Information Technology

Study Notes

Knowing that you don’t know something and doing something positive
about it, is not only a profound sign of maturity, but it makes life worth
living.
N.C. Uta [2001]
For Caltus

Contents

Chapter Topic Page

Chapter 1 Computer Concepts 3-15

Chapter 2 Computer Hardware 16-19

Chapter 3 Data Representation & Software 20-30

Chapter 4 Input Devices 31-34

Chapter 5 Output Devices & Media 35-38

Chapter 6 Computer Storage 39-43

Chapter 7 Binary System 44-56

Chapter 8 Programming Languages 57-61

Chapter 9 Data Files 62-69

Chapter 10 Data Communication 70-76

Chapter 11 Uses of Computers 77

Chapter 1
Computer Concepts
Computer: An electronic device that works under the control of stored programs,
automatically storing and processing data to produce further data or
information.

A computer performs the following basic functions:

a. Input: It accepts data from outside for processing within

b. Storage: It stores data before, during and after processing
c. Processing: It transforms or manipulates data into information by
operating on it.
d. Output: It generates the results of processing either as a screen
display, printout or some other form
e. Communication: It moves data within, and from and to several of
surrounding devices.

Data: These are raw facts, figures, symbols, pictures, etc, which do not
convey a complete meaning to the recipient. These are the objects that
are manipulated in the data processing activities. The term data’s
definition is not absolute as what can be data to one can be information
to another.

Information: These are processed data items that have now been organised into more
meaningful representation. The recipient can understand these
representations.
Information
Processing: These are procedures by which data is collected, transmitted, stored,
processed, output and, communicated and used. This is not a onetime
activity. It goes on for as long as the organisation continues to exist.

Hardware: These are physical components of the computer. Examples include,

input devices, e.g. keyboard; output devices, e.g. monitor/screen

Software: These are a set of instructions written in the language of the computer.
The instructions direct the computer on what to do.

Processor This is the device that controls what happens in the computer system. It
is “The Computer”, i.e. is the device that manipulates the data into
information.

Peripheral: These are devices connected to the processor. They include input,
output, storage and communication devices.

Advantages of computers
1 Easy access to data or records
2 Security of information is ensured
3 It reduces the work load for personnel
4 Accuracy of information is ensured
5 It saves storage space compared to other systems
6 It is economic in that it reduces processing costs
7 It can work for 24 hours non-stop
8 It is easily adjustable
9 It is highly reliable in that it can reproduce the same information

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 over and over again without changing it.
10 It is fast because it can process large volumes of data in a short
space of time compared to other systems.
11 It promotes efficiency in data/information communication

Disadvantages
1 They are very expensive to buy, run, maintain, train operators and install
security
2 Sensitive information can end up in wrong hands if the system is not well
designed
3 The organisation has to resort to manual procedures if the computers are
down or if there is a power cut and this delays information processing.
4 Many tend to rely on computers to the extent of wanting them to make
decisions for them yet they are just tools for decision-making.
5 Computerisation causes social ills e.g. unemployment and criminal
activities increase.
6 If used by inexperienced persons it can loose data.

Types of information processing system

System
A system is a combination of related components or elements designed to satisfy a
pre-defined goal.

Manual System
A manual system uses paper and pen for information processing. Storage is done using
physical files e.g. cash books, receipt books and journals. Communication is done
verbally or using mail.

Electromechanical system
Uses electromechanical devices for processing data, e.g. typewriters, electronic cash
registers and duplicating machines. This system is an improvement of the manual
system. It retains the communication mode of a manual system that is verbally or by
use of mail.

Computerised system
It uses a computer for information processing. Storage is done by the use of magnetic
discs and tapes. Communication is done through computer networks on local area and
wide area networks using telephone, satellite, radio and computer systems. This has
revolutionised data processing operations in that these can be done more quickly,
accurately, efficiently and timeously.

The data processing cycle

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Collection Input Processing Output Use

storage

Legend

Overall data processing cycle

3 Main data processing operations

4 Main data Processing Operations

Basic elements of a computer system

Central Processing Unit

Control unit
(CU)

Arithmetic
and logic
unit (ALU)

Input out Output unit

(IU) (OU)
Main/Primar
y memory

Secondary Storage

Legend:

Signal/Command Flow
Data/instruction flow

CONTROL UNIT
It controls all functions within the computer. It co-ordinates, controls and monitors the
functions of both computer hardware and software.

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Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
It performs arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic operations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operations include comparisons,
sorting and merging.

The ALU and Control Unit are ROM chips, that is, they are read only memory. The
data held there is permanently inscribed on the chips. It is therefore a static or non-
volatile memory. It can be read by the computer but cannot be changed by the user.
Switching off the computer does not affect the information stored in these chips. ROM
is used to store programs that the computer frequently needs for its running, e.g., its
operating system. Programs stored in ROM are put there by the computer
manufacture during the last stages of the chip’s development.

MAIN MEMORY
This is also called RAM, which means random access memory. It is a temporary
memory mainly used for user programs. It is a working space/area. This memory is
volatile, that is, it can lose information or data by switching off the computer.

Main types of computers

Feature Super Mainframe Minicomputer Microcomputer

computer computer
Size & Very, very Very large. Can Medium-sized Small computer
environ large occupy several computer system that
ment computer. rooms. Works system that operates from a
Operates under operates in a desktop.
under temperature, normal office Operates in a
controlled humidity, dust environment normal office
temperature, and sunlight environment.
humidity, dust controlled
and sunlight environments
environments
Cost Very Expensive. Medium valued Affordable.
expensive Several million at about $200 000
Over Zim Zim$ $2million upwards
$1billion upwards
Operati Specialists Specialist Specialists may Anyone can
on required to personnel be needed but operate given
operate and required non-specialists basic training
maintain especially to can operate
installation maintain
installation
Capabil Very fast. Able Handles billions Performs Able to perform
ities to perform of multiple multiple millions
trillions of operations/seco millions of of operations per
operations per nd. Able to tasks per second. Usually
second and receive work second. Can supports one user
can perform from a network support 60 at time
multiple of terminals. users at same
functions at a Supports up 200 time
time. Can users

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 support 500 simultaneously
user at time
Uses Used for Suitable where General Can be used in
research by high volume of business data the home, school
large data must be processing e.g. and office for
organisations processed e.g. word- playing games,
e.g. Shell, banks, airlines, processing, word-processing,
Ford, GM, telecommunicati spreadsheet spreadsheet
Boeing, ons and travel processing, processing, stock
NASA, industries, large stock control, control, payroll,
meteorologica manufacturers payroll, accounts, etc
l and defence and government accounts, etc.
establishments can be used as
a front end and
backend
processor for
mainframe
computers
Numbe Several Several A few Normally a
r of thousands of hundreds of processors single processor
process high speed processors
ors processors
which are
much more
closely packed
together than
human brain
cells

Speed of computer operation

The speed of a computer is determined by:

1. The speed of an internal clock (metronome). It is measured in Megahertz or

Gigahertz, e.g. 850MHz implies 850 million cycles per second.
2. Size of main memory (storage). This can be 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128
Megabytes. The greater the memory size the more data the computer is able
to carry thus there is no need to continuously retrieve from secondary
storage which will be time consuming.
3. The word size of the computer’s processor. Some can handle 1 word (8-bit
processors), 2-word (16-bit), 4-word (32-bit) and 8-word (64-bit). The
bigger the word size, the more characters a computer is able to handle at a
time and the faster it is able to process data.
4. Number of processors. A computer with two or more processors will
generally be able to process at twice or as many times as a single processor
machine. It allows the sharing of processing loads amongst the processors.
5. Efficiency of the program (set of instructions). A program with many loops
will execute much more slowly than a straightforward program where there
is sequential progression instead of backtracking.

Computer Networks

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 A computer network is an inter-link of two of more computers for the purpose of
effecting communication between or amongst them. There are three distinct types
of networks:

a.) Local Area Network (LAN)

This is the linking up of two or more computers usually on the same building or
site. The network covers a limited geographical area and normally covers a
distance of not more than 1000 metres of continuous cabling. The network is
privately owned and therefore is governed by internal rules.
PCs can be part of a network. If they are to be, they need a network card, network
software and appropriate LAN cables. A PC based LAN can have a dedicated PC
called a Server. The Server will have a large hard disk and a fast processor in order
to be able to both store large amounts of data, software and files, and to provide a
fast processing facility. A LAN can have a dedicated File Server and a dedicated
Print Server. LANs can be connected together. A Bridge connects LANs of the
same type, i.e. the LANs will be using the same Protocols (data handling and
communications rules). A Gateway connects different LANs, i.e. those using
different Protocols.

LAN Topologies/Configurations
Networks can be configured or structured in several ways. The following are some
of the structures of LANs:
i.) Star Configuration

Terminal 1

Terminal 2 Host Terminal 3

compu
ter

Terminal 4

This type of LAN is historically associated with minicomputer or mainframe LANs

since it involves a central computer. The central system acts as a “File Server” and a
“Print Server” and handles all links to external systems. The central computer actively
manages all user traffic, inspecting and re-directing messages to the appropriate
destinations, and for this reason, a Star Network is termed an “Active Network”. It can
operate at speeds of up to 10 Megabytes per second.

Advantages of Star Network

a) Standardization of data is possible as data is stored at one central

location.
b) File and program sharing is made possible
c) Economic in that only one computer is required instead of having many
computers in the network
d) Central control is ensured
e) A powerful system software can be beneficial to all

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 Disadvantages of Star Network
a) The speed of the network depends on the speed at the centre, and if it is
slow then the whole network is likewise affected.
b) It is vulnerable to failure of the central system
c) There are no direct links among the terminals
d) Security of files/data is difficult to maintain
e) Open to virus attack

ii.) Bus Configuration

Terminal B Terminal

Terminal Terminal
U

Terminal Terminal
S

Terminal Terminal

A Bus Network was also referred to as Ethernet, after the bus network of that name. It
is built around a single strand of cable, called a BUS to which all the devices are
connected. The bus simple connects all devices and does not have control over the
network. BUS LANs are therefore passive networks. A device that needs to
communicate over the network will first monitor the network to see if there is any
traffic. There is a mechanism for avoiding collisions. All communications are
broadcasted across the network, with devices constantly monitoring traffic and
reading only those messages addressed to them. Speeds of up to 10 Megabytes per
second are achievable.

Limitation 1) Performance declines rapidly with an increase in traffic due to the

need to
void collisions occurring, therefore it is not ideal for time critical
operations.
2) It is rather expensive as all terminals are computers in their own
right.
3) Duplication of programs and data is common
4) Lack of standardization resulting in data proliferation.

Advantages
1. Each terminal is a computer in its right, therefore the
failure of one device does not greatly affect the
operations others.
2. Work can easily be shared across the many processors
available

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 3. End-user participation is assured as each sub-station
can determine it needs.

5) Ring (Token) Configuration

Terminal Terminal

Terminal Terminal

Intelligent Terminals

The Ring Network organises network communications by means of a special token

that is required before a device transmits data/information. There is one token on the
network, therefore one device can transmit at time to avoid collisions. The token is a
special communications sequence that circulates continuously. When there is no
traffic, the token is said to be free and can be withdrawn by a device that needs to
transmit. The token then becomes busy. The message and the token are passed around
the network to their destination before the token returns to the sending device. Once
the sending device receives its own busy token it will replace it (the token) with a free
token so that other devices may use the token. All communications are broadcasted
across the network with devices constantly monitoring traffic and reading only those
messages addressed to them. Can reach speed of up to 16 Megabytes per second. It is
useful where network traffic is high. Devices can only hold on to the network for a
limited period of time, ensuring access to the LAN by all devices on a regular basis.
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6) Interconnected Rings Configuration

Terminal Terminal

Terminal Terminal

Terminal Terminal

Terminal Terminal

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 Intelligent Terminals

Similar in operation to a ring network.

7) Mesh Configuration

Terminal Terminal

A B
C
D E
Terminal Terminal

Intelligent Terminals
It provides many routes through which messages can be relayed from one
terminal to another. It however has the longest line mileage.

8) Hierarchical (Tree) Configuration

Host
Computer
(mainframe)

Sub-Host Sub-Host
(mini- (mini-
computer) computer)

Work- Work-
station station

P P P P P P
C C C C C C

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A tree network organises network communications as illustrated above. Each level
performs operations that are best suited to its capabilities. The lower levels can pass
difficult tasks to upper levels that have greater computational power than the lower.
The failure of a superior level will affect those below it especially in terms of data
communications.

b.) Wide Area Network (WAN)

These go beyond company, town, city, national, regional and even continental
boundaries. The geographical dispersion determines the rules that govern the inter-
connections. They use public utilities like telephone systems, satellite, electricity and
radio systems.

Examples of WANs
i) ATM systems used by banks to allow clients/account
holders to access funds and perform other transactions
from remote locations.
ii) Laser scanners used by supermarkets at checkout points.
These collect data/information on minicomputers before
passing it to the mainframe computer located at the
company’s main computer centre.
iii) Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS). It
allows the transfer of money from a customer’s account
into the account of the retailer at the time of purchase.
Both the retailer’s and customer’s banks must be
connected into the network.
iv) EURONET – It links European Union countries for
economic, scientific and technical operations.
v) Links between universities and research institutions.

C.) Value Added Network (VAN)

These are a special type of wide area networks. Over and above using the network for
just carrying data, there are other facilities offered. Examples include E-Mail, On-line
Databases and electronic payments system.

COMPUTER PROGRAMS:

A program, in computing terms, is a set of instructions that determines what a

computer is to do e.g. a program to calculate interest to be paid to a savings account.
It is written in the language of the computer e.g., high-level language. The program is
obeyed by the computer only if it has first been stored within.

Computer as a Programmable Device:

Programmable: That which enables the creation of programs. Reference to a

computer as a programmable device implies its ability to have (instructions) programs
to be written (coded) such that these instructions are executable by the machine.
Programmability also demonstrates the flexibility the computer has, in that a number
of programs can be written, stored, altered and deleted. These functions can be
performed without the need to build a new machine, each time such changes are made.

SOFTWARE

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Software is the name given to the set of programs that controls the operation of
computer hardware. A broad definition will include the associated documentation

Types of software:
There are three distinct types of software. These are:
1) Systems software
2) Applications software
3) Program languages

Systems Software
-A suite of programs that controls how computer resources are used
-A suite of programs that takes over the control/operation of the computer to the extent
of being able to allow a number of programs to be run without human intervention
-Is a set of instructions and associated documentation that controls the operations of
computer hardware elements, applications software and programming languages.
Usually the computer manufacturer installs systems software. Some of the
software/programs are stored in ROM but others are stored on the disc e.g. DOS.
Included in systems software are utility programs. These are frequently used facilities
on the computer. They include: TRANSLATORS, DBMS, SORT, RENAME, COPY,
EDIT, DELETE and FORMAT. Facilities that a computer system is able to offer are
partly determined by systems software, applications programs and available hardware
devices.

Part of the operating system that remains in main storage permanently during the
running of the computer is called the EXECUTIVE or SUPERVISOR or KERNEL.
The remainder is on DAS(Direct Access storage) where it can be called when needed.
In small computers, the operating system is rudimentary and is called the MONITOR
and is normally permanently stored in ROM and starts execution the moment the
computer is turned on.

Functions of System Software

a) Booting up the computer system
b) Scheduling and loading and unloading of software/programs
c) Controlling the usage of computer resources
d) Allocating areas of main storage to programs and data
e) Logging hardware errors and usage
f) Handling communications between components of the computer system
g) Translating user language into computer language and vice versa for easier
communication between the two
h) Providing utility facilities to be used by programming languages and
applications programs
i) Protecting hardware, software and data from improper use
j) Calling into main storage programs and subprograms as and when required
k) Passing of control from one program to another when more than one
application program is in main memory
l) Providing error correction routines
m) Communicating with the computer operator.

