, fuel etc. l Regulating of climate and disease (For example:
people are suffering from cold and cough in winters and stomach infections in monsoon
etc.

Causes of Loss of Biodiversity Increasing population and changing lifestyle leads to

extensive commercial exploitation of the natural resources. This results in loss of
biodiversity. Consequently, it is adversely affecting the ability of nature to continue
delivering the goods and services for human existence. The loss of biodiversity affects
not only the physical environment but also the social, cultural, religious and spiritual
well-being of human life. In our ecosystem, vegetation and wildlife are valuable
resources. We all know that plants provide us with timber, give shelter to man and
animals, produce the oxygen we breathe, prevent soil erosion and natural calamities
such as floods, high speed winds and help in storage of underground water, give us
fruits, nuts, latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants and also the paper that is so
essential for our studies. These are some of the innumerable uses of plants. Wildlife
includes animals, birds, insects, reptiles as well as the aquatic life forms. They provide
us milk, meat, hides and wool. Insects like bees provide us honey, help in pollination of
flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds
feed on insects and act as a decomposer as well. Vulture due to its ability to feed on
dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the environment. So,
life forms, big or small, all are integral in maintaining a balance in the ecosystem.

Lesson 1 Biodiversity and the Healthy Society

Biodiversity is unevenly distributed. It varies globally and within regions. The

various factors that influence biodiversity include -temperature, altitude,
precipitation, soils, and their relation with other species. For instance, ocean
biodiversity is 25 times lesser than terrestrial diversity. Biodiversity also
increases its form as it moves from the poles towards the tropics. Biodiversity is
the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. It has been subject to periods of
extinction. The latest and most destructive stage of extinction is Holocene
extinction, which has occurred due to the impact of human beings on the
environment.
Lecture Notes:
Biodiversity and Its Benefits

Biodiversity is the amount of

variety of life on Earth. It is
the number of different
species of plants, animals,
and microorganisms. It
includes organisms from
Earth’s vastly different
ecosystems, including
deserts, rainforests, coral
reefs, grasslands, tundra,
and polar ice caps. Our
biodiversity is very
important to the well-being of
our planet. Most cultures, at
least at some time, have
recognized the importance of
conserving natural
resources. Many still do, but
many do not.

Biodiversity has three essential elements: 1. Genetic diversity, 2. Ecosystem diversity

and 3. Species diversity. Genetic diversity is the vastness of different species and the
diversity within a species. The greater the genetic diversity within a species, the
greater that species’ chances of long-term survival. The ecosystem diversity is the
variety of different ecosystems within an area. It is not the diversity of species within an
ecosystem. It is sometimes confused with ecological diversity which is the number of
species within a community. An area with four different ecosystems like boreal, tundra,
temperate grasslands, and temperate forests has greater ecosystem diversity than the
same size area with only two ecosystems, say temperate grasslands and forests. On the
other hand, Species diversity is a measurement of biological diversity to be found in a
specific ecological community. It represents the species richness or number of species
found in an ecological community, the abundance or number of individuals per species,
and the distribution or evenness of species.

We humans depend on a number of natural services offered by ecosystems to live a

healthy life on the Earth. They are as follows.
● Maintaining The Balance of The Ecosystem: Recycling and storage of
nutrients, combating pollution by breaking it down and its absorption,
stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming and protecting soil,
recovery from unpredictable events and maintaining overall eco-balance.
 ● Provision of Biological Resources: Provision of medicines and
pharmaceuticals, food for the human population and animals, ornamental
plants, wood products, breeding stock, future resources and diversity of
species, ecosystems, and genes.
● Social Benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education,
research and monitoring.

Biodiversity provides for a variety of foods for the planet. Because of the availability of
different species, humans are able to obtain a range of materials and foods to support
their well-being and health. The various foods such as fish, meat, vegetables, fruits, and
cereals are all available because of the planet’s biodiversity. 80% of the human food
supply comes from 20 kinds of plants. But humans use 40,000 species for food, clothing,
and shelter. Biodiversity also plays an essential role in drug discovery and medicinal
resources. Through biological diversity, scientists have made significant advances in
medical discoveries and have found cures for several diseases. All this has been
possible because of research into the various animal and plant genetics as well as
biology. 80% of vaccines and drugs used in prevention and treatment respectively are
from the world’s biodiversity. Medicines from nature account for usage by 80% of the
world’s population.