Facilities Offered by Operating Systems

a) Single tasking: Is able to perform a single task at a time e.g., printing only or
typing only.

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b) Multitasking: Is able to perform more than one task at a time e.g., printing and
typing simultaneously

c) Single user: Can support one user at a time, i.e., has a single screen, single
keyboard.

d) Multi-user: Can support more than one user at a time, e.g., may two or more
key-stations attached to it.

e) Multi-programming: Seeming like running a number of programs

simultaneously in a single processor machine

f) Time sharing: This is a facility in which each user or program is assigned a

time slice in turn to use the processor.

g) Multi-processing/Parallel Processing: This is a procedure through which a

number of programs are processed together in a machine that has more than
one processor. Each program is assigned to its processor.

h) Virtual memory: This is the portioning of main memory into segments, with
each compartment housing an active part of a program. The other inactive
portion will be stored on disc and only called when need. Time sharing, multi-
programming and multi-processing can use this facility.

i) Multi-Access: Allows many users to get the same data/information from the
computer simultaneously.

Applications Software
This refers to computer programs and associated documentation and is designed to
solve a particular problem e.g. word processor, pay roll and process control program.
The ability to change the functions of a given computer attributed to software gave rise
to the name software.
There are two types:

Specialist Applications Software

This is software designed to perform a specific function e.g. process control, weapon
guidance, time recording, etc. It is dedicated to a particular area and cannot be used for
other purposes.

Application packages
These are sets of programs and associated documentation used for a particular type of
problem it can be used by a number of organisations with similar problems e.g. word
processing spreadsheet and data base. They are more useful to small computer users
who do not have the necessary experience or expertise to produce their own software

Advantages of packages
a. Quick implementation results are achievable as packages are off-the-shelf
programs
b. They are cheap because development costs are shared amongst purchasers and they
are produced
from production/assembly line.
c. They are well-tested and tried programs and have a history of success

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d. They are portable and compatible with many machines
e. They are well documented
f. Maintenance is assured

Disadvantages of Package
a. The user has no total control over the package
b. The package may not be ideal for a particular customer.
c. The package might be too big thus causing memory constraints.
d. The package may do too little and a lot of time and money may be spent
upgrading the program to suitability.

Specially Written Programs

Instead of obtaining packages, Applications Programs can be tailor-made to suit the
requirements of a particular user. The programs may be written by in-house staff, by a
freelance programmer or a software house can be contracted to do the work. These
normally meet user requirements to higher degree than packages though they are not
easy to upgrade.

OBTAINING SOFTWARE

When obtaining software the purchaser normally pays for the following:

1) Licence - One pays a licence fee, which outlines the nature of use
e.g. number of users, time, period, place, type of computer and
where software is going to be installed.
2) Installation Guide – It specifies what hardware would be required to
make the software functional and procedures for installation which
may require a specialist.
3) Installation - The user may pay an additional fee if unable to install
the software himself.
4) Maintenance and Upgrading- These may be paid for or may be free
depending on the nature.
5) Support Contract - This provides for assistance if the purchaser is
facing problems with the software, not bugs.
6) User Guide - This is for end users’ reference e.g. manuals
7) Reference Manuals - This is for particular areas where the user
needs reminding especially the critical areas.
8) Quick Reference Guide - These are cards or single sheets e.g.
showing the sequence of commands to perform a particular task
9) Training for the user
10) Membership to a user group

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

These are a special type of software which is used to create both systems and
applications programs.

There are three distinct types of programming languages:

1) Machine Language
2) Assembly Language
3) High level Language

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Machine language
This is the elementary type of language used by most computers. It is a form of
representation that uses 0s and 1s or binary. In this language instructions are
automatically executed in the sequence in which they occur in main storage. Each
instruction is fetched from the storage by the control unit, interpreted and then
executed. Mechanisms for repetition are there. There are five basic types of machine
instructions:
1) Input/output (I.O) : These control the transfer of data between peripherals and
the processor
2) Arithmetic: These perform arithmetic operations such as addition and
subtraction.
3) Branch: These control repetitions and selections.
4) Logic: These perform logical operations like matching, comparing and sorting
data items.
5) Data handling: These move and manipulate data

Programming in machine code is cumbersome due to the following reasons:

1) The programmer has to memorize all machine operating codes.

2) The user must assign the memory locations to data items and keep track of them.
3) The instructions are written in the sequence in which they are obeyed and if
amendments need to be done, that would mean re-writing the program afresh.

Assembly/Low Level Language

This is a symbolic language which uses mnemonic codes e.g. SUB, ADD. It uses
symbolic addresses e.g. FNO or SNO. These have to be translated into machine code.
This is done by the computer through a translation process. An assembler program is
a special program which converts symbolic language into machine language. The
symbolic language is called the source program/code and the translated version is
called object code.

Assembler’s Functions
1) Translates symbolic language to machine code and symbolic addresses to
actual machine addresses.
2) It links object code to subroutines.
3) It allocates areas of main storage to various programs.
4) It indicates invalid source language instructions.
5) It produces object programs on disks or tapes.
6) It produces printed listing of the source program with comments.
7) One symbolic instruction is translated into one machine code instruction.

High Level Language

These are problem-oriented languages (POLs) compared to low-level languages which
are machine oriented (MOLs). Examples are BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL, “C”, APL,
FORTRAN, LISP and APL/1.

Features of High Level Languages

1) They have an extensive vocabulary of words, symbols and sentences.
2) Programs written in the language are translated into many machine code
instructions.
3) A programmer can work away from the machine since they are POLs.
4) A set of rules has to be obeyed

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5) They are highly user friendly.
6) They are highly portable (can run on variety of machines without the need to
modify them)
7) They are easy to maintain.

High Level Language Translation

Compliers and interpreters carry out the translation process. A compiler is a
manufacturer’s written program which translates source code into
object/machine/binary code.

The Compiler’s Functions

a) Translates source programs into machine code.
b) Links sub routines into object.
c) Allocates areas of main storage.
d) Produces object program on disk or magnetic tape.
e) Produces a printed copy of the source and object program.
f) It produces a list of errors found during compilation, e.g. wrong
spellings.

A compiler’s translation is done once. Thereafter the object program can be loaded
into main storage and executed. On the other hand an interpreted program is translated
every time the computer executes it. The execution is 10 times slower than the
equivalent compiled program.

Interpreter
An Interpreter is a program which converts source language instruction one line at a
time during the running of a program. It does not produce a copy of the original source
code.

Interpreter uses
a) Handling commands in an interactive system.
b) Debugging programs as they run
c) Handling software produced for or by a different computer that is if:
d) Similar machines are to be connected together.
e) Software produced on an older model and not yet converted is to be run on a
new machine.
N.B. Both the interpreter and the program are to be accommodated in the main
storage when the computer executes the application program and this congests
the memory.

General Classes of Programming Languages

a) Commercial Languages – These are mainly for data processing problems e.g.
COBOL and BASIC.
b) Scientific Languages - These are mainly for scientific processing operations.
They have powerful computational capabilities.
c) Special Purpose Language – These are tailor made for a particular problem e.g.
process control, (R.T.L.) for a chemical plants and SQL (Structured Query
Language) for database applications.
d) Command Languages - For operating systems. These control the operations of
a computer e.g. "C", "C++", Assembly Language
e) Multi-Processing –These can handle varied applications e.g. business and
scientific applications e.g. PL/1, BASIC and “C”.

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NB The above are procedural languages because they describe how the
computations are carried out.

Non-Procedural Languages
These describe WHAT the required result is rather than HOW it is arrived at, e.g.
PROLOG. They are also called “4 GLs”. They allow one to :

1) Define data.
2) Define what processing must be performed on the data.
3) Define layouts of reports or screen-based forms including the formats of
printed or displayed data.
4) Define processing operations to be carried out in the preparation of reports or
in the user’s interaction with screen-based forms.
5) Define input data and validation checks.
6) Select a combination of standard processing operations.
7) Handle user queries
8) Some incorporate GUIs (Graphic User Interface) particularly Wimps.

Chapter Questions:
1) Define the term “Computer”. How does a computer
differ from a computer system?
2) Explain the meanings of the following terms: Data,
Information, Hardware, Software, Information
Processing
3) Cite and explain advantages and disadvantages that
arise when an organisation uses computers for
information processing
4) Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure
(configuration) of a computer system. Show data and
command flow.
5) What are the determinants of the speed of a
computer’s operation?
6) Define the term LAN. Show network configurations and
describe each briefly.
7) What is the importance of networking your computer
systems: locally and globally?
8) There at least three broad types of software. What
are these and what roles do they play in a computing
environment?
9) A user can interact with a computer through GUI,
Menu, and Command driven interfaces. What are these
and how far easy do they help the user operate a
computer?
10) How are assemblers, compilers and interpreters
related and different? Spell out their functions.
11) What are the functions of systems software?
12) Describe the following terms: Multi-user; Multi-
processing; Single-tasking; Virtual memory; Time
sharing

CHAPTER 2
COMPUTER HARDWARE

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Computer Model/Organisation of a simple computer

Central Processing Unit

Processing of data under the
direction of a program

Input out Out Unit

Data & Accepts Accepts
data & Processing
Results programs results
Programs

Main memory
data & programs under
execution

Secondary Storage
data and programs stored on-line

Four basic parts of a computer system are input, output, storage and central processing
unit. All input, output, storage and other devices are called peripherals.

The CPU can be thought of as the brain of the computer, since it is this part which
coordinates the operations of the rest of the computer system. The CPU is referred to
as the chip or microprocessor or processor. Small computer systems are likely to be
built around a single processor. Large computers may have several processors that
enable them to operate and share the workload.

Divisions within the CPU

Arithme Control
tic & Unit
Logic (ROM)
Unit

(ROM)
Central Memory
(RAM)

Computer Memory
Is divided into 2 distinct types namely permanent and temporary memory. Temporary

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memory uses electrical power in order to hold data. If electricity supply is cut off the
information held in this memory is also lost. Because of this it is called volatile
memory. This is also called RAM, Primary, Core, Central, Internal, Main or Immediate
Access Storage.

A more permanent non-volatile type of memory that holds information without

electricity is called ROM (Read Only Memory)

Each of these types of memory plays a particular role in the operation of

microprocessor-controlled devices. Software that tells a micro-processor-controlled
device how to work may also be stored in ROM. ROM is also called Firmware or
Hardwired programs since it is a combination of hardware and software.

ROM acts as a form of knowledge. Giving a microprocessor-controlled device more

ROM is similar to education. The more education we have the more things we are able
to do. Therefore the more built-in software it contains the more functions it is able to
perform without additional software. The computer stores in its permanent memory
instructions to add, subtract and to perform some logical operations. The user of the
computer cannot alter software in ROM by just issuing a command to do so. It can be
erased if a special type of programmable ROM is used. The special types of ROM:

PROM This refers to a programmable blank chip bought from a manufacturer. It is

written using special devices to record information or instructions that can be used as
part of systems software or software to enhance the capabilities of operating system.
To implant programs or data, a programming machine, a PROM Programmer, is used
to apply the correct voltage for the proper time to appropriate addresses selected by the
programmer. PROM is an array of fusible links some of which are blown, leaving
correct data patterns. Once written onto, the instructions cannot be deleted by a simple
delete command issued by the user through software.

EPROM This refers to a chip which can be bought from a computer a manufacturer
and programmed by the user just as PROM. However, the chip can be erased and
written onto again by using special devices to both erase and delete the information.
Once written onto, the instructions cannot be deleted by a simple delete command
issued by the user through software. Exposure to ultraviolet rays can cause cells to be
discharged or deleted.

RAM is the memory which is available for programs or data that a computer user
wishes to use in addition to those in ROM which tell the computer how to work. The
more RAM the computer has the larger the programs and the more data it will handle.

Only a small part of the information that an average computer uses is likely to be on-
line, the rest is stored until it is needed. This storage is referred to as secondary or
supplementary storage. It comes in 2 basic forms: DISK BASED and TAPE BASED
storage.

Input Device - This is computer machinery used to input/feed data into the computer.
Each type of input device has been designed for a particular need e.g. Banks use
devices that allow a large number of cheques to be cleared quickly. Architects and
designers use devices that allow designs to be input quickly. However the most widely
used input device is the keyboard. Once information is input into the computer, it is
said to have been captured. Data capture is another term for data input.

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Output Device - This is the means by which the computer presents the results of its
processing whether as text, graphics, tables or some other form. A permanent form of
output such as computer printout is called a hard copy. Output that is not in permanent
form is called softcopy. It may be in the form of a screen display or in audio output.

N.B. Each computer is built around one particular chip. The chips have the same
basic structure but differ in:
a) Speed of operation
b) Amount of data each can handle at a time
c) Amount of memory each can use
d) Number of tasks each can perform at once

The Chip or Processor

Connection points

Features of Chips
a) Its operation is wholly electronic
b) It is very fast and reliable
c) It is cheap
d) It is highly miniaturised

The Fetch-Execute-Cycle
In addition to the three components of the CPU we have high-speed devices called
registers. Registers speed up execution of the CPU instead of using the ALU.

Four Main Registers found in the CPU:

a) Program Control (PC) or Sequence Control (SC).
It is used to locate instructions to be executed. It sends them to the ALU via the
control unit. The instruction being pointed to by these registers will have to be
executed first before the next has been executed. All instructions will only be
executed after being pointed to by these registers.

b) Instruction Register (IR)

It keeps the address of the instruction that needs to be executed once the
address has been located.

c) Memory Address Register (MAR)

All the instructions or data in the main memory have got different addresses.
The memory address register keeps track of all the addresses of data/
instructions in main memory. The instruction register refers to this memory
address.

d) Memory Data Register (MDR)

All the data passing into or passing out of memory should pass through a

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 register called memory data register.

The whole process in which a computer system executes instructions is called a fetch-
execution-cycle. It can be summarised as follows:
1) Locate the instruction to be executed using the instruction register via the
memory address register.
2) Locate the instruction in 1) above using the program counter.
3) Send the instruction pointed to by the program counter to ALU via the CU
4) Locate the next instruction to be executed using the instruction register.
5) Analyse or decode instruction pointed to by the program counter.
6) Execute that instruction
7) Go back to step 1

The Fetch Execution Cycle (compressed into 3 steps)

FETCH DECODE EXECUTION

The fetch is the stage at which an instruction is located in storage. When the
instruction has been located the computer must then decode which means interpreting
the instruction to determine the kind of operation which is to be done on it. After the
decoding process the instruction is then executed or manipulated to produce the
specified results. Thereafter the next instruction is fetched.

Chapter Questions:

1) Draw a diagram to show the components of the

CPU. Explain the functions of each.
2) Draw diagrams to show: The data processing
cycle; The fetch-execute cycle; Explain each
stage/component of your diagram.
3) Name four registers found in the CPU and state
their purposes.
4) Differentiate between RAM and ROM; PROM and ROM

RESEARCH WORK

Find Information on:

 Address Formats
 Addressing modes
 Coding of data in computer systems
 Attributes of information
 Computer Personnel, their qualifications and duties
 Computer, data and information control and security
measures

CHAPTER 3
DATA REPRESENTATION & Software

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When you press a button on a computer, a signal is sent to the processor which in turn
sends a signal instructing a device to do something. All the communication inside the
computer is in the form of electronic signals, and for that reason the data that is used
by the computer is also stored using electrical signals. An International Distress Signal
(SOS) is represented by … - - - …, a Morse Code. Inside a computer a code is used
which is similar to Morse Code. The two (2) states of . and – are represented in the
computer as an ON and an OFF so that … - - - … becomes ON ON ON OFF OFF
OFF ON ON ON. These two states are in turn represented by digits 0 and 1 of the
binary number system so that our message will now look like 111 000 111. Generally 8
elements each either a 0 or a 1 are needed to represent a character using a computer
code.

All numbering systems are based on 2 concepts.