Research indicates that there is a close link between disease outbreaks and the
degradation of nature. As the global wildlife trade continues and development projects
expand deeper into tropical forests, humans are increasing their exposure to wild
animals and the diseases they may carry. Seventy percent of emerging viral diseases
have spread from animals to humans. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic can likely
be sourced to a wild animal and fish market in Wuhan, China. With COVID-19, we’ve
seen the damage that diseases can do not only to human health but also to the global
economy.

Deforestation is also accelerating climate breakdown, which in turn may boost the
spread of disease by allowing disease carriers like mosquitoes to extend their
geographic ranges and infect new populations of humans. This shows that we must take
care of nature to take care of ourselves. By protecting biodiversity in Earth’s
ecosystems, countries could save lives and money, while helping to prevent future
pandemics.

Biodiversity plays an important role in offering ecological services that make life livable
on Earth. The ecological balance and biodiversity are crucial for all of the earth, not just
humans. The ecological services include air purification, replenishing and cleaning
water systems, absorbing chemicals and breaking down pollutants, stabilizing climate,
recycling nutrients and storage, forming and protecting the soil and speedy recovery
from natural disasters. Crucial life cycles such as the water cycle and the nitrogen
cycle are all determined by biodiversity. Protecting biodiversity plays a crucial part in
achieving these emissions reductions and that nature can deliver at least 30 percent of
the emissions reductions needed by 2030 to prevent climate catastrophe according to
a landmark study published in 2017, a group of researchers led by Bronson Griscom,
who researches natural climate solutions at Conservation International.

The destruction of forest ecosystems is responsible for 11 percent of all global

greenhouse gas emissions caused by humans, so conserving forests would stop the
release of these gases into the atmosphere. Trees and plants also store carbon in their
tissue, making it even more necessary to protect them.

Some ecosystems, such as mangroves, are particularly good at storing carbon and
keeping it out of the atmosphere. Forests and wetland ecosystems provide crucial
buffers to extreme storms and flooding related to climate change. On top of this,
biological sources provide many industrial materials. The numerous industrial raw
materials, including rubber, cotton, leather, food, paper, timber, water, fiber, oil, and
dyes, are supplied by the biological resources. These resources are then used by the
industries to process and manufacture different products for human and other uses.