1) Absolute value
Absolute values are allowable numbers to be used in a numbering system. The values
are bounded by a minimum number and a maximum number. These boundary numbers
are included in the numbering operations, e.g. in Binary 0 and 1 are used; in Octal 0 to
7 are used; and in denary (decimal) 0 to 9 are used.

2) Positional value
The positional value is the value or weight a digit has on the basis of its position in a
number, e.g. given:

3 9 T H T U
7 6 h
3 6 7 9
7 6 9 3
9 3 7 6
6 9 7 3
9 7 6 3
etc

Some of the computer codes commonly in use are American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII), Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) and Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).

ASCII Representation

CHARACT DECIMAL BINARY

ER
A 65 0100 0001
B 66 0100 0010
C 67 0100 0011
D 68 0100 0100

1 49 0011 0001
2 50 0011 0010
3 51 0011 0011
4 52 0011 0100
2
 20
BCD Representation

CHARACT DECIMA BINARY

ER L
A 49 11 0001
B 50 11 0010
C 51 11 0011

1 1 00 0001
2 2 00 0010
3 3 00 0011
4 4 00 0100

EBCDIC Representation

CHARACT DECIMA BINARY

ER L
A 193 1100 0001
B 194 1100 0010
C 195 1100 0011

In ROM the cells of storage are permanently charged. They cannot be changed. In
RAM cells can be changed at will, that is, the states of positive and negative can
alternate depending on the bits being stored.

Input of Data
There are a number of ways through which data is input into the computer.

1) Keyboard Keying
2) Mouse Clicking
3) Barcode reader Reads bar codes
4) Document reader Reads actual documents
5) Voice input Recognises words
6) Touch screen Senses touches on the screen
7) Card reader Reads information on cards
8) Pen based input Uses light pens
9) Graphic input Uses image and video scanners
10) Joy stick Uses a gear/lever

Stages Involved in Data Collection

Data collection
Is the process of getting data from the point of origin to a computer in a form suitable
for processing. It starts at the source of raw data and ends when valid data is within the
computer in a form ready for processing. The following stages normally apply:

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 a) Data creation
b) Data transmission
c) Data preparation
d) Data conversion
e) Data input
f) Data sorting
g) Data control, which occurs at all stages

1) Data Creation

a) Source documents
In this case data cannot be readily read by the computer. It is a form of
clerically prepared source documents e.g. writing hours worked on a piece of
paper for later input to the computer for processing a payroll. This method has
a number of problem, such loss of documents, errors in copying/typing-in of
data, is tedious and slow.

b) Data Capture
Data is produced in machine readable or sensible form at source. It is read-in
directly by suitable devices, e.g. Barcode Reader, MICR, OMR, etc. This
method is faster than the use of source documents, is less error prone and is
less labour intensive.

2) Data transmission
This is a method through which data is moved from the source of origin to the
machine that will do the actual processing. This can be done through two
distinct methods:

a) Physical Transmission
This is where data is moved by postal services, messenger or courier
services.

b) Electronic Transmission
This is where telecommunications systems such as telephone system,
radio, satellite, computer networks and optical fibres are used.

3) Media conversion/data preparation

Data preparation involves the transfer of data from one medium to another so
that it is ready for input into the computer. Data can be transcribed from a
paper to a disk through punching it via the keyboard or may also be transcribed
from the paper by a document reader. It may also be prepared on disk then
transcribed to magnetic tapes for faster input.
NB: Data capture removes the need for transcription because the machine
can understand the language, that is, it will be in a machine sensible
form.

4) Input & Control of Data

Objectives of Control
a) To ensure that all data is processed
If some data remains unprocessed, the final results will not be reflective of
the true position of the situation on the ground. A decision maker will then

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 have difficulty in making a wiser decision.

b) To preserve the integrity of maintained data

In computer installations, in-coming data can corrupt already-held data. For
example, in a banking situation, incoming data relating to the balance field
could corrupt the standing balance.

c) To detect, correct and reprocess erroneous data

Generally, no system is perfect. Controls are put in place to ensure that
should errors occur, there are procedures by which those errors are
detected, corrected and reprocessed to fulfil the objective of processing all
data.

d) To prevent and detect fraud

There is a need to ensure that attempts to fraud are prevented or when they
are by-passed then there should be a mechanism by which those fraudulent
activities are detected. These activities may involve inputting wrong or
suspicious data into the computer system.

e) To be able to rebuild the system after a disaster

If there is disc crash, a virus attack, a flood, a fire or some such other
hazards to data, an organisation will be able recreate and operations can
begin.

Types of Errors
a) Missing source documents e.g. invoices might slip out of a batch and this
might not be noticed
b) Source documents in which entries are omitted, illegible or dubious e.g.
omission of a name
c) Transcription and data preparation errors
d) Machine hardware faults
e) Program faults

There are 2 distinct control methods

1) Verification
This is a process of manually or physically checking that data has been
correctly transcribed i.e. whether the target document is an exact copy of the
source document

There are about 4 ways of verification:

a) Scrutinizing to detect missing, illogical and illegible entries
This is a procedure of walking through the target document to check
whether it is the same as the source from which it was taken.

b) Reference to stored data to verify entries

Already stored data can be referred to ensure that incoming data is correct

c) Recalculating to check calculations made on documents

This is a procedure of doing the calculations again to ensure that the
previously made calculations were correct, e.g., totals on invoices are not
input, but are computed by the person inputting the data. These are then
compared by the totals on the source documents.

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 d) Re-keying
The same data is entered twice say by two different people. The second
entry is checked against the first entry, if the two do not match, the source
of the error is found. Necessary corrections are then carried out.

2) Validation
This is a program built into the computer which automatically checks and
reports incorrect entries or entries that do not conform to specified
standards. Areas that can be validated are:

Presence check
This is a check meant to ensure that all necessary fields of a record have
been completed and none has been left blank

Size check
This is a check meant to ensure that a field is made up the correct number of
characters, that is, it must not have more or less than the required number
e.g. An Account number may have no more nor no less than a given number.

Range check
This is normally used on numeric fields i.e. it is a check which ascertains
that a value within a field lies within the minimum and maximum allowable
boundaries, e.g. a day value falls between 1 and 31, a month value falls
between 1 and 12.

Type/character check
This checks whether the required characters constitute a particular field i.e.
if a field is supposed to be made up of alphabetic characters only, so be it.
An age field may contain numeric characters only and an account number
may contain both numeric and non-numeric characters.

Format check
This spells out the way the characters are arranged within a field e.g. it can
be two digits followed by a dash followed by six digits followed by an
alphabetic character, space and end with two digits as shown below:
43-780987D 48 for ID Number.

Reasonableness check
It checks whether quantities are either too low or too high, e.g. 100 hours
worked per week by one person is unreasonable.

Check digit
This is normally used in association with numeric digits. Its primary
purpose is to minimise or control transposition, that is, the interchange of
digit positions within a number. Modulus 11 is normally applied to check
digit e.g.: Number 48763

Number: 4 8 7 6 3
Weights: 5 4 3 2 1
{(4x5) + (8x4) + (7x3) + (6x2) + (3x1)}/11
= (20 + 32 + 21 +12 + 3)/11

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 = 88/11
= 8 remainder 0
The number becomes 487630

If 6 and 7 were inter-changed the result of multiplying weights, adding them

and dividing by 11 will not give the same remainder, implying that
transposition took place. The check digit can be arrived at (calculated) by
appending the remainder as shown above or by appending the quotient or by
subtracting the remainder from 11 then appending the difference or subtracting
the quotient from 11 then appending the difference.

Parity Check
This is primarily used in data transmission to ensure that data has been
correctly moved from point A to B. There are generally 2 forms of parity that
is odd and even parity.

Odd parity: The ones (1s) making up the character code should add up to
an odd number,
if not, a parity bit is added. The sending and receiving devices are
synchronized to understand the same parity. If the bit pattern to be sent is
111 000 111 then a 1 must be added, on the other hand, if the bit pattern 101
010 is to be sent, then there is no need to add another bit as the ones add up
to an odd number.

Even Parity: The total number of ones making up a character code must
add up to an even number, if not, a parity bit is added.

Echo Check
This is used in data transmission. This is whereby an answer back code is sent
back to the source after the data has been received by the destination. This
answer back code is confirmation that the data has been received.

Read-after-write Check
A two-gap dual read/write head first writes data onto a storage medium then
immediately reads what has just been written. A rewrite is effected if an error
occurred at writing. This is meant to ensure that data has been accurately
written on the storage medium.

Dual read Check

An input device, for example, disc drive, reads data twice, it then compares the
results of both read operations. This ensures that data has been or has not been
correctly read.

The last two are more of verification than they are validation checks.
SUMMARY OF COMPUTER INPUT
DEVICE SPEED FEATURE APPLICATION
General text input. Is the most
Keyboard 5 cps Qwerty layout widely used input device
Mouse - Hand held device that Used with GUIs, windows and
controls an on-screen menus as a way of selecting
cursor options. It is not used for text

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 input
- Is a special screen that It is used as a way of selecting
Touch enables a user to choose options with the menu system.
Screen an option by touching an Can be used for inputting text
image on screen
Voice - Can be used to input Used in areas where hands are
words in a particular not desirable
language
Optical 2000 Reads OC, type-writer Is used for large scale input,
Character doc/min fonts and neat hand e.g. for billing by Electricity
reader writing and water suppliers
Optical 200 Reads marks in set places Used in marking multiple
Mark Doc/min on special documents choice answer sheets
reader
2000 Reads specially Used by banks to speed up the
MICR Char/min formulated characters clearing of cheques
which contain magnetic
particles
Bar Code Reads patterns of bars Used in retail shops, libraries
Reader 1.8 which indicate a code and stock control systems
cm/sec number
Card - Reads information on Used for security systems,
Reader magnetic stripe cards telephone and banking
Graphs Pad - Enables existing and free Used with (CAD) Computer
hand drawings to be input Aided Design Software in
into the computer architectural and design work
Image - Captures 2-dimensional Used by designers and as part
Scanner diagrams, tables and of publishing systems
pictures in digital form
Video - Captures an image either Used by designers and as part
Scanner of an existing picture or a of publishing systems
3-deminessional image in
digital form
Magnetic Information is stored Used when large volumes of
Tape or 3-5 magnetically on disk or data are to be input as a way
Disk million tape of maximizing the rate of
cps input

Input Media
Refers to where data and/or information are recorded, from where it will be read into
the computer for processing. The media include:
1) On paper data – which is keyed in, document read, scanned
2) Cassette – for transfer on to magnetic tapes or disks
3) Diskette – for transfer on to magnetic tape
4) Optical disk for inputting programs or packages

Online and Offline Systems

Online Systems
These are devices that work in conjunction with computers in order to process data. An
online system is a situation where by the user is able to enter information directly into

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the computer for immediate processing. Transactions are used to update the master file
as they are entered.

Online Peripherals
Online peripherals are devices that are directly linked to the processor. This is
achieved through the use of telecommunications systems e.g. telephone or direct
privately owned lines. Entry is through keying-in via a keyboard or via a document
reader. No physical transportation of source documents to the processing point is
necessary. There are minimal delays in processing information especially where there
is 2-way transmission between the terminal and the computer. Useful in time critical
operations e.g. process control, ATM, Airline Reservation, etc.

Features of Online Processing Systems

a) No delay in information processing, so that output can be received back as
soon as processing is completed.
b) Associated with fairly low volumes of input/output from many separate
locations combined to produce a high level of processing at the central
computer.
c) Master file will always be up to date and the current state of the business is
always known.
d) System will usually enable online enquiries to be made to the master file, e.g.
requesting information e.g. on customer account balances.
e) It is harder to control the quality of data input, since non-specialist users will
be entering the data
f) It is increasingly being used.
g) Each transaction is posted immediately to the affected files
h) Used in dynamic situations where up-to-date information is needed at short
notice
i) Data capture is through terminals

Typical On-Line Processing

a. Data Entry and Edit
b. File update and maintenance
c. File Enquiry
d. Report Generation

Advantages of On-Line Systems

-Enables the user to control when or how processing will take place, thus the computer
system fits-in the way the business operates, rather than the business fitting-in with the
computer’s operation.
-Forward planning is eased as management always has access to the most recent
information.
-Distance barriers will no longer count.

Disadvantages of On-Line Systems

-Initial capital out lay is great because it should include terminals, transmission lines,
back up system and security.
-In the event of the central computer’s failure all other surrounding linkages collapse.
-Possibility of computer related crime increases due to access by a wide range of users.

Security of Online Systems

1) Regular backup copies of all master files and transaction summaries should be

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 taken to ensure that, if the current working copy is lost, it can be recreated and
operations can proceed.
2) Password, User code, Terminal code and Encryption can be used.
3) For applications like manufacturing, EFTPOS, Nuclear, chemical stations and
air-line traffic control which can not afford a system failure, it may be
necessary to have a duplicate computer on standby.

Off-line/Batch Processing system

It involves the collection of all the transactions up to a specific time into a batch,
which is then used to update the master file. Usually the terminal is not directly linked
to the computer that will do the actual processing. It is suitable for processing large
numbers of similar transactions, which require careful checking. Suitable applications
include payroll and personnel files which will only need to be updated as the
information they contain changes rather than daily. Includes also large-scale invoice
production and cheque clearing systems.

Features of Off-Line Systems

-Information in batch processing file is always out of date since it is only as recent as
the last time a batch of transactions was submitted for processing.
-Lends itself to the processing of large numbers of similar transactions
-Transactions are passed to the computer centre for processing by specialist computer
staff with output being returned to the users to be used or stored at will.
-Easy to schedule processing at set times and therefore easier to organise work on
large computer with many competing users.
-Easier to control input and processing of data with batch processing system than
online system
-Its use is declining.

Security of Off-Line Processing

A batch processing system updates master file using new information held on
transaction file. A standard security method in use with batch system is to keep several
sets of master and transaction files and to re-use them on a rolling basis.

If we assume that we have a new system in which the master file (MF) is updated from
the Transaction file (TF) in a batch at the end of each working day, the system would
work as follows:

DAY1
MF1 is update with the day’s transactions held on TF1 to produce next day’s MF
called MF2. MF1 and MF2 are both stored in a safe place.

DAY 2
MF2 itself is updated with the day’s transactions on the TF2 tape to produce MF3.
MF2 and TF2 are both stored in a safe place. At this stage we have three versions of
MF, i.e. MF1, MF2 and MF3. MF1 is called the grandfather file, MF2 the father file
and MF3 is the son file.

DAY 3
MF3 is in turn updated with the day’s transactions stored on TF3, the results being
stored on MF1 tape which now becomes MF4, the new son file. MF3 is now the new
father file and MF2 is the new grandfather file. MF2 and TF2 are both stored in a safe
place, possibly in another location.

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DAY 4
MF4 is updated with the day’s transactions stored on TF4 the result being stored on the
MF2 tape which now becomes MF5, the new son file. MF4 is now the father file and
MF3 the new grandfather. MF3 and TF3 are both stored in a safe place possibly at a
remote location.

The Ancestral-file system of taking back-up copies of data

Day1 Day2 Day3 Day4

(Grandfather) (Father) (Son)

MF1 MF2 MF3 MF4

TF1 TF2 TF3

In summary the controls on batch processing are:

1) Batching: Documents are arranged in

batches e.g. 50s or a day’s work. A
cover note is attached to each batch.
2) Numbering: Unique numbering on each batch i.e.
on the cover note.
3) Batch totals: Comprise of total number
a) Of documents in each batch.
b) Total of the fields that it is required to control e.g. total value of invoices,
overtime payment, total quantities of orders, etc.
4) Batch registers: Each department responsible for processing the batch records
its receipt and dispatch in a register.
5) Hash total:Total number of forms processed and the quantities/totals of their r
eference numbers, e.g. total of receipt numbers.