Reason for Loss of Biodiversity

The earth’s biodiversity is in grave danger. In the present era, human beings are the
most dangerous cause of the destruction of the earth’s biodiversity. In 2006, the terms
threatened, endangered, or rare were used to describe the status of many species. The
“evil quartet” identified by Jared Diamond is overkill, habitat destruction, secondary
extinctions, and introduced species. Factors identified by Edward Wilson are
described by the acronym- HIPPO standing for habitat destruction, climate change,
invasive species, pollution, human overpopulation, and over-harvesting.
● Habitat destruction. It is a major cause of biodiversity loss. Habitat loss is caused
by deforestation, overpopulation, pollution, and global warming. Species that
are physically large and those living in forests or oceans are more affected by
habitat reduction. Some experts estimate that around 30% of all species on earth
will be extinct by 2050. According to the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), globally, about one-third of all known species are threatened
with extinction. Even it is estimated that 25% of all mammals will be extinct within
20 years.
● Invasive Species. Even if a small element of an ecosystem breaks down, the
whole system’s balance is threatened. Freshwater ecosystems are nowadays the
most threatened ecosystems. Invasive species refer to those that would normally
remain constrained from an ecosystem because of the presence of natural
barriers. Since these barriers are no longer existing, invasive species invade the
ecosystem, destroying native species. Human activities have been the major
cause of encouraging invasive species.
● Over-exploitation of Species. Species can also be threatened by genetic
pollution – uncontrolled hybridization and gene swamping. For instance,
abundant species can interbreed with rare species, thus causing swamping of
the gene pool. Overexploitation is caused by activities such
 as overfishing, overhunting, excessive logging and illegal trade of wildlife. Over
25% of global fisheries are being overfished at unsustainable levels.
● Global Warming and Climate Change are becoming a major cause of loss of
biodiversity. Changes in climates and global temperatures directly impact
physical environmental factors essential for sustainable habitat. For example, if
the present rate of global warming continues, coral reefs, which are biodiversity
hotspots, will disappear in 20-40 years. The wildlife in the mountain regions that
require cool temperatures of high elevations such as the rock rabbit and
mountain gorillas may in the near future run out of habitat due to global warming.
If global warming and climate change continue, 10% of the entire world species
might go extinct by 2050.
● Pollution in various forms, including water pollution, soil pollution, air
pollution, land pollution and agricultural pollution, pose a serious threat to the
biological systems destroying animal and plant habitats due to the release of
toxic substances and chemicals. Some seriously polluted regions have become
dead zones as the conditions cannot sustain any life form. Apart from habitat
destruction, pollution poses long-term cumulative impacts on the species’ health,
contributing to their eventual death. For instance, marine and freshwater life
forms are most affected by pollution.
● Human Overpopulation has witnessed continued encroachment into frontier
forests, heightened pollution, and destruction of natural ecosystems that have
considerably contributed to the mass extinction of species. The number of
threatened species persists in multiplying worldwide, whereas some have
completely gone extinct. Human activities such as acidifying water
systems, over-exploitation of natural resources, pollution, overfishing, poaching,
and the deliberate and indirect destruction of natural systems have contributed
to the loss of biodiversity.
● Natural Calamities such as floods, drought, forest fires, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, epidemics etc. sometimes take a heavy toll on plant and animal life. In
nature, such episodes are usually confined to specific plant or animal populations
as the pathogen is often specific to particular species or groups of species.
Floods are frequent in moist tropical regions, which tend to inundate much of the
ground vegetation, trap a large number of animals while leading away soil
nutrients. In densely wooded localities, forest fires often reduce a large number
of plant and animal species to ashes, and so do earthquakes. Volcanic eruptions
may, at times completely destroy plant and animal life in its surrounding areas.
Epidemics sometimes destroy large portions of a natural population.
● Genetic Pollution refers to the hybridization or genetic engineering of species. It
is applied mainly in agricultural production to increase resistance to diseases
and local climates for high yields. This threatens species, especially when there
are uncontrolled hybridization and genetic engineering. Eventually, it brings
about unique genotypes which replace the originally existent diverse genetic
materials.
 Vocabulary List

Nanotechnology. The use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and

supramolecular scale for industrial purposes. The earliest, widespread
description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of
precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale
products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology.

What is Nano Technology?

Nano Technology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale,

which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. According to Physicist Richard Feynman, the father
of nanotechnology, nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of
extremely small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as
chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering. Important
nanotechnology achievements seem to be announced almost daily. One is the way to
draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it into high-yield carbon
nanofibers that can be used in manufacturing of strong carbon composites, such as
those used in the Boeing Dreamliner, in high-end sports equipment, in wind turbine
blades, and a host of other products. Another one is a hybrid system consisting of solar
cells and a thermal energy collector that draws very little energy. Licht estimates that if
the process was scaled up to cover a physical area less than 10 percent of the size of the
Sahara Desert, within a decade it would reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to
pre-industrial levels.

Nanotechnological products, processes and applications are expected to contribute

significantly to environmental and climate protection by saving raw materials, energy
and water as well as by reducing greenhouse gases and hazardous wastes. The use
of nanomaterials will create environmental benefits and sustainability effects to solve
the dwindling supply and rising prices for raw materials and energy, coupled with
the increasing environmental awareness of consumers, are responsible for a flood of
products on the market that promise certain advantages for environmental and
climate protection. Nanomaterials exhibit special physical and chemical properties
that make them interesting for novel, environmentally friendly products.