Distributed Processing
This is where information is processed at a number of separate locations, which may
then share results and work in cooperative manner. It differs from the centralised
system where terminals are connected to a single computer. It uses LANS and WANS
to link up computers and enables information to be exchanged. The configuration of a
distributed system is as shown below:

Sales Dept Accounts

Computer Dept
Computer

Production Stores Dept

Dept Computer
Computer
2
Applications of Distributed Processing

1) Office Automation: Staff is provided with a computer for spreadsheets and

word processing. Communication links between computers are required for e-
mail, document distribution, data storage and access to online database.
2) Data Collection: POS terminals using laser readers which read bar codes on
grocery products and send the data to main computer.
3) CAD/CAM System: Passes design drawings over communication links to
other computers or control processes.
4) Factory Automation: e.g. Robotics in car manufacturing.

Features of Distributed Processing

a) Information may be processed at more than one location with the sharing of
information and other resources.
b) May not be suitable for some applications e.g. accounts that require a high
degree of central control.
c) Faster response time, since users do not have to share time or central
computer/processor.
d) Users may be more involved in the development of their own computer
systems since they tend to have more control on their own information
processing.
e) Possible loss of central control of processing and also duplication of effort,
with individual departments pursuing their own policies.
f) Security maybe harder to achieve due to the geographical spread of a
distributed system.

Other Configurations

Centralised system

DEPT
TERMINAL

DEPT DEPT
TERMINAL HOST TERMINAL
COMPUTER
(Central System)

DEPT
TERMINAL

A centralised system is ideal in situations where a lot of centralised control is

necessary, for example accounting or banking where it may be necessary to monitor
what is going on and taking intervention action before things go completely out of

2
hand. The system allows data standardization and minimizes data and program
duplication. Common data is available to all who need the data. Consolidated reports
are easy to make as data can easily be drawn from different files and integrated into a
single report.

Decentralised System

Sales Dept Accounts Stores Dept Production

Computer Dept Computer Dept
Computer Computer

The computers are standalone types. If one department’s/computer’s output is required

as another computer’s/department’s input then there is need to retype the data. This
means there is duplication of effort, programs, data, and hardware resources. This
system makes it difficult to produce consolidated reports which draw their data from
different areas of the organisation, as the areas are physically detached. It however
allows autonomy on the part of the departments to design and implement systems that
are ideal to their needs. It also allows greater user participation, making systems
implementation much easier.

Using a Computer Bureau for Information Processing

A computer bureau is a company that specialises in the provision of computer related
services for other organisations. Includes such services as accounts and payroll.
Transfer of data or information is done by the courier services or through a terminal.
One-off applications e.g. circulars and seasonal fluctuations of workloads may require
bureau services. This facility is no longer being extensively used because of
affordability of microcomputers.

Bureau Configurations

1) On-line structure
Client Company
Terminal

Client Company Bureau Client Company

Terminal Computer Terminal

Client Company
Terminal

The on-line bureau service allows data to be sent from Client Companies to the Server
(Bureau) Company electronically. However, processing may occur after some time or
it may occur immediately. The terminals are used either to sent data or receive results
of processing. The Bureau charges the Client either a fixed monthly charge or it may

2
charge on the basis of volumes processed or time used on the computer.

2) Off-line Structure

Input Batch Output For

From Client Client A
A

Bureau
Input Batch Computer Output For
From Client Client B
B

Input Batch Output For

From Client Client C
C

Chapter Questions:

1) Name as many input devices as you can and cite

situations where they may be ideal for
application, saying why.
2) Describe, in order, the stages involved in data
collection.
3) What common errors can occur during data
collection?
4) Validation and verification can be used to reduce
errors in data. Differentiate these with practical
examples. How do off-line and on-line systems
differ? Select situations where each would be
ideal.
5) Identify five (5) validation checks that can be
applied to data for processing?
6) What are the objectives of control of data?
7) What are the control measures that can be
implemented in batch processing?
8) What is distributed processing? How far important
is it in modern day data processing operations?

CHAPTER 4
INPUT DEVICES

1) Keyboard
It resembles a typewriter, but has additional special keys. Data is entered into the
computer by depressing the relevant keys on the keyboard. It enables the keying-in of

2
numeric, alphabetic and special characters. It has function keys that allow the
performance particular activities either through the use of single keys or as a
combination of keys.

2) Character Recognition
Source documents are prepared in machine sensible/readable form and thus no
transcription is required. The documents are also human readable.

Optical Character Readers

Read characters which are specially stylised and on the other hand Optical
Mark Readers read marks which have previously assigned values.

Process of Reading Documents

OMR: A mark is a particular position on the document triggers a response. It is

the “position” of the mark that is converted to a value by the reader. Light
beams are directed on the paper surface. The beams are then reflected onto a
light detector. Unless the beam is absorbed by a dark pencil mark, the response
is considered wrong. Up to 10 000 A4 documents can be read per hour.

Features of Documents
a) Document is printed in a styled form that can be recognised by the
machine.
b) In the case of optical marks e.g. scanner sheets, predetermined positions
on the document are given values and when shaded tally with the value.
c) Good quality printing and paper necessary.
d) Size of document and scanning area maybe limited.
e) Documents must be undamaged

Application of OMR
Billing e.g. of gas, electricity, water and insurance premium renewals. OMR is
used in combination with OCR for the above said documents.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Features of MICR
1) Document is written with iron oxide in the ink which is magnetised at
reading.
2) Can read up to 2400 characters per minute.
3) Very high print quality needed.
4) Characters should be in highly distinctive type style, e.g. bold or italics.
5) Size of document is standardized and scanning area may be limited

Applications of MICR Readers

Include banking and local authorities for payment of rates by cheques, e.g. cheques
are encoded at the bottom with account number, branch code and cheque number
before being given to the customer. When returned the bottom line is completed by
encoding the amount of the cheque.

3) Pen-Based Data Input

The system usually contains the following:
a) A specially designed stylus/pen that is used to write data.

2
 b) A pen sensitive screen, usually in the form of an A4 sized note pad or the
monitor/screen itself.
c) A powerful character-recognition software.

The current generation of pen-based word processing systems require the user to
learn a set of editing commands for such tasks as cutting, pasting, deleting and
inserting text. Some systems can be trained to recognise a particular user’s
handwriting.

4) Mouse
Developed in order to get over the problem that non-typists had with using the
keyboard to communicate with the computer. It is used in conjunction with
windowing systems and GUIs in which the use of visual prompts/icons is practical,
rather than using memorized commands. It is a desktop device in which the
movement of the mouse by the user on the desk controls the movement of an on-
screen cursor. The cursor travels around the screen in response to the action of the
user moving it. To select a desired option you point at an icon or visual prompt and
press/click a button on the mouse to select it rather than having to type a complex
command. On clicking a window opens and further options are displayed and can
be selected as per need. Used in conjunction with the keyboard.

Applications of a Mouse
Include generalised use, desktop publishing and graphics. Some mouse-based
systems allow copy delete, calculator, diary, etc, functions to be performed.

5) Magnetic Strip Readers

Read information held in the form of magnetic strips on a plastic card. Applications
include cheque guarantee cards, credit cards, magnetic-keys and identify cards.
Magnetic strip on the back of the cards may hold the personal details of the owner
with the necessary secret number, called the PIN. It enables the holder access to
restricted computer facilities, secure locations, credit facilities or a bank account.

6) Bar Code Readers

Features System
1) Documents/Items have barcodes arranged in vertical bars interleaved with spaces
that can be read by an optical scanner and used as a means of identifying
products/stock items.
2) Speed of reading is about 1.8cm/sec
4) Types of bar codes used are EAN (European Article Number) and UPC
(Universal Product Code).

The bar-code reader scans/reads coded data when item is passed over the scanning
device. It then refers to the central computer for description and price. This
information is relayed to checkout points where it is displayed on a customer panel
and printed on the receipt. At the same time, the stock level of the item purchased
will be reduced, providing management with up-to-date stock information and
enabling more efficient stock-control and ordering.

7) Data Capture Devices

They are able to detect events as they happen and pass the appropriate data directly
to the computer, e.g. automated production line. Errors stop production line. Also

2
 used at POS, chemical works and breweries.
Data Loggers/ Recorders

Record and store data at source. The data is input into the computer later.

Features
Contain own microprocessor and data storage device/medium or radio transmitter.
Magnetic cassettes are used for storage. Data entry is by means of a small keyboard

8) Tags:

Used as a data collection technique usually with clothing retail applications. Tags
were originally miniature punched cards but now are in magnetic strip form. A
special code, which may include data items such as price, type and size of garment
and branch/department are recorded on tag by a machine. Tags are affixed on
garments before sale and removed at POS for processing later. Tags are converted
to disk/magnetic tapes for input into the computer. Data is captured at source, and
there is no need for transcription.

Factors Influencing Data Collection Methods and Media

1. Appropriateness
Appropriateness implies suitability of a device to a particular computing or data
processing operation. A process control would need a system that is able to capture
events as they happen rather than wait for keyboard entry.

a) Magnetic Media:
Tape and magnetic disks are used for storing data that will be processed by the
main computer. It enables checking and controls to be effected on data keyed.
Tapes and disks are relatively cheap. They can be reused for as much as 50 000
times.

b) Character Recognition:
i) MICR confined to banking very reliable, but expensive
ii) OCR more versatile and less expensive than MICR
iii) OMR very simple and inexpensive, however needs specially prepared
fonts and also requires standardized documents e.g. grade 7’s
scanner sheets

c) Terminals:
Are a means of a DDE (Direct Data Entry). They are costly to provide because
of the detached branches and data transmission lines required. They are a fast
and convenient way of data transmission.

d) Special Media:
Tags and bar-coded strips reduce cost, but are tailor made for particular
applications.

2. Time
This is quite fundamental. The quicker the response the costly it is e.g. online
systems. Some systems would require that the input be transferred very quickly into
the computer and results be obtained instantly. Such a system would normally

2
 require a fast input method. A payroll system on the other hand, may not require a
very fast input method as the data can be collected over a period of time before
being processed at month-end or at weekend.

3. Accuracy
Data must be clean because errors may cause delays in data processing. Entries
through keypunching via the keyboard may suffer from errors of omission,
commission and transposition, therefore, if data is to be very accurate keyboard
entry method may not be ideal. Data capture devices are normally more accurate
than keyboard entry.

4. Volume
The larger the volume of the data, the faster the method ought to be as this would
ensure that the data enter the system in time for processing. Some systems will not
be able to handle large volumes of data, for example, a keyboard at 5 characters per
second is very slow.

5. Confidence
Record of success of the system should be taken into account. A well-tested and
tried system would be ideal to use than a new one. Generally a system that has been
in operation for some time and had been used elsewhere successfully, would find
easier acceptance than a new one that has not yet been used anywhere.

6. Input Medium
The input medium on which the data sits also determines which method can be
adopted. If data is paper-based and the data is such that no there is need for a lot of
editing before entry, then keyboard entry may be ideal. Some are faster and some
are slower.

Chapter Questions
1) Describe in detail the operation of:
(i) Keyboard; MICR; Light Pen; Tags
2) Describe five (5) factors that determine the choice
of data collection methods and media
3) How do data capture devices overcome some of the
problems associated with traditional data input
methods? What are these “problems” mentioned above?
4) Which applications/situations are best fitted to the
application of pointing devices such as mice?
5) What do the following mean: Command Driven, Menu
Driven and GUI interfaces?

RESEARCH WORK
Find out information on:
a) New input devices, their purposes and how they
function
b) Components that can be added to an already
working computer to enhance its capabilities. (
Hint: Computers are built on a modular basis)

2
 c) Modern Programming Languages and their features
and applications
d) The role of computers in Industrial, Education,
Health, Domestic, Commercial and Communications
environments.
e) Social implications of computerisation.

CHAPTER 5
OUTPUT DEVICES & MEDIA

Computer output can take the form of a display on a screen, printout, the control of a
mechanical device or the transfer of information onto magnetic disk/tapes. Most out
put falls into one of the two categories:
1. Hard copy which is in a permanent or printed
form.
2. Soft copy which is a display on the screen or
is in audio form.

Soft Copy Output

Information output as softcopy will either be displayed on the screen or else will be in
audio form as in speech or sound.

Visual Output
On-screen display or CRT (cathode ray tube). Operated by converting electrical signals
into visual display. Displays can either be colour or monochrome. CRT is a major
component in a number of devices notably VDU, TV and the monitor. VDU enables
the user to input information to a computer using a keyboard, a mouse, or a touch
screen facility and to view output on a monitor. Image displays on CRT are made up of
a number of small dots or picture elements called pixels. The more pixels a computer
is able to use to generate its display, the greater the sharpness/resolution of the image.
Liquid Crystal Displays (CDs) can be used especially on portable computers and on
digital watches because they are not heavy and do not consume much power.

Audio Output
Synthesized signals and speech/voice converted into digital form and stored in RAM
or on disk to be output later. Speech synthesis is the production of sound
corresponding to spoken words.

Hard Copy Output

It is defined as computer output that is in a permanent form. It can be in the form of a
paper printout. Output on microfilm or microfiche is also considered hardcopy.
Printouts maybe single sheets or continuous stationery.

Two Major Categories of Printers

1. Matrix printers: in which the text and the graphics are produced from a series
of dots.
2. Fully-formed-character-printer: Text produced by the printer is a replica of the
character to be printed, in the manner of print hammers on typewriter.

It's now usual for all printers to have their own on-board RAM called buffer storage.

2
Instead of the computer only sending text at the speed it will be printed, a buffer
enables the entire document to be down-loaded or transferred into the printer buffer for
printing whilst the computer performs other processing functions.

Further Classifications

1) Based on amount of print produced at once.

a) Character printers print one character at a time e.g. matrix.
b) Line printers print a line of text at a time e.g. chain.
c) Page printers print one page at a time e.g. laser printers

2. Based on print speed in terms of CPM, LPM, and PPM.

a) Low speed (100CPS – 300LPM) usually these are character printers
b) High speed (200LPM –3000 LPM) usually these are line and page
printers.

3. Impact and non-impact

a) Hit inked ribbons against paper
b) Non-impact use other methods e.g. thermal

Low Speed Printers

a) Dot Matrix Impact Character Printers:

Most popularly used low speed printers. Widely used as a microcomputer
peripheral. Its name relates to the needles in the print head used to print text as
a series of dots using carbon ribbon. Positions of dots to be printed to make
each letter are held in ROM by the printer.

Features
Mimics the action of a typewriter by printing single characters at a time in his
lines across stationery. Print heads move to, from and across the paper,
stopping momentarily at each character position to strike a print ribbon against
the stationery with an array of wires. According to the number of wires in the
print head, character matrix may be 7*5, 7*7, 9*7, 9*9 and even 24*24. The
more the dots the better the image. Line widths range from 80 through
120,132,160, characters across the page. Speed ranges from 100CPS-300CPS.
Multiple copies can be produced through use of carbon ribbon. Supports
graphics.

b) Daisy Wheel Printers

Features
Produces high quality print. A daisy wheel is a flat disc with a number of
spokes radiating from its centre each of them having a character on its tip. Each
character is fully formed to produce letter quality printouts. It is an impact
shaped character printer. The spokes rotate at a high speed and print heads are
pushed onto the ribbon which in turn transfers the character to the paper. Speed
ranges from 10CPS-100 CPS. Does not support graphics.

High Speed Printers

Two basic types of high-speed printers are line printers and page printers. Line printers
are impact shaped character printers, which as their name suggests print the whole line
at once.

2
3 Main Types of Line Printers:
a) Drum printers
b) Chain printers
c) Band printer

Page Printers:
Print an image of the whole page at once. The image may be made of conventional
diagrams, pictures and text or as a combination of these. According to the technical
features these printers are also known as laser or xero-graphic printers. An
electronically controlled laser beam marks out an electrostatic pattern on the surface of
the drum. The toner is then transferred to the stationery as the stationery comes into
contact with the drum. A typical high-speed laser printer prints 146 PPM. The laser
printer prints a combination of text and diagrams or pictures and is therefore very
useful for producing manuals, magazines and other publications. They are used in
conjunction with word processors and more advanced document creation systems such
as desktop publication.