Examples include the increased durability of materials against mechanical stress or

weathering, helping to increase the useful life of a product; nanotechnology-based
dirt- and water-resistant coatings to reduce cleaning efforts; novel insulation
materials to improve the energy efficiency of buildings; adding nanoparticles to a
material to reduce weight and save energy during transport. In the chemical industry
sector, nanomaterials are applied based on their special catalytic properties in order
to boost energy and resource efficiency, and nanomaterials can replace
environmentally problematic chemicals in certain fields of application. High hopes
are being placed in nano-technologically optimized products and processes for
energy production and storage; these are currently in the development phase and
are slated to contribute significantly to climate protection and solving our energy
problems in the future.

In most commercially available “nano-consumer products “, environmental

protection is not the primary goal. Neither textiles with nano silver to combat
perspiration odor, or especially stable golf clubs. Examples include self-cleaning
surface coatings or textiles with spot protection, which are advertised as reducing the
cleaning effort and therefore saving energy, water and cleaning agents. The
production of nanomaterials today often still requires large amounts of energy, water
and environmentally problematic chemicals such as solvents.

The high-tech production of nanomaterials based on carbon, such as fullerenes,

carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers, remains very energy intensive: any
potential environmental advantages – such as those through fuel savings due to
lighter vehicle bodies – are currently negated. High energy demand plays an
important role especially when mass producing a product requires large amounts of
a nanomaterial. In contrast, if only very small amounts are used, for example of CNTs
to produce special plastic films, then environmental benefits exist. Thus, in order to
determine such benefits, any potential energy savings in using a nanomaterial-based
product must be compared with the energy consumed during its production. This
must be done on a case by case basis. Further advances and improvements in
production processes raise hopes that energy consumption can be reduced in the
future.

The efficiency of nano-solar panels currently still lies about 10% below that of
conventional silica panels. Several consumer products that promise environmental
advantages are already available, and certain applications have already been
implemented in the industrial sector. Much is currently in the research and
development stage, especially in the sectors energy and environmental technology.

Nanotechnology is “science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale

which is about 1 to 100 nanometers.” One nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of
a meter. For comparison, a sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers thick.
Scientists are discovering that atoms and molecules behave differently at the nanoscale.
It is also a rapidly expanding field. Scientists and engineers are having great success
making materials at the nanoscale to take advantage of enhanced properties such as
higher strength, lighter weight, increased electrical conductivity, and chemical
reactivity compared to their larger-scale equivalents.

Ways Nanotechnology Impacts Human Lives

Below are 10 ways nanotechnology impacts our lives on a daily basis.

1. Faster, smaller, and more powerful computers that consume far less power, with
longer-lasting batteries. Circuits made from carbon nanotubes could be vital in
maintaining the growth of computer power, allowing Moore's Law to continue.
2. Faster, more functional, and more accurate medical diagnostic equipment. Lab-on-a-
chip technology enables point-of-care testing in real time, which speeds up delivery of
medical care. Nanomaterial surfaces on implants improve wear and resist infection.
3. Nanoparticles in pharmaceutical products improve their absorption within the body
and make them easier to deliver, often through combination medical devices.
Nanoparticles can also be used to deliver chemotherapy drugs to specific cells, such as
cancer cells.
4. Improved vehicle fuel efficiency and corrosion resistance by building vehicle parts
from nanocomposite materials that are lighter, stronger, and more chemically resistant
than metal. Nano filters remove nearly all airborne particles from the air before it
reaches the combustion chamber, further improving gas mileage.
5. Nanoparticles or nanofibers in fabrics can enhance stain resistance, water resistance,
and flame resistance, without a significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness of
the fabric.

For example, “nano-whiskers”

on pants make them resistant
to water and stains.
6. Water filters that are only 15-
20 nanometers wide can
remove nano-sized particles,
including virtually all viruses
and bacteria. These cost-
efficient, portable water
treatment systems are ideal for
improving the quality of
drinking water in emerging
countries.
7. Carbon nanotubes have a
variety of commercial uses,
including making sports
equipment stronger and
lighter weight. For example, a
tennis racket made with
carbon nanotubes bends less
during impact, and increases
the force and accuracy of the
delivery. Nanoparticle-treated
tennis balls can keep bouncing
twice as long as standard
tennis balls.
8. Most sunscreens today are
made from nanoparticles that effectively absorb light, including the more dangerous
ultraviolet range. They also spread more easily over the skin. These same nanoparticles
are also used in food packaging to reduce UV exposure and prolong shelf life.
9. Many drink bottles are made from plastics containing nano clays, which increase
resistance to permeation by oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture. This helps retain
carbonation and pressure and increases shelf life by several months.
10. Thanks to nanotechnology, a huge variety of chemical sensors can be programmed
to detect a particular chemical at amazingly low levels, for example, a single molecule
out of billions. This capability is ideal for surveillance and security systems at labs,
industrial sites, and airports. On the medical front, Nano sensors can also be used to
accurately identify particular cells or substances in the body.