Desktop Printers:
Are suitable for use in an office environment and look very similar to photocopies.
They have paper trays just like those of photocopiers. Speed varies but is not more
than 10PPM. The quality of output is very high.

Ink Jet Printers:

Operate by firing very tiny ink droplets onto the paper using an electrostatic principle.
This means a medium quality bit mapped image can be produced at a resolution of
about 300Dpi. It is very quiet but of low speed i.e. about 4PPM. Other models print
colour images by means of multiple print heads each firing droplets of different
colours.

Thermal Printer
A thermal printer is a non-impact character printer, which prints onto special papers
using heated print heads. It is very quiet and this gives it a very big advantage in some
applications where noise is unwelcome.

Microform Recorders
Microforms are photographically produced documents on film there 2 types:
a) Microfilm is a 16mm roll film
Holds 3000 A4 pages

b) Microfiche is a sheet film which is 105mm*148mm.

Holds 98 A4 pages.

2
 Output is written onto a magnetic tape, which is then fed onto a machine called the
microform recorder. It reads the magnetic tape and copies that data onto the
microforms. The information can be subsequently inspected by using the
microfilm viewer that projects onto a screen. The following diagram illustrates:

Tape
unit/drive Printer Print out

Computer

Microform
recorder Transducer/ View
converter station

Advantages of COM
1) Less storage space required if documents have to be saved.
2) Easy to retrieve data
3) Multiple copies of the film can be made
4) Mail postage is cheaper if information is to distributed through mail
5) Robust (adapts to different types of environments)

Disadvantages of Com

1) Cannot read by naked eye.

2) Additional devices make the system rather expensive.

Graph Plotters
These are specialist devices which are used to produce high quality pictures and
designs. They reproduce the human action by drawing using a pen. They draw an
image using a pen that is moved to, fro and horizontally or vertically by 2 separate
motors. Circles and diagonal lines are drawn by moving each motor in turn. These are
2 types of graph plotters:

1) Flat bed plotter

Draws by moving a pen in both x and y-axes.

Pen Movement
Directions

Pen

Bed on which paper lies

2
 2) Drum Plotter
It only moves the pen to plot the y-axis, moving the paper itself to plot the x-
axis.
Speed of up to 8cm/second is achievable.

Computer Output to Disk or Tape

As an intermediate stage before producing the hard copy and using the storage as a
buffer between the processor and the output devices. This frees the computer’s
memory for use by other programs. The printing from tape/disk, rather than direct
from the CPU is called spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operating On Line) of
output. Information may also be output to disk/tape to produce backup copies for
security purposes. Rate of output is 1-5 million cps (characters per second).

Chapter Questions
1) Describe two major categories of output and cite
situations where each would be more ideal.
2) What are the differences between audio output and
visual output?
3) Printers can be described by amount of print
produced at once, speed and impact. Explain these
classifications of printers
4) Compare and contrast a laser printer and a dot
matrix printer in terms of their features
5) Draw a labelled diagram of a daisy wheel or dot
matrix printer
6) What advantages and disadvantages do microforms have
as output/storage devices?
7) Define the term “spooling” and explain its operation
and importance in computing environments.
8) What improvements have been done on modern day
computer screens and printers?
9) Technology relating to computer output continues to
change. Cite some of the latest changes to
computer output systems that have made computing
easy to many.

CHAPTER 6
COMPUTER STORAGE

Computer storage may come in different forms. The purpose of computer storage is to
support the main storage, which is limited in many ways.

Computer Storage hierarchy

Registers
CPU
Increasing Speed & Cost
Cache Memory

Random Access Memory

MAIN MEMORY
Buffer Memory
2

Hard magnetic disks

Increasing
Capacity

SECONDARY
STORAGE

A variety of storage devices are used in an effort to achieve the best performance and
largest capacity at reasonable cost, i.e. optimum speed and capacity at minimum cost.

Register storage
These are cells inside a microprocessor that facilitate the execution of instructions,
acting as temporary holding areas for both instructions and data. can serve a specific
function or a general purpose, eg, to store intermediate results during processing.
Some of the temporary holding areas are called accumulators.

Cache Memory
It allows the computer to load and reference information that it anticipates it will need
in the near future. With controls, active program parts are stored there.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

It is so called because the time required to read from or write to it is independent of
the previous memory locations accessed. All programs undergoing execution are
normally stored in main memory (RAM). This includes the Application Program,
Programming Language segments, DBMS, and systems subroutines, etc which are
required during the running of the program.

Buffer Memory
It bridges the speed gap between the operation of the main memory and that of the
secondary storage device. If there are segments of the program that are resident on disc
which may be required later, these may be stored in the buffer so that the are easily
accessible. Data or results of printing may also be stored in the buffer so that the
printing process can be done from that buffer to free main memory for use by other
programs.

Hard discs
These normally supplement the main memory by keeping data or programs on-line
which may be required regularly by the computer. Since these have greater storage
capacity than the main memory they are able to store larger amounts of data. They are
also able to store information without power support, that is, where information which
may be needed in future may be kept.

Exchangeable Disc/Tape units

These may not be linked directly to the processor all the time. In most cases these store
data off-line, i.e., away from the computer itself. These may come as mass storage
devices or as archival devices for information that is not regularly used or may be used

2
for confidential data that must be kept away from the computer. They may also be
used to backup the hard disc so that in the event of a disc crash or a virus attack data or
information will be able to recovered.

The following are some devices used as secondary storage:

Exchangeable Disk

Access Mechanism

Read/Write Heads

Spindle (rotates the disk)

This may come individually or in stacks of 6/11. The term exchangeable means that
when the data they contain is required these disks must be loaded by an operator into
special disk drives to enable them to be read by the computer. Storage capacity
depends on the number of disks in the stack and the density with which data is stored
on disk. Capacities of over several gigabytes per disk pack/stack are possible.

Advantages

1) Greater storage capacity compared to main memory or single disks.

2) A number of disk packs can be used, thus secondary storage can be limitless.
3) Main computer may be on-line to large numbers of exchanged disk drives thus
having access to a lot of data/information.

Fixed Disks
Are located permanently inside a computer. Offer better performance than
exchangeable disks. Storage capacity is several gigabytes per disk. They have fast
access times. Their construction is similar to that of exchangeable disks.

Fixed-Head Disk
Spindle

Read/Write Heads

Have read/write heads fixed permanently over each track on the surface of each disk,
so a disk with 200 tracks will have 200 heads for each surface. As a result high speeds
of access are achieved because the delay caused by the head moving back and forth is

2
non-existent. Can store several gigabytes of data and have access time of about 3 milli-
seconds.

Floppy Disk
Thin flexible magnetically coated disk protected by a semi-rigid jacket. The common
ones in use are 3 ½ and 5 ¼. Floppies are inferior to hard disks in many respects:

a) Have slower data access time i.e. 800 milliseconds

b) Slower data transfer rates i.e. 60KB/sec
c) Lower levels of storage i.e. 1.44 MB
d) Easily damaged because of frequent handling.

Floppies, however can be used for porting software between machines and for backing
storage.

Users and Applications of Magnetic Media

The choice of storage media depends on what percentage of data held needs to be
online at any given time and how fast it needs to be accessed. Exchangeable, fixed,
fixed head disks and floppy disks can be used depending on mainframe, mini or
microcomputer applications to which they are put e.g. banks, supermarkets, personal
computing, etc.

Magnetic Tapes
Plastic tapes coated with a thin film of magnetic material. It can be an open reel of
tape, in a cassette or cartridge. It is a serial access medium and therefore is not a
suitable means of storage if the data it contains is to be accessed at random.

Reel Tape
Used with mini and mainframe or as a means of storing data that is to input for
processing or else for backup of information held on hard disk. Can store 100s of
megabytes of data.

Structure of Data Storage on Reel Tape

BOT Marker Data block Trailer Label

Header Label IBG/IRG EOT Marker

The Header label contains information about the tape itself including the file-name,
creation date and the date after which it can be over-written (purge data). When the
tape is loaded details the header label is checked to ensure that a correct tape has been
loaded. A trailor label provides a crosscheck that ensures that processing is completed.
Data is read from or written to tape 1 block at a time and transfer rate is in excess of
1megabyte/second. Tape is reusable for as many as 20 000 to 50 000 times. The tape
can be used for both I/O purposes. For security purposes a special device is used and is
called a write-permit ring.

Cassette

2
Used to take copies or backups of files held on disks.

Uses and Applications of Magnetic Tapes

The use has become more of:

1) Backing up disk storage

2) Storage of intermediate processing results
3) Storing results before printing
4) Archiving
5) Inputting
Being a serial access medium it is unable to offer the same access time necessary for
online processing as do disks.

Optical Disks
Store information in the form of a series of microscopic pits on the surface of a plastic
disk. Information can be read from the pits with the use of a finely focused laser
beams. Store data at a much higher density than magnetic media e.g. a high-density
5¼ floppy stores 1.2 megabytes, whereas an optical disk of the same size can store 800
Megabytes. Because laser beams read optical disks, the disks do not suffer from wear
as do magnetic media. Disk surface is protected from damage by a clear plastic coating
that enables a disk to be touched unlike magnetic media.

Read Only Optical Disk (CD-ROM)

Data is recorded sequentially on a spiral track and typical storage varies, and for a
single disk is around 600 Megabytes. It is a permanent form of storage and data
recorded cannot be altered.

Write Once Optical Disk (Worm)

These are not standardized. They vary in sizes and larger ones are able to store up to 4
Gigabytes. They record data in a similar way to magnetic media.

Uses of CD-ROM
CD-ROM is able to store large amounts of written, graphic and/or audio data and
therefore can be used by banks, building societies, and post offices.

Digital Video Disk (DVD)

DVD is a recent development that allows various forms of data representation to be
stored. Can be used to store music, films, data, etc.

There are also Recordable Compact Disks and Re-writeable Compact Disks. The
former is recorded once and thereafter it becomes ROM. The latter is recorded and
erased at will.

Personal Storage Media

E.g. Smart Cards, ATM, Credit cards, Telephone cards, etc. Smart cards hold details of
the holder including account number, credit limit and previous buys on a chip whose
contents are updated with each new transaction. Some cards contain chips and others
contain magnetic strips.

Characteristics of Storage Media

Medium Types of Capacity Access Time Transfer Rate

2
 Access
Exchangeable Random 600 30 >1 Mbytes/ Sec
Disk stack Mbytes milliseconds
Fixed Head Disk Random 10-20 GB 3-5 ms >1 Mbytes/Sec
Floppy Disk Random 1.4 MB 800 ms 60 Kbytes/Sec
Reel Tape Serial 100 Up to 60 Sec 1 Mbytes/Sec
Mbytes
Cd-ROM Random 850 1 Sec 170 Kbytes/Sec
Mbytes
WORM Random 4 Gbytes 50 Ms 1 Mbytes/Sec
DVD Random >10 GB 3-5 ms 1MB/sec

ACCESS TIME

Access time is the amount of time taken to locate a particular record on tape/disk. It
may be made up of seek time, rotational delay and data transfer rate.

Seek time
This is the time taken to move the read-write head to the appropriate track or cylinder
holding the data that need to be retrieved.

Rotational delay
This is the time taken to rotate the disk so that the sector or block holding data lies
below the read-write head, ready to be accessed.

Data transfer rate

The rate at which data can be read from a storage medium into primary. It is usually
expressed in bytes/sec or bits/sec. This time includes the copying of the data from
where it will be sitting and its subsequent transmission to primary memory, from
where it may be displayed on the screen.

Units of Storage and Capacity

Bits Binary digits generally 8 bits are needed to form a byte or character.
Byte Generally it is a character = (2^0)
Kilobytes 1024 bytes (2 ^10)
Megabytes 1024* 1024 bytes (2^20) = 1 048 576 bytes
Gigabytes 1024 *1024* 1024 bytes (2^30) = 1 073 741 824
bytes
Tetra bytes 1024 *1024*1024 *1024 bytes (2^40) = 1 099 511 627 776 bytes

Chapter Questions
1) Exchangeable, fixed, fixed head, floppy and optical
disks are used for computer storage. Describe;
differentiate in terms of characteristics; and
identify situations where each type would be ideal
for use.
2) Why is magnetic tape generally used as a backup for
data stored on disk instead of being used for storing
data/information that needs to be accessed directly,
i.e., for on-line operations?

2
 3) What is Access Time? It is generally made up of three
aspects. Name and describe each briefly.
4) Define the following:
(i) Bit
(ii) Byte
(iii) Kilobyte
(iv) Megabyte
(v) Gigabyte
(vi) Tetra byte

5) Draw a labelled diagram to show the construction of a

storage device such as a magnetic tape or magnetic
disk.
6) What factors would you consider before choosing a
storage medium for implementation on computer system?
7) What is the difference between a storage medium and a
storage device?

RESEARCH WORK
Find out information on:
(a) Data bases and the storage devices necessary for
storing large data bases
(b) The work of Database Administrator; Network
Administrator; Computer Operator and Data Capture
Clerk
(c) The ways Internet can be used in various business
situations
Why is it that computer people need to keep on learning
new computing skills and concepts?

CHAPTER 7
BINARY SYSTEM

The binary system is based on the numbering system that has 2 as its base.

All numbering systems are based on 2 concepts:

1) Absolute value
The absolute values of a numbering system are the minimum and maximum
allowable value, e.g. In Binary 0 and 1 are the only allowable values. Two (2)
cannot be used.
In base 8 allowable values are 0-7
In base 10 allowable values are 0-9
In base 16 allowable values are 0-15

2) Positional value
The positional value defines the weight of a digit on the basis of the position
the digit occupies in a given number. The following examples illustrate:

Base 2 Base 10 Base 8

2
 1 0 1 0 7
0 1 0 8 3
9

1s and 0s in a set 0,1,8 & 9 in a set 0,3,6 & 7 in a set

Value 8 4 2 1 100 10 1 1 64 8 1
0 0 0
23 22 21 20 TH H T U 82 81 80
Positio
ns 1 0 0 1 0 9 8 1 0 7 3
of
digits
1 1 0 0 9 8 0 1 3 0 7
0 1 0 1 1 9 0 8 0 3 7
0 0 1 1 8 1 9 0 7 3 0

The ones (1’s) and zeros (0’s) making up a binary number are called binary digits or
bits. For example the number 39 is composed of 6 bits. Inside the computer storage,
“1” will be represented by an electronic cell in a charged (on) state and “0” in a
discharged state (off). Thus the number 39 represented in binary form as 100 111
would occupy storage cells as on off off on on on which will be interpreted by the
computer and displayed on the screen as 39.

Relations between Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal Representations of

Numbers

Decima Binary (4- Octa Hexadecim

l bit) l al
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 10 (A)
11 1011 13 11 (B)
12 1100 14 12 (C)
13 1101 15 13 (D)
14 1110 16 14 (E)
15 1111 17 15 (F)

2
Conversions

Base 10 to Base 2 conversion (decimal to binary)

The procedure is to divide the number by 2, the remainder making up the base 2
equivalent. The remainders are read from the bottom upward as shown below:
2 3 R
9
2 1 1
9
2 9 1
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1
3910 = ?2
= 100 1112

Base 2 to base 10 conversion (binary to denary/decimal)

The procedure is to assign powers of 2 from 20 starting on the least significant digit
(rightmost digit) and increase the powers by a factor of one until the most significant
digit (leftmost digit) is reached. Find the value of each power. Multiply this value with
the corresponding digit falling below it. Add the products. The result is the base 10
equivalent.

Example: 10101012 = ?10

(64) (32) (16) (8) (4) (2) (1)

26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 1 0 1 0 1

= (64*1) + (32*0) + (16*1) + (8*0) + (4*1) + (2*0) + (1*1)

= 64 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 8510

Base 10 to base 8 conversion (decimal to octal)

The procedure is as used for base 10 to base 2 conversion except that instead of
dividing by 2, one divides the base 10 number by 8, the remainder making up the
base 8 equivalent of the given base 10 number.
For example:
3910 = ?8

8 3 R
9
8 4 7
8 0 4
= 478

Base 8 to base 10 conversion (octal to decimal)

The procedure is as used for base 2 to base 10 conversion, but powers of 8 are
assigned to the digits starting with the least significant digit on the given number.

2
 For example:
478 = ?10

(8) (1) Value of power (80 = 1 and 81 = 8)

8 8 01 Powers

4 7 Base 8 number

= (4 * 8) + (7 * 1)
= 32 + 7
= 3910

Base 10 to base 16 conversion (decimal to hexadecimal)

The procedure is as used for base 10 to base 2 conversion, but one divides by 16. Any
remainders from 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 are assigned A, B, C, D, E and F
respectively.

Example:
23410 = ? 16

1 23 R
6 4
1 14 10
6
1 0 14
6
= EA16

Base 16 to base 10 (hexadecimal to decimal)

The procedure is as used for base 2 to base 10, but powers of 16 are assigned to the
digits. The other procedures follow those followed base 2 to 10 conversion.
Example:
EA16 = ?10
(16) (1) Value of power (160 = 1 and 161 = 16)
161 160 Powers

E A Base 16 number
14 10
= (16 * 14) + (1 * 10)
= 224 + 10

= 23410

Binary Fractions
It is also possible to represent values as fractions using binary in computers. We have
the bits following the decimal point e.g. .01, is a binary fraction. We can derive the
decimal equivalent using the power of two, starting from 2-1 2-2 2-3, etc.

Example: .0112

(½1) (½2) (½3)

2-1 2-2 2-3
0 1 1

2
 = (½ * 0) + (¼ *1) + (1/8 * 1)
= (.5*0) + (.25*1) + (.125*1)
= 0 + .25 + .125
= .37510

Computer Arithmetic
The ALU of the CPU performs arithmetic functions when data is in the form of binary
digits. Common arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.

Binary addition rules

0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0 carry 1
e.g.
a) 1100 b) 11011 c) 11100 d ) 10001
+0111 + 1111 + 1111 +1001
10011 101010 101011 11010

Binary subtraction rules

0 - 0 = 0
1 - 0 = 1
1 - 1 = 0
0 - 1 = 0 borrow 1

a) 1000 b) 110 c) 110

- 111 -010 -011
0001 100 011

Binary subtraction is always complicated especially when it comes to borrowing. As a

result, a computer is designed in such a way that there is an easier way of representing
all negative numbers such that instead of performing the subtraction process we will
perform addition using the negative values.
The common ways of representing negative numbers in computers are:

1) One’s Complement:
Given a binary representation of a number, to find one’s complement, we
replace where there is a 0 by a 1 and where there is a 1 by a 0. The result
will be a negative representation of that number in binary form. We can
represent the first 16 digits using one’s complements:

Decim Bina One’s

al ry Complem
ent
0 0000 1111
1 0001 1110
2 0010 1101

2
 3 0011 1100
4 0100 1011
5 0101 1010
6 0110 1001
7 0111 1000
8 1000 0111
9 1001 0110
10 1010 0101
11 1011 0100
12 1100 0011
13 1101 0010
14 1110 0001
15 1111 0000

One’s complement is a violation of mathematics because 0 takes both a positive value

(0000) and a negative value (1111). 0 must always remain neutral. This calls for two’s
complement.

Two’s complement
This method improves on one’s complement. We can obtain two’ complement through
two techniques:

Technique 1
Add 1 to one’s complement bit pattern and the result becomes two’s complement as
shown below:

Decim Bina One’s Two’s

al ry Complem Complem
ent ent
0 0000 1111 0000
1 0001 1110 1111
2 0010 1101 1110
3 0011 1100 1101
4 0100 1011 1100
5 0101 1010 1011
6 0110 1001 1010
7 0111 1000 1001
8 1000 0111 1000
9 1001 0110 0111
10 1010 0101 0110
11 1011 0100 0101
12 1100 0011 0100
13 1101 0010 0011
14 1110 0001 0010
15 1111 0000 0001

Technique 2
This is applied to the original binary pattern as follows:

2
 -From the bit pattern, find the first 1 from the right (least significant digit) of
the pattern
-That 1 (i.e. the first 1 you encounter) does not change.
-The remainder bits to the left of the first 1 encountered will change, i.e. where
there was a 1
there will be a 0 and where there was a 0 there will be a 1. The following
diagram illustrates:

Decim Bina Two’s

al ry Complem
ent
0 0000 0000
1 0001 1111
2 0010 1110
3 0011 1101
4 0100 1100
5 0101 1011
6 0110 1010
7 0111 1001
8 1000 1000
9 1001 0111
10 1010 0110
11 1011 0101
12 1100 0100
13 1101 0011
14 1110 0010
15 1111 0001

The result of performing an addition using two’s complement can produce an extra bit
such that the result seems to be bigger than the two values. This extra bit will not be
accommodated in the available space as part of the result. This extra bit is called
the Arithmetic Overflow.

E.g. 1011 (11) 1011

-0111 (7) 1001 + 1001
1 0100 (4)
2’s complement
Overflow bit
(Not included in the answer)

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA / LOGIC (ARITHMETIC)

A Boolean is a variable which can take values True or False, Yes or No, On or Off or 1
or 0. In computers, execution is done using Boolean expressions which when
evaluated will take a value of all the possible values in Boolean.
NB
Since computers use 1s and 0s a value 1 will have a representation of True, Yes or On;
while a 0 will be represented by a false, No or Off.

A computer is always constructed in such a way that Boolean variables will take some

2
input values and perform some operations to produce some results. The Boolean
variables are manipulated by operators, which are designed in a computer to form a
general table (truth table), which shows all possible input values as well as the results
depending upon the type of functions to be done on the inputs. There are 3 common
functions commonly used to construct a truth table namely OR, AND and NOT. The
following tables summarize possible inputs taken by Boolean variables as well as
outputs depending on the operations.

OR Function
It operates by combining at least 2 input variables to provide a single output. The
result is always a 1 or true, if at least one of the input values is a 1 otherwise it is a
0. To derive the output the OR function uses the following rules:

0 OR 0 = 0 (False OR False = False)

0 OR 1 = 1 (False OR True = True)
1 OR 0 = 1 (True OR False = True)
1 OR 1 = 1 (True OR True = True)

E.g., If A and B are Boolean variables we can derive a truth table using the OR
function as follows:

Inputs Output
A B A OR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

IF we have 3 input variables the following will be the truth table.

A B C Output
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

AND Function

It operates by combining 2 or more logic input values to produce a single output. This
result is always a 1 or True if both inputs are 1s otherwise it is False or 0. It uses
the following rules:
0 AND 0 = 0 (False AND False = False)
0 AND 1 = 0 (False AND True = False)
1 AND 0 = 0 (True AND False = False)
1 AND 1 = 1 (True AND True = True)

E.g., If A and B are Boolean variables we can derive a truth table using the AND

2
function as follows:
Inputs Output
A B A AND B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

IF we have 3 input variables the following will be the truth table.

A B C A AND B AND C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

NOT Function

This operates by taking a single input value producing a single result. It has the effect
of changing values of inputs to their opposite using the following rules.

0 = 1 (0 equals Not 0)
1 = 0 (1 equals Not 1)

In most cases it is used to change the result of the expression derived using AND or
OR
E.g., The following truth tables illustrate the NOT function:

A B NOT A NOT B (NOT A) OR (NOT B)

0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0

A B NOT A NOT B (NOT A) AND (NOT B)

0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0

Boolean Expressions

A Boolean expression is one made up of Boolean variables. One variable will be on

the left side of “=” while more variables will be on the right of “=” and are joined
together by either of the three functions, i.e. OR, AND and NOT. The following is an
example of a Boolean Expression:

2
 Y = A OR B
X = NOT (A OR (NOT B))

Truth tables are usually used to express Boolean Expressions

E.g. P = (A AND B) OR (NOT (A OR B))

A B A AND B A OR B NOT (A OR B) P
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1

NB:
The OR can be represented as “v” or as “+” e.g. A + B; A v B means A OR B
The AND can be represented as “^” or as “.” e.g. A ^ B; A.B means A AND B
The NOT can be represented as “-” or as “~” e.g. A ; ~A means NOT A

Questions

1. Using a truth table or otherwise prove that the expression

NOT (A OR B) not = (NOT A) OR (NOT B)
2. Construct a table to represent the following expressions
Y = (A AND B) OR (B AND C) OR (C AND A)
Z = NOT ((A AND B) AND (B OR C))
P = (NOT A) AND A AND (NOT B) OR C

LOGIC GATES AND DIAGRAMS

Since a computer uses logic of 1 and 0. It has to be manufactured in such a way that
there are devices which function is such away that they have to take the logical values.
They are called logic gates. If one or more logic gates are combined they produce a
logic diagram, which represents the whole computer system. The logic gates are
constructed using chips. The 3 Boolean functions OR, AND, and NOT are represented
by the following symbols as functions gates:

OR Function Gate

Y = A OR B OR C

A
B Y
C

A B C A OR B OR C (Y)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1

2
 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

AND Function Gate

Y = A AND B
A
Y
B

A B A AND B (Y)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NOT Function Gate

A NOT A

51
Logic diagrams can be constructed from any Boolean Expression e.g., given:

Y = (A OR B) AND NOT C. The Logic Diagram will be:

B Y

Construct logic diagrams for the following Boolean expressions:

a. K = A AND (NOT B)
OR C
b. L = (C OR NOT B)
AND (C OR NOT A)
c. P = (A AND B) OR C
d. Z = NOT (NOT (A OR

2
 B OR C) AND C)

Other Logic Gates

To reduce the complexity of a circuit diagram in a computer some gates were

developed which include:

1) NAND Gate
This can be considered as an AND followed by a NOT operation. It has 2 or more
inputs. The gate functions in such a way that the output is always a 0 only if input
variables are all 1s otherwise it is 1. It uses the following symbol:

A C
B

A B A AND B A AND B (C)

0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

2) NOR Gate
Can be considered as an OR function followed by a NOT operation. It has 2 or more
inputs producing 1 output. The output is always a 0 if at least 1 of the inputs is a 1
otherwise it is a 1.

A
C
B

A B A OR B A NOR B
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

2
3) EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR)
Is also called the Equivalent operation with two inputs only and one output. It
is represented by the following symbol:

A C
B

It operates using the following principle: The output is 1 only if either, but,
not both inputs are 1 i.e. output is 1 if inputs are different, otherwise it is 0.

A B A XOR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

These three gates can be used to simplify any given circuit diagram. Given the
following circuit diagram, it can be simplified using the three logic gates:

X = NOT (NOT (P AND Q) AND R )

(UNSIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM)

Q
X

(SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM)

Q X

COMPUTER ADDITION UNITS

All computers do addition using hardware. The logic circuit which forms the hardware
used for addition is called ADDER. It uses rules of binary addition as follows.

INPUT OUTPUT SUM CARRY

0+0 0 0

2
 0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1

If you observe the sum of the output and carry we can see the following:
1) The sum column can be produced by the EXCLUSIVE on gate
2) The carry column can be produced by the AND gate.
It is now possible to design a logic circuit diagram to represent binary addition of this
nature. Such a unit is called a HALF-ADDER, which can be represented by the
following diagram.

A
SUM (SUM = A XOR B)
B

CARRY (CARRY = A AND B)

The diagram is called the HALF – ADDER since the carry is not contributing to the
sum implying that addition has been done halfway. This addition unit will need an
improvement such that a carry from the previous sum should continue to the overall
sum, thus completing the addition process. The product can be represented by a circuit
diagram called a full–adder i.e. a combination of 2 half adders to produce a complete
addition unit. What-ever the carry produced in a full adder will be taken as arithmetic
overflow.

THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM REPRESENTS A FULL ADDER.

A
B
C p

P = C XOR (A XOR B)
P = SUM
Q = CARRY
C = Previous carry from A AND B

Chapter Questions

1) Every numbering system has at least two attributes:

Absolute value and Positional Value. Describe the two
terms using at least two numbering systems of your
choice.
2) Convert 230110 to bases 2, 8 and 16
3) Convert 3AC16 to base 10, 2 and 8

2
 4) What is the value of 60288 in base 2, 10 and 16?
5) Carry out addition and subtraction operations on the
following pairs of numbers:
a) 100012 and 11112
b) 70058 and 101112
c) DF5A16 and 98710
d) 10000112 and 6548

6) Given 100 111 111 101 and 111 101 111 101

a)
Add the two using both half adder and full
adder. Explain the differences in results.
b) Draw a logical diagram for the Boolean
Expression NOT (NOT (A AND (NOT B)) OR (C OR
(B OR A)))
Construct a truth
c) as table for: C AND (NOT A) OR (NOT C) AND
((NOT B) AND A)
7) From the following Logic Diagram, create a Boolean
Expression and a Truth Table.

What will be the result if A was 1 and B was 0 AND C

was 1 in:
a) (NOT A) OR ((A AND (NOT B)) XOR C

b)

C.B + A.C + B + A

CHAPTER 8
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Classification of Computers

Computers can be classified according to many categories as follows:

1. By size

2
 Mainframe, Minicomputer and microcomputer
2. Basic types
a) DIGITAL: So called because they process data that is represented in the
form of discrete values by operating on it in steps. Counting on one’s
fingers is an example of a simple digital operation.
b) ANALOG: Process data in the form of electrical voltages, in similar
principle to thermometer that has pointers on circular dials. Output is in
the form of smooth graphs from which information can be read.
c) HYBRID: Have combined features of both analogue and digital

3. Purpose
a) Special Purposes: Designed for a particular job only, i.e. to solve
problems of a restricted mature e.g. in digital watches, petrol pumps,
pocket calculators, etc.
b) General Purpose: designed to solve a wide variety of problems. Can
be adapted to perform particular tasks or solve problems by means of
specially written programs.
NB – the above distinction is not clear-cut, as a general purpose can
become a special purpose by adaptation.

4. By Use
a) Word Processors
Used in the production of office documents such as letters and contacts.

b) Home Computer
Low cost microcomputer for domestic use and used to do such things as
playing computer games and controlling family finances.

c) Personal Computer
Microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work
or in the home mainly for business. Some are portable and can be
interlinked to minicomputer systems.

d) Desk Top
Any computer for use on a desk in an office environment. Home and
PCs are desktop computers.

e) Work Station
A desktop computer that has advanced features not found on PCs.
These include included in-built capabilities for their connection and
operation in conjunction with other computers and for them to process
pictorial data as well as text.

f) Laptop
It is sufficiently small to be used on the lap. Operates on mains or using
rechargeable batteries. It is small enough to fit in a brief case.

g) Embedded
Is within some other devices or system e.g. watch, petrol pump,
cameras, videos, recorders, and many types of domestic and industrial
equipment.

2
5. Computer Generations
The Ladder of Computer languages

People

AI languages 5th GL

Application Generator 4th GL

High Level Language 3rd GL

Communication

Barrier

Low Level Language 2nd GL

Machine code 1st GL

Computers

1st GENERATION (1GL)

Early computers using electronic valves (1940s). These were associated with machine
code, the base level language of operation of a computer. All instructions are written
as a series of 1s and 0s. Each processor has its own set of operation codes, so that
machine code programs written for one processor could not be used on another. This
machine dependent method of programming using machine code is referred to as 1st
generation language, 1GL.