Environmental benefits are expected especially in the following areas:

Reduced use of raw materials through miniaturization
● By reducing the thickness of coatings and decreasing the amounts of food
additives or cosmetic ingredients.

Energy savings through weight reduction or through optimized function

● In the future, novel, nano-technologically optimized materials, for example
plastics or metals with carbon nanotubes (CNTs), will make airplanes and
vehicles lighter and therefore help reduce fuel consumption;
● Novel lighting materials (OLED: organic light-emitting diodes) with nanoscale
layers of plastic and organic pigments are being developed; their conversion
rate from energy to light can apparently reach 50 % (compared with traditional
light bulbs = 5%);
● Nanoscale carbon black has been added to modern automobile tires for some
time now to reinforce the material and reduce rolling resistance, which leads
to fuel savings of up to 10%;
● Self-cleaning or “easy-to-clean”-coatings, for example on glass, can help save
energy and water in facility cleaning because such surfaces are easier to clean
or need not be cleaned so often;
● Nanotribological wear protection products as fuel or motor oil additives could
reduce fuel consumption of vehicles and extend engine life;
● Nanoparticles as flow agents allow plastics to be melted and cast at lower
temperatures;
● Nonporous insulating materials in the construction business can help reduce
the energy needed to heat and cool buildings.

Energy and environmental technology

● Various nanomaterials can improve the efficiency of photovoltaic facilities;
● Novel dye solar cells (“Grätzel cells”) with nanoscale semiconductor materials
are currently under development; they mimic natural photosynthesis in green
plants;
● Plastics with CNTs as coatings on the rotor blades of wind turbines make these
lighter and increase the energy yield;
● Nano-technologically optimized lithium-ion batteries have an improved
storage capacity as well as an increased lifespan and find use in electric
vehicles for example;
 ● Fuel cells with nanoscale ceramic materials for energy production are under
development; their production requires less energy and resources;
● Nonporous membranes and filters with nanomaterials are used in water
treatment and purification;
● Nanoparticular iron compounds are used in groundwater remediation to
remove chlorinated hydrocarbons;
● The effectiveness of catalytic converters in vehicles can be increased by
applying catalytically active precious metals in the nanoscale size range, and
● nonporous particle filters are being developed to reduce emissions in motor
vehicles.

Replacement of hazardous materials

● Nano silver can potentially be applied to replace hazardous biocides, for
example in wood preservatives or paints;
● Nanoceramic corrosion coatings for metals without toxic heavy metals
(chromium, nickel), for example in household appliances or automobiles, can
replace environmentally harmful or hazardous chromium (VI) layers and
conventional phosphating;
● nanoscale titanium dioxide and silica can replace the environmentally
damaging bromine in flame retardants;
● Nanoparticle titanium dioxide as a mineral UV-filter in sunscreens is being
considered as an alternative to organic filters, which are a health concern.
Energy and resource efficiency in the chemical industry
● Nano catalysts can be used to increase the yield of chemical reactions and
reduce the amount of environmentally damaging byproducts.
What is Gene Therapy? It is a
procedure where normal, healthy genes
are introduced into a person to treat or
prevent diseases in order to correct
defective genes or missing genes as a
solution to genetic disorders. Gene
therapy techniques aim to treat patients
suffering from genetic disorders without
using drugs or surgeries. Researchers
perform experiments to discover the
possibilities of gene therapy technique
in several approaches as follows.
● Replacement of mutated
genes that cause diseases with a
healthy gene,
● Knocking out of mutated or
improper genes, and
● Introduction of new genes to enhance immunity of the body against diseases.
Although gene therapy technique is theoretically a promising technique, it is still under
experimental conditions since it has failed to prove 100% effectiveness and safety for
use. However, it can be applied as a treatment for the diseases which cannot be cured
by other methods such as inherited diseases, some cancers, several viral infections,
etc.
Gene therapy is performed using a vector system to deliver the genes into the target
organism. Vectors used in gene therapy are certain viruses, especially adenoviruses
and retroviruses. Some types of viruses are promisingly used to introduce genes into
human chromosomes to correct defective genes. However, scientists should overcome
the practical challenges of gene therapy technique to use it as a treatment for diseases.
If researchers are able to find the best ways to deliver genes accurately into target cells,
gene therapy will be the best treatment for a lot of diseases. Gene therapy enables
doctors to treat abnormal or mutated genes with correct genes in order to restore
necessary functional proteins.