2nd GENERATION (2GL)

More reliable computers using transistors which replaced 1st generation computers
(1950’s). To make programming easier each operation code was given an English like
tag such as ADD or SUB for the code to add or subtract values. These codes are called
Mnemonic codes. It now became easier to remember, LD short for Load rather than
the binary code 0000010. Mnemonic versions of machine code instructions came to be
called Assembly Language. For the processor to understand the codes, however, they
had to be translated into binary. At first this was done manually but later a special
program, an Assembler, was developed to translate assembly language instructions
into their machine code equivalent, automatically. The term Low Level is often
applied to Assembly Language. Programming was still laborious since it was
necessary to define every individual operation a processor was to do. It is used to
produce operating system routines that run faster than those produced by other
programming methods. The major problem is that these are machine oriented and that
programs written on one type of computer cannot be used on some other type of
computers.

3rd GENERATION (3GL)

More powerful, reliable and compact computers using simple integrated circuits
(1960-70). Associated with these was the development of Third Generation Language.
They also came to be called High Level Languages. These were meant to distance the

2
programmer from the individual operation of the processor. They are also called
Problem Oriented Languages (POLs). They reflect the type of problem solved rather
than the features of the machine. They use English language e.g. additional of 2
numbers is a single statement i.e. c = b + a, this single instruction would have required
several machine code instructions. This enabled the development of languages geared
towards particular areas e.g. science, mathematics or business. The emphasis was on
application area rather than the computer and this provided a means on which
programs would , in theory be made to be portable between different computers. This
is achieved by a special type of software that translates the source language program
into a particular processor’s own machine code. Examples of high-level languages are
C, BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, etc.

4th GENERATION (4GL)

The computers in use today. These are associated with 4th generation languages. Also
called Application or Program Generators. Given an outline of the application you
wish to create, they produce the detailed program code. They are not, in essence,
languages but aid or help 3rd GLs in the production of programs, e.g. Structured Query
Languages. In these languages statements are expressed in the way that indicates what
result is required without specifying how the result will be obtained. Some 4GLs use
MENU driven interfaces.
E.g.

SELECT name, account-no, account-bal

FROM client-file
WHERE account-bal > = 100

5th GENERATION (5GL)

These systems converse with people in a human like manner and are able to mimic
human senses, manual skills and intelligence. Also called Artificial Intelligent (AI) or
Non-procedural languages. Unlike in standard high levels languages, where
programming involves telling the computer, both the precise order in which
instructions are to be carried out and where to store results. Programming is a matter
of defining rules, relationships and variables that apply to a problem e.g. Prolog

Translation Programs
Are a special class of software designed to convert source programs into machine
code. Instructions to be translated are called source code which on translation
becomes object code, a machine code version of the original instruction. There are 2
main types of translation software:

Programs that produce a machine code version of an entire source code,

called new version translates.
Programs that translate and execute one line of the source program at a time,
called one line translates.

New version translators also called compilers. They convert high-level language into
machine code, with the result that at the end of the compilation process there will be at
least two versions of the same program. This is similar to a situation where one has
got the Shona and English versions of the book ‘Pfumo Reropa’.

Low Level Translation

Use a translation program called an assembler that produces an assembled version of

2
source code. Compilers and assemblers perform a number of checks on the source
code before translation. These include syntax and program structure checks. Errors in
the programmer’s logic will be picked up only when the program is tested. The main
advantage of compilers and assemblers is that they produce efficient machine code
versions of source code that operates much faster than one line translated programs.
One-line translators convert and execute each line of the original program, so that no
version is produced. This type of translator is called an interpreter and is usually
associated with high-level languages.

Interpreter
Are useful because the effect at small changes in the source code is seen immediately
since compilation is avoided. There is no need to recompile after every change when
developing programs. This speeds up the development process. The disadvantage is
that the program executed through interpretation is not very efficient in operation,
because every time the program needs to be run, it has to be translated. The program
is many times slower than a compiled program.

Comparison between the interpreter and compiler translation programs

Source Code

Compiler Program
Interpreter Program (New version Translator)
(One Line Translator) Translator

Single line of Object Code Object

code version of
Program Translated Entire
program
into object code
Produced

Each line is executed Object code version

as it is translated translated as whole

2
Chapter Questions
1) Computer can be classified by size, by purpose, by
use and by generations. Describe each category.
2) Why are translation programs required in programming?
3) Explain the operation of compilers, assemblers and
interpreters.
4) Define the following terms:
a) Source program
b) Object program
c) Syntax error
d) Logic error
e) Runtime error
5) Cite situations where Fifth generation languages are
used. What advantages do they have over Third
generation languages?
6) Why has programming become “everybody’s business”
unlike in the early days of computing?

CHAPTER 9
DATA FILES & FILE ORGANISATION

Types of files
a) Document (text) file: Those that contain text e.g. letters, reports, essay, etc.
The records may not necessarily have key fields.

b) Program file: A file in which the data held in the file is some item of software
such as a simple program or collection of program parts (modules)

c) Input and output files: formed from source documents or files holding
processed data awaiting output.

d) Work file: A file created during an intermediate stage of processing.

e) Scratch file: A file no longer needed which may be over written.

f) Data file: A file containing data that need to be processed.

g) Backup file: A duplicate of working file.

A File: Is a collection of related records for example a product, student or customer

file.

A Record Is a collection of data items that pertains to a single area of interest such
as a particular entity e.g. customer record, student record or product
record.

A Field Is an item of data within a record e.g. customer name, date of birth.

2
A Character Is an alphabetic, numeric or special symbol e.g. a, 2, 1, +.

The Relationships of a file and subordinates:

File

Record Record Record

Field Field Field

Character Character Character

Master Files:
These are files of a fairly permanent nature e.g. payroll, customer or student file.
Master records contain both data of statistic nature e.g. a customer name and address;
and dynamic data that changes each time a transaction occurs, e.g. if the customer is
buying on credit terms, when a payment is made or a purchase is made for his
particular balance field is updated to show the current status of his account.

Movement File (Translation File)

Made up of various transactions created from source documents e.g. a sales file will
contain all sales or orders received at a particular time. It is used to update the master
file and soon after this, it is no longer required, therefore has a short life.

Reference File
File with a reasonable amount of permanency e.g. price list, table of rate of pay, tax
tables and so on.

Two Views of Looking at Files

Logical files: Represents “what” data items their records contain and “what”
processing operations will be done on the data.

Physical files: Represents “how” the data is stored on a storage medium and “how”
the processing operations are made possible.

FILE PROCESSING
Processing activities encompass the following.

Updating
When data on master record is changed to reflect the current position e.g. for a

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customer, the current account status will either reflect an increase or decrease
depending on the transaction that would have transpired i.e. deposit or withdrawal.

Referencing
To ascertain what is contained there in. No alterations are involved on the record.

File Maintenance
This involves the addition of records to or deletion of records from file e.g. when a
new customer becomes an entity within our records or when we delete a redundant
record. Changes to static data elements in also file maintenance.

File Enquiry or Interrogation

This is a procedure for determining the authenticity of information especially when a
query relating to that information has been raised say by a customer e.g. concerning a
statement sent to him.

Sorting
This is the arrangement or rearrangement of records of files either for processing or as
preliminary procedure before producing a particular report.

Merging
The combination of records into a unitary form either from two or more files so as to
present a consolidated picture of what has transpired.

Searching
This is a procedure to establish where a record exists in a file or not, and may be a
procedure that is carried out before other file processing operations.

File Organisation
Refers to the physical arrangement of a file’s records on a storage medium. This can
take any of the four distinct types are shown below:

Serial Organisation
The records are stored on the storage medium on a first come first served
basis. There is no distinct order of the records according to the record keys:

10 11 10 12 10 11
7 5 1 0 4 0

Sequential Organisation
In sequential organisation, records are arranged according to their record keys.
The records are placed on storage medium in ascending or descending order of
the record keys as shown below:

10 10 10 11 11 12
1 4 7 0 5 0

Indexed Sequential Organisation

The records are still organised sequentially but are grouped under an index
key as shown below:

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 A 10 10 10 B 11 11 12
1 4 7 0 5 0

Random Organisation
Records are scattered similar to Serial organisation, but each record has its
own address which is used to access the record, as shown below:

1 2 3 4 5 6
10 11 10 12 10 11
7 5 1 0 4 0

Writing Records on Tape

Organization of a file on tape is a matter of placing records one after another.

Three Possible Arrangements

Serial
Records are written onto tape without there being any relationship between the record
keys. Unsorted transaction words would form such a file.

Sequential
Records are written on to tape in sequence according to record keys e.g. master files
and sorted transaction file

Indexed sequential
Records are written on to tape sequentially but with a number of records falling under
a particular index.

Tape File Access

Serial files
They are accessed serially i.e. records are read into the main storage one after the other
in the order they occur on the tape.

Sequential files
The method used is still serial, but the file is now in sequence and the term sequential
is used. Records are accessed according to record keys one after the other i.e. in order
of ascending or descending order of record keys. To process a sequential master file,
the transaction file must also be in the order of the master file. Access is achieved by
first reading the transaction file then the master to match records, using records keys.
If the 20th record needs to be updated then 19 other records have to be read first.

NB: Limited methods of file organisation and access on tape have lead the tape to
become much of a storage medium for offline data and backup, and much less as an
online medium for storage of master files

Updating Magnetic Tape Files

The method is to form a new master file on a new reel of tape each time the updating
process is carried out. Updating of master files held on tape goes as follows:

1) Transaction and master files must be in the same sequence.

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2) Transaction record is read to main storage.
3) Master record is read to main storage and written straight out again on the new
reel of tape if it does not match the transaction. Successive records from
master file are read and written out until the record matching the transaction is
reached.
4) Master record is then updated in main storage and written out in sequence on
the new reel. The four steps are repeated until all the master records for which
there is a transaction have been updated. The result is the creation of a new reel
of tape containing the records that did not change and records that have been
updated. The new reel will be used on the next updating run.

File Security on Tape

Refer to ancestral files (refer to Chapter 3)

Magnetic Tape File Maintenance

Maintenance involves:

a) Removing or adding records to magnetic tape

Removing a record entails leaving it off the carried forward tape reel. Adding records
entails writing the new records on the carry forward tape reel in their correct sequence.
Variable length records present no problems when up-dating or maintaining files
because there are no constrains on the size of the record that can be written on to tape.
Fixed length records have problems because new records may have bigger fields.

b) Amending static data in a record e.g. customer name and address.

FILE LABELS
There are generally two label records. One comes at the beginning and the other comes
at the end.

a) Header label:
The first record and its main function is to identify the file. It contains the
following data.

1) A specified field to identify the particular record as a label.

2) File name e.g. payroll, stock, etc.
3) Date written
4) Purge date: This is the date when data can be over written.

The label will be checked by the program before the file has been processed to ensure
that the correct tape reel has been mounted.

b) Trailor label
Comes at the end of the file and contains:
1) As in the header label in 1)
2) A count of the number of records in a file. This will be checked against
the total
accumulated by the program during processing.
3) Reel number if the file takes more than one reel.

Blocking Records
Gaps created between records represent:

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 1. Wasted space
2. Unproductive time spent by tape unit in slowing down and accelerating
between each write and read operation.

These problems can be reduced by blocking records. Thus a single write or read results
in many records being written or read. The area of main storage used to hold
individual blocks when they are read-in a written-out is called a buffer. Number of
records making up the block is known as the blocking factor.
e.g. the blocking factor is 4 below:
Unblocked records

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Inter-record gap (IRG)

If each space takes 1mm, then 7mm will be wasted in storing the 8 records.
The wasted space will increase with an increase in the number of records
stored.

Blocked Records
1-4 5-8

Inter-block gap (IBG)

If each space takes 1mm, then only 1mm will be the wasted space for 8 records
compared to 7mm where records are not blocked

Access to Files
Once records have been stored, they will need to be accessed one day either for
updating or maintenance or some such other processes.

Key field: A unique identifier of a record or file. It may be called a Record Key. It is
one of the fields in a record and if it can be used to uniquely identify a record, then it is
called a primary key. An identifier can be made from two or more fields and in this
case it will be called a composite or compound key. Other fields which are not
unique identifiers are called secondary keys. Key fields used to access a record on
storage media .

File Characteristics
a. Hit rate: Refers to the rate of processing master file in terms of active records e.g. if
1000 transactions are processed everyday against a master file of 10000
records then hit rate is 10 which is a measure of the activity of the file.

b) Volatility: The frequency with which records are added or deleted from a file.

Frequency Description
High Highly Volatile
Low Semi-static
Fixed Static

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c) Size & Growth: Amount of the data stored in file. It is expressed in terms of
number of characters or records. This must be planned for. Files can expand
with the growth of the business and the storage chosen must be expandable so
that data processing won’t be adversely affected.

Writing on Disks
This disk must be loaded into a disk unit. Records are written onto the disk as it
resolves at a constant speed within its unit. Data goes from main storage through a
read-write head onto a track on the disk surface. Records are written or recorded one
after the other on each track.

Reading from Disk

Records are read from the disk as it revolves at a constant speed. The record goes
through the read-write head to main storage, from where they are displayed on the
screen on printed out.

Cylinder concept
This is a result of having a number of disks within a pack. Common types are the
‘6disk’ pack and ‘11 disk’ pack. The former having 10 recording surfaces and the
latter 20 recording surfaces. There is a read/write head for each surface. All read/write
heads are fixed to one access mechanism. When the access mechanism moves all the
10 or 20 read/write heads move in unison across the disk surface. One movement of
the access mechanism give access to 10 or 20 tracks of data. Records are written
starting with track 1 on surface 1 then track 1 on surface 2 until track 1 on the last
surface. Conceptually, the 10 to 20 tracks from a cylinder. Data is written onto
successive cylinders involving one movement only of the access mechanism for each
cylinder. Each disk pack will normally have 200 cylinders. A cylinder is also called
the seek area.

Hard and Soft Sectored Disks

Soft sectored disks have sectors that may vary in length. The sector size and position
are software controlled hence the name. Hard sectored disk have sectors of fixed
length, which range from 8-128 characters. The sector size and position are
predetermined by hardware hence the name.

Basic Address Concept

A disk is a direct access device and therefore a record can be accessed independently
of other records. To enable records to be located, the record must have an address.
This is achieved because the disk is divided into small partitions e.g.
a) Cylinder which is the major division
b) Track which is a part of the cylinder. Each cylinder is composed of a number of
tracks.
c) Block is the smallest addressable part of a disk. it forms the unit of transfer
between the disk and
main storage.
d) Bucket this is where the size of the block is fixed (i.e. when disk is hard sectored),
a number of blocks (Sectors) are grouped to form a larger unit of transfer called a
bucket or a logical block. The block or bucket or sector is therefore the unit of
input or output on disk. As on tape records can be combined. The optimum size
for a block or a bucket is determined by:

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 a) The need to optimise fillage of a track.
ii) The need to minimize the number of transfers between main and
disk storage. The bigger the block the more records are transferred
into main memory.
2) The need to economize in the use of main storage, bigger blocks
occupy bigger space.

The address of a record can be given as

a) Cylinder number
b) Track number
c) Block number

E.g. an address like 1900403 implies that the cylinder number is 190, tracks number is
4 and block number is 3

Access Time
This is the time interval between the moment a command is given to transfer data from
disk to main storage and the moment the transfer is completed.
This is made up of:

a) Seek time: This is the time the access mechanism takes to position itself at the
appropriate cylinder

b) Rotation delay: Time taken for the bucket to position it self under the
read write head.

c) Data transfer time: Total time taken to read the contents of the bucket into
main storage.

File Organisation on Disk

There are four (4) basic methods of organisation:
a) Serial
b) Sequential
c) Index sequential
d) Random: There are no definite relationships between the record keys. A
mathematical formula is applied in the addressing procedures.