What is stem cell Therapy?

While gene therapy transfers healthy genes using vectors(Viruses) as vehicles to

introduce healthy genes into a person’s unhealthy cells , stem cells therapy transplant
cells using infusion of transplantation of embryonic cells with the ability to self-
replicate and specialize into different cell tissues. Hence, stem cells are used as a
therapeutic to treat diseases. In gene therapy, genes or genetic materials are
introduced into target organisms while in the stem cell therapy, stem cells are
transplanted into target tissues. This is the difference between gene therapy and stem
cell therapy.

Stem cell transplantation has the following challenges: cell manipulation, donor
selection, the use of chemotherapeutic agents, and prevention and management of
transplant-related complications which is resolved can result in significant
improvement in survival and quality of life after the stem cell transplantation. In some
forms of severe primary immunodeficiency diseases, gene therapy may represent a
valid alternative for patients who lack acceptable stem cell donors.

A “stem cell” is a type of cell that can divide over and over and produce more stem
cells as well as descendant cells that turn into different types of cells. Embryonic stem
cells, for instance, can make descendants that turn into any tissue in the body, like skin
cells, brain cells, heart cells etc. For each organ in the mature body, there are specific
stem cells that can make all the different kinds of cells in that organ.

Traditionally, stem cells were obtained from the bone marrow. This process was called
“bone marrow transplantation.” However, new methods now obtain it from peripheral
blood, or blood taken from the placenta at birth or “cord blood”. Cord blood, in
particular, provides an excellent alternative source for the immune and blood systems.
The process of taking stem cells from one person and transfusing them into another is
called hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Unlike transplantation of a solid organ
such as a kidney or liver, stem cell therapy does not involve surgery. It is similar to a
blood transfusion but instead of just blood, fluid transfused contains stem cells.

There are two potential obstacles that must be overcome by stem cell therapy
procedure which includes:
● The patient’s immune system rejection remained after the transplant and still
recognized the transplanted stem cells as something foreign. The immune
system is programmed to react against things perceived as foreign and tries
to reject them. This is called graft rejection. In order to prevent rejection,
most patients require chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy to weaken their
own residual immune system enough to prevent it from rejecting the
transplanted stem cells. This is called “conditioning” before transplantation.
A similar situation occurs when the recipient’s bone marrow is full of its own
defective stem cells and the cells cannot find anyplace to establish
themselves. This is called “failure of engraftment.” To prevent this,
chemotherapy may be given to reduce the number of defective cells in the
recipient’s bone marrow in order to “make room” for the new cells/stem cells
to engraft.
● The second obstacle that must be overcome for the transplant to be successful
is Graft versus Host Disease. This occurs when the mature T-cells from the
donor or which develop after the transplant, perceive the host’s tissues as
foreign and attack these tissues. To prevent this, medications to suppress
inflammation and T-cell activation are used. These medications may include
steroids, cyclosporine and other drugs.

Selecting a Donor

Human Leukocyte Antigens are tissue types with its own collection of antigens on our
cells including the cells of our immune system and bone marrow, as well as on cells in
most other tissues and organs. There are many different variants for each of these
Human Leukocyte Antigens genes in humans. However, since the Human Leukocyte
Antigens genes are usually inherited as a single unit which gives a chance that an
individual’s brother or sister shares the same antigens. Statistically, there is a 1 in 4
chance that any sibling could be a perfect match for the patient. To patients who do not
have a matched donor in their own family, an alternative is to try to find a suitable
matched donor.
Types of Stem cells
Stem cells are the foundation for every
organ and tissue in your body. There
are many different types of stem cells
that come from different places in the
body or are formed at different times
in our lives. These include embryonic
stem cells that exist only at the earliest
stages of development and various
types of tissue-specific (or adult) stem
cells that appear during fetal
development and remain in our bodies
throughout life. All stem cells can self-
renew or make copies of themselves
and differentiate or develop into more
specialized cells. The four types of
stem cells are:
● Embryonic stem cells
● Tissue-specific stem cells
● Mesenchymal stem cells
● Induced pluripotent stem
cells

Embryonic stem cells are obtained from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst, a mainly
hollow ball of cells that, in the human, forms three to five days after an egg cell is
fertilized by a sperm. A human blastocyst is about the size of the dot above this “i.” In
normal development, the cells inside the inner cell mass will give rise to the more
specialized cells that give rise to the entire body—all of our tissues and organs.
However, when scientists extract the inner cell mass and grow these cells in special
laboratory conditions, they retain the properties of embryonic stem cells. Embryonic
stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they can give rise to every cell type in the fully
formed body, but not the placenta and umbilical cord. These cells are incredibly
valuable because they provide a renewable resource for studying normal development
and disease, and for testing drugs and other therapies. Human embryonic stem cells
have been derived primarily from blastocysts created by in vitro fertilization (IVF) for
assisted reproduction that were no longer needed.

Tissue-specific stem cells, also referred to as somatic or adult stem cells, are more
specialized than embryonic stem cells. Typically, these stem cells can generate
different cell types for the specific tissue or organ in which they live. For example,
blood-forming (or hematopoietic) stem cells in the bone marrow can give rise to red
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. However, blood-forming stem cells don’t
generate liver or lung or brain cells, and stem cells in other tissues and organs don’t
generate red or white blood cells or platelets. Some tissues and organs within your
body contain small caches of tissue-specific stem cells whose job it is to replace cells
from that tissue that are lost in normal day-to-day living or in injury, such as those in
your skin, blood, and the lining of your gut. Tissue-specific stem cells can be difficult
to find in the human body, and they don’t seem to self-renew in culture as easily as
embryonic stem cells do.

MESENCHYMAL STEM CELLS refer to cells isolated from stroma, the connective
tissue that surrounds other tissues and organs. Cells by this name are more accurately
called “stromal cells” by many scientists. These were discovered in the bone marrow
and were shown to be capable of making bone, cartilage and fat cells. Since then, they
have been grown from other tissues, such as fat and cord blood. They are thought to
have stem cell, and even immunomodulatory properties which can be used as
treatments for a great many disorders.

Induced pluripotent stem cells are those that have been engineered in the lab by
converting tissue-specific cells, such as skin cells or fat cells, into cells that behave like
embryonic stem cells. IPS cells are critical tools to help scientists learn more about
normal development and disease onset and progression, and they are also useful for
developing and testing new drugs and therapies. While these cells share many of the
same characteristics of embryonic stem cells, including the ability to give rise to all the
cell types in the body, they aren’t exactly the same. Scientists are exploring what these
differences are and what they mean.
 FINAL EXAM

Write your full Name, Course Yr./Block

5points each

1. What are some of the ways by which we can contribute to the presentation of
Biodiversity? Explain.
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2. Does nanotechnology help you in any manner? Will it be relevant to you as you
transition to your future job?
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3. Will gene therapy be your choice in the future to treat any of your possible future
illnesses? Are you in favor of using a human Embryonic stem cell obtained from the
inner cell mass of the blastocyst, a hollow ball of cells in the human from three to five
days after an egg cell is fertilized by a sperm as a source stem cell to be used in
treating your incurable illness?
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4. In what ways can you contribute to climate change mitigation? In your future chosen
profession, in what way can you propose to help in reducing climate change?
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5.What are some of the causes that adversely affect biodiversity? Explain the bad effects
of the loss of biodiversity.
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