Access of Records on Disk

a) Serial
b) Sequentially
c) Index sequential/Selective Sequential
d) Direct

Updating of Disk Files

Since individuals records on disk are addressable, it is possible to write back an update
record to the same place from which it was read, thus an overwrite is effected called
“updating in place” or “overlay”. The process goes as follows:
a) Transaction is read into main storage.
b) Appropriate master record is located on disk and read into main storage.
c) Master record is updated into main storage.
d) Master “in updated from” is written from main storage to its original location. This
is done using the address system especially for sequential and random files. With

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serial files, the updating principle applied to tape applies here or can be written on to
different location on the same disk. Back up is by keeping a duplicate copy of the
master file.

File Maintenance on Disk

Updating is by using the overlay method. If a longer record than the original is put in
place of the original, available space may not accommodate the new record. Usually
an overflow area is included to cater for this. The address of the location of the
overflow area will be contained in the main area or home area.

File Reorganisation
When records in the over flow area increase this will affect efficiency in terms of
access time, thus reorganisation will be necessary so that a record is written in one
place. This reorganisation will mean rewriting the file or record on to a new disk or
using disk defragmentation program..

Label and Control Totals

As on tape: Header and Trailer labels

DATA BASES

A Data Base is a collection of records or files that have been organised to enable them
to be easily retrieved e.g. telephone directory. The traditional approach to the storage
of information involves the keeping of discrete applications each of them having a set
of files. This method has a number of loopholes and a high degree of redundancy e.g.
customer account may contain half the details of a stock account. It was from this
situation which made it paramount to come up with the idea of a DATA BASE or
“Central Accessing Point” from which the organisation’s applications depend-on for
all their information requirements.

Advantages of Data Base

Consistency of data When a data item is updated its up-to-date value is available to
all applications instantly. This ensures that the data used by the
department is correct and consistent.

Less data proliferation This means that one copy of each data item is kept thus
element data duplication.

Ease of setting up new applications

When a new application is agreed upon, much of the data is
already database. Extending the database to provide a new
interface is probably quicker than starting from scratch.

Easier security monitoring

All access to the database are via a centralised system, a
uniform system of security that enables a tighter control of
access to the database.

Disadvantages of Data Base

a) A corrupted database means the whole organisation’s information needs will

be affected.

2
b) Costly became has to be duplicated i.e. must have interrupted handling
facilities or capability.
c) Requires a large software system to create and maintain the whole system of
database and a fairly large computer to support it. This is in contrast to the
current tendency towards small software and the modern distributed systems.
d) Specialists needed.

Applications: Banking, telecommunications, estate agents, police, computer dating,

etc.

Chapter Questions
1) Name five (5) types of files and describe each
briefly.
2) Relate the following terms: record key, key field,
file, record, field, character and bit
3) How do master files differ from transaction files?
4) File processing operations may involve the following:
(a) Updating (b) Maintenance (c) Referencing
(d) Enquiry/Interrogation (e) Merging
(f) Sorting (g) Searching
Explain what is involved in each operation.
5) With the aid of diagrams show four methods of file
organisation, describe each and explain the methods
of access applicable to each. Which situations would
suit each and why?
6) A database system has advantages and disadvantages.
a) Define the term database
b) What the advantages of a database over the
storage of files as separate entities?
c) What problems may result in a database system
setup?

CHAPTER 10
DATA COMMUNICATION

DATA TRANSMISSION TERMINOLOGY

Data Transmission
The movement of data from one location to another can be by post, messenger or
courier services but today it normally refers to the movement of data and information
by electronic telecommunications systems. Electronic telecommunications make the
transmission faster than the traditional forms. The basic components of the system
are:

a) Central computer
b) Terminal devices
c) Telecommunication links between (a) and (b)

Source/ Channel/ Destination/

Sender Medium Receiver

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A source is the origin of data or information. A medium is the path along which data
or information moves. Receiver is the mechanism that receives data or information.

Serial transmission:
This is a mode of transmission in which each bit in a character code is transmitted
separately and sequentially. The least significant bit is transmitted first and the
transmission speed is expressed in bits per second (Baud Rate). Its advantage is that it
can transmit data over long distances. Its disadvantage is that the speed of transmission
is very slow as it uses a narrow band channel. The following diagram illustrates:
2nd bit transmission

3rd bit transmission 1st bit transmission

Stop bit Start bit

1 1 1 0 0 01 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 01 1 110 00 1 011 10 0 01 1 11 0 1

One-path channel
Character code with Varying Time intervals Fixed time
intervals
stop & start bits between character codes between bits

Parallel Transmission
All bits in the character code are transmitted simultaneously. Its advantage is that the
speed of transmission is much faster as a whole character is transmitted at one go. Its
disadvantage is that the distance of transmission is short. The diagram below
illustrates:
1 1 1

0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
1 1
1
0 0

1 0 1

1 1 1

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 Many paths making
Data frame carried a broadband channel
as a complete set of bits
all at once.

Each digit occupies its sub-channel

Message Switching
This is the sending of a message along a communication link in its totality, i.e. the
whole message is sent in one continuous train until its end. A message, in data
transmission, may be a word or two in the conventional sense. For example, the
word baba may be considered a message. If message switching is being used, all the
four characters of baba will be sent from start to finish without stopping.

Packet Switching
This is the sending of a message in segments. The word baba, therefore can be sent in
two batches, i.e. ba is sent then the other ba is sent. This implies that we have two
transmissions to complete the transmission.

Circuit-division-switching
This implies sending the data, a character at a time, that is, if there are many devices
transmitting, each one will be given an opportunity to transmit single character before
giving the opportunity to another to transmit. This means no device is monopolising
the usage of the line as does message switching. However, it means that particular
device will be delayed in sending its total package of data. The word/message baba
will therefore be sent in four transmissions.

Transmission of data over telephone systems

The form of data generated by the computer or handled by the computer is in digital
form i.e., is represented in discrete values such as 1s and 0s. A telephone system
handles data in the analogue form or in highs and lows or in the form of waves. In
order to use the telephone link the digital signals of a computer must be converted into
analogue form. The reverse applies. This can effected by the use of a device that
change the analogue signals to digital signals and digital to analogue as required. This
is done by
f) Direct MODEM (Modulator/Demodulator) connects a computer
directly to a telephone line.
g) Internal Modem is a circuit board that is plugged into the internal
circuitry of a computer. It connects a computer to a telephone line
directly.
h) An Acoustic coupler Modem could be used. It s linked to a terminal
and has a special cradle that holds a standard telephone handset. It
processes audible analogue tones that pass through the receiver.
Telephone
System
Computer Computer
(Terminal) MODEM MODEM (Terminal)

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 Digital Analogue Digital
Signals Signals Signals

Data transmission is through

a) Public telephone system
b) Private telephone system
c) Permanently wired up data transmission lines instead of dial up line (often
leased/rented and speeds over 1000 characters/second.

Types of channels
A channel is a link by which dada or voice are transmitted between sending and
receiving devices in a network. these include twisted wire, coaxial cable, fibre
optics, terrestrial microwave, satellite and wireless transmission.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a means of using one line to transmit data from a number of separate
terminals at the same time. It reduces the cost of setting up many lines. The signals are
transmitted by a device called a Multiplexor and received by a Demultiplexor. The
following are the two forms of multiplexing:

a) Time Division Multiplexing

In this method, data is transmitted over a narrow band channel. Data from
different terminals is interleaved/alternated. This is illustrated below:

Terminal 1 Terminal 1.1

Terminal 2 Multiplexor T1 T2 T3 Multiplexor Terminal 2.1

Terminal 3 Terminal 3.1

Narrow Band Channel

b) Frequency Division Multiplexing

Terminal 1 Terminal 1.1

T1 (channel)
Terminal 2 Terminal 2.1
Multiplexor T2 (Channel) Multiplexor
T3 (channel)

Terminal 3 Terminal 3.1

Broad Band Main Channel

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Modes of Transmission
There are three modes of transmission. these are:

Simplex Transmission
Data/information moves in one direction only. One device is a receiver and the other
device is a receiver. The is possible with some terminals which just receive signals
from the computer, without them sending any signal to the computer in turn. Radio
and TV broadcasting falls in this category.

Transmitter/
Source/ Receiver/
Sender destination

Half Duplex
This mode of transmission involves devices that send and receiver data, i.e. they are
not only senders or receivers but they do both. They can send at one time and receive
at another. they cannot send and receive simultaneously. Some computer terminals can
use this mode of transmission. Two-way radio systems fall in this category.

Transmitter- Transmitter-
Receiver Receiver

Full Duplex
In this mode a device can send whilst receiving data/information. Some computer-to-
computer communication can use this mode of transmission.

Transceiver Transceiver

On-line Communication lines are directly connected to the computer either by a

multiplexor
Transmission: or interfaces, which scan the lines frequently checking for those ready
to send or receive data. when a line is ready to transmit, the scanning ceases and the
channel number is signalled to the processor. if the processor is available then
transmission begins.

Off-line The communication lines are not connected directly to the computer.
The data is Transmission physically moved to the processing centre. A variation of
this will have terminals connected to disk drives that gather/store information for a
period before transmitting that information to a computer. This is called a batch
processing system.

Asynchronous In this transmission, time intervals between characters are not fixed,

2
although the time Transmission intervals between consecutive bits within a character
are fixed. In order to enable the transceiver to recognize the tart of a character, a start
bit is transmitted first before each character. The start bit triggers the timing
mechanism in the receiving device, which counts the succeeding bits as a series of
time intervals. The stop signal resets the receiver ready for the next character. This
mode of transmission is used in slow speed devices. Characters are thus dispatched at
irregular intervals.

Synchronous Clocks, which keep in track with each other synchronized sending and
receiving
Transmission devices. Synchronisation is assured at the beginning of transmission by
means of special synchronisation characters, which align clocks at each terminal, i.e.
arrange things so that the source and receiver function simultaneously (in a
synchronous way). The systematic representation is as follows:

-Start and stop bits are necessary

-Data blocks can be sent at high speeds in one long bit stream with the
aid of this method.
-The receiver checks every 8 bits and considers echo group as one
character. It is used for high-speed digital transmission.

Front-end A computer dedicated to communications management e.g. error

control, formatting, processor: editing, controlling, routing, speed and signal
conversions.

Backend A computer system connected to the mainframe or host which links the
host to the Processor: database. Its purpose is the retrieval of data/information
from the database and storage of data or information to the database.

Protocol A statement that explains how a specific task will be performed, e.g.,
transferring data. In data electronic communications it refers to a set of rules that
governs the way in which two or more computers or devices communicate or pass
messages to each other. Common Protocols include http, ftp and TCP/IP.

Extranet: A private intranet accessible to select outsiders.

World A system for storing, retrieving, formatting and displaying information

using a
Wide client/server architecture, graphical user interfaces and a hypertext
language that
Web enables dynamic links to other documents. Other methods of accessing
information are character based, whereas as the Web combines text,
hypermedia, graphics and sound. Information is stored and displayed
as electronic pages that can contain text, graphics, animations, sound
and video.

Email: Electronic post that allows documents or messages to be exchanged

between individuals or organisations

Internet: International network of networks that is a collection of 200 000 private

and public networks. It has over 400 million users. It provides a number
of facilities which include the following:

2
 a) Communication and collaboration: This allows user to send
mail, transmit data and documents
b) Access information: Allows the search of documents,
databases, read electronic mail, brochures, manuals, books and
advertisements
c) Participate in discussions: Allows one to join interactive discussion
groups and allows primitive voice transmission
d) Obtain information: Allows the transfer of computer files of
text, computer prgrams, graphics animations and videos.
e) Find Entertainment: Allows the [playing of interactive video
games, view short video clips, read illustrated and even animated
magazines or books.
f) Exchange business transcations: Allows advertising, selling and
purchase of goods and services.

Client/ A model for computing that splits the processing between “clients” and
“servers”
Server model: on a network assigning functions to the machine most suited to
perform the function.

Client: User point-of-entry for the required function in a client/server

computing application. It is normally a desktop, workstation or laptop.

Server: A computer in a client/server network that satisfies some or all of the

user’s request for data and or functionality, such as storing and
processing stored data. Servers are generally optimised for network use
and have large memory and disk storage, high communication speed
and powerful CPUs. They enable users to share files, software,
peripheral devices and other network resources.

Surf: Navigate from web site to web site on world wide web. Web browsers
include Microsoft’s Internet Explorer And Netscape’s Navigator

Home page: A WWW text and graphical screen display that welcomes the user and
explains the organisation that has established the page. this page can
then lead to other pages containing information on the organisation. all
pages of the individual or organisation is called a Website.

Firewall: Hardware and software placed between an organisation’s internal

network and an external network to prevent outsiders from invading the
private networks.

Concentrator: Collects and temporarily stores messages from terminals until

enough messages are ready to be sent economically.

Controller: Specialised computer which supervises communication traffic between

the CPU and peripheral devices in telecommunications systems.

Multimedia: These are technologies that facilitate the integration of two or more
types of the media such as text, graphics, sound, voice, full motion
video, still video or animation into a computer based application
requirements for multimedia are:

2
 a. personal computer with a 32-bit processor
b. high resolution colour monitor
c. a high capacity hard disk drive
d. dvd/cd-rom disk drive

Uses include advertising of new consumer products andf services eg, electronic books
& newspapers, electronic classroom presentation technologies, full motion video
conferencing graphics design tools video and voice mail. WWW sites are multimedia.

Bandwidth: The capacity of a communications channel as measured by the

difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that can be
transmitted by that channel.

Baud: A change in signal from positive to negative or vice versa that is used as a
measure of transmission speed. Baud rate is not always the same as the bit rate
as at higher speeds. a single change can transmit more than one bit at a time.

Chapter Questions

1) What are the components necessary for data to be

transmitted between two distant places?
2) What do the following terms mean:
a) Serial transmission?
b) Parallel transmission?
c) Message Switching?
d) Packet Switching?
3) Describe the terms: Internet, email, World Wide Web,
and intranet.
4) Draw diagrams to show the configuration/structure of
systems that allow:
a) Transmission of data between points through the
use of modems
b) Time Division Multiplexing
c) Frequency Division Multiplexing
d) Parallel transmission of data
e) Transmission of data using Email services
5) Differentiate Synchronous from Asynchronous
transmission.
6) With examples, contrast a half duplex system from a
full duplex system.
7) The computing world is abuzz with jargon. Explain the
following terms used in computing:
(a) Teleconferencing (b) Videoconferencing
(c) Telecommuting (d) Multimedia
(e) Voice mail (f) Protocol
(g) Channel (h) Server
(i) Firewall (j) Search Engine
(k) Browser Software (l) Shareware

Chapter 11
Uses of Computers

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Hospitals
Used to keep patients’ records, on x-ray machines, keeping records of accounts
receivable and payable, records of patients’ insurance companies, records of those who
are unable to pay for the medical services provided to them, records of drug stocks,
medical statistics of diseases, monitoring patients who have undergone surgery, etc.

Police
Used for scanning fingerprints and photographs into the computer, faxes for the
transmission of photographs from one to other stations, keeping records of criminals,
radar (radio detecting and ranging) used for speed traps, etc.,

Airlines
Keeping of records of passengers
Reservations of passengers
Stock control
Checking of goods
Monitoring flights
Providing flight schedules, etc

Education
Used in interactive learning (computer aided instruction- cai), research, virtual
education, etc

Engineering
Used in fields such as vehicle inspection, robotics, computer aided manufacturing and
design

Banking
Used to check on credit worthiness of an individual, or organisation when one wants to
enter into a credit transaction with their bank or another organisation, accounts, lists of
credit cards, one’s financial status, records of loans, ATMs, etc

Humanity is more in battle with itself than it is with other beings. It

is this battle that spills over into the domain of others’ existence.
This battle emanates from the conflict between the purity of
conscience and the grave insatiable whims and passions of the mind.
N.C. Uta [2001]
For Ruru & Kudzie