Rift Valley: University

RIFT VALLEY
UNIVERSITY
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION
SYSTEM
Abel Birhane
2021
Prepared by :Abel.birhane 2021 1|Page

Chapter 1
Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom
Data
Collection of raw facts and figures about people, objects, situation and incidents obtained from
experiments or surveys, used as a basis for making calculations or drawing conclusions
Information
is a collection of meaningful facts and figures that can be used as a base for guidance and decision-
making. Any fact or figure is not necessarily information. To call it information, it has to be useful and
meaningful for you (individual, group, organization, or society).
The Characteristics of Valuable Information
1. Accurate: Information must be free from errors.

2. Completeness: Information has to contain all the important facts that have needed to perform the
required processing and what you want to know.
3. Relevance: Information must be related to the desired performed or useful to what youre trying to do.
4. Timely: Information has to be delivered at the right time.
5. Costly: Information which is the investment to produce them is low compared to profit that we will get.
6. Simple: Information that has been presented should be easy to understand
7. Security: Only authorized person is allowed to access the information.
Knowledge
1. general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles
2. clear awareness or explicit information, for example, of a situation or fact
3. all the information, facts, truths, and principles learned throughout time
4. familiarity or understanding gained through experience or study
Wisdom
1. the knowledge and experience needed to make sensible decisions and judgments, or the good sense
shown by the decisions and judgments made
2. accumulated knowledge of life or in a particular sphere of activity that has been gained through
experience
3. an opinion that almost everyone seems to share or express
4. ancient teachings or sayings
WHAT IS COMPUTER ?
A computer is defined as an electronic device that operates under the control of internally stored
instructions that can accept input, process data (both mathematical processes and logical processes),
produce output, and store the results. Basically, a computer transforms data into information.

Four Functions about computer are:
accepts data Input
processes data Processing
produces output Output
stores results Storage
1) Input
Data is input into the computer. input is the numbers, words, images, etc. that are given to the computer
during the input process. Data is input using Input Devices: keyboard, mouse, and joystick, touch
screens, etc.
2) Process
This is the manipulation of the data to create useful information. Data is processed very quickly within
the computer, within billionths of a second. Once the raw facts are processed into a meaningful form it is
called information. Computer processing is accomplished through the CPU (Central Processing Unit).
The CPU interprets the instructions for the computer. It performs all logical and arithmetical operations as
well as causes all input and output to occur. The CPU is contained on a Microprocessor chip.
Data Processing
Definition1: Data Processing can be defined as one or more operations performed on data to achieve a
desired objective
 Is the activity of converting raw facts [data] into information Therefore, Information is data that have
been processed using the data processing functions.
Functions of Data Processing
 Data Collecting
 Data Recording
 Sorting
 Classifying
 Calculating
 Storing and Retrieving
 Summarizing
 Communicating
Processing Methods
Information system uses two Processing Techniques
A. Batch processing:
 Where data to be processed is accumulated over a period of time. The accumulated batch of
transaction is processed periodically.
 Otherwise, Gathers transactions and saves them for processing all at once.
 Very efficient but always delay in Processing.
B. Real-Time Processing [ Online Processing ]
 Each transaction is processed as soon as it is received. There is no waiting to accumulate. Such as, a
computerized Reservation system where an immediate responsible is useful.
 Otherwise, by contrast, Process transaction as they occur, Ex: Air Line reservation system
3) Output
Output devices convert digital signals from the computer into a recognizable output. This is accomplished
via the monitor or the printer.

4) Storage
Auxiliary storage is used to permanently store information for future use. This storage is outside the
workings of the computer these are often called Secondary Storage devices. These include floppy
drives, hard drives, CD Roms, DVDs, etc.
What is Information Technology (IT)?

Information Technology is an interdisciplinary academic field that deals with the generation, collection,
organization, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of recorded knowledge whether in the form of numerical data,
text, sound, or image.
The three basic constituents of information technology are:
1. Technological devices (Computers): to accept, process, store, and present information
2. Communication networks: to allow information to be moved between points of communication. (A
network will be explained in detail later in this module); and
3. Know-how is the ability to draw on the power of IT to solve problems and to take advantage of the
opportunities it creates.
Computer operations are performed according to programmed logical and arithmetical rules. The arithmetical
element might be as simple as x + y = z. The logic will be something along the lines of if x + y does not equal z
then add 3 to x and try again.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be described by the following characteristics (advantages).
1, Storage : Computes can handle large amount of data. Once recorded, information can never be forgotten and
can be retrieved with a fraction of a second.
Its storage capacity is measured as follows:
 Bit = smallest information stored in a computer (0 or 1).
 Nibble = 4 bit
 Byte = character = 8 bits.
 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes.
 Petabyte (PB) = 1,024 TB
 Exabyte (EB) = 1,024 PB

2, Speed : Computers are very fast devices. They work at an incredible speed and perform millions of
calculations and comparisons in a second.
Its speed is measured by:
Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
Microsecond = 1/1000,000 of a second.
Nanosecond = 1/1000,000,000 of a second.
Pico second = 1/1000,000,000,000 of a second.
3, Accuracy: Computers are very accurate. They process vast amount of data in a very high speed without
committing errors. However, the computer is capable of doing what is instructed to do. If the input data is correct
and program instructions are reliable, then the output of a computer is accurate.
Errors can occur mainly due to humans incorrect input data, and program instructions with a problem. Computer
errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable program is often called garbage-in-garbage out (GIGO).
4, Diligence : Computers are not bored or become tired of performing many thousands of calculations
repeatedly. Human beings suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration, become sad, depressed,
bored and negligent; and it will reflect on the work they do. Moreover, humans cannot perform similar tasks over
and over, again and again with the same precision and accuracy.
5, Versatility : One of the most wonderful things about the computer is its versatility. A computer is capable of
performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
What are the limitations of computer?

 Can not think on its own
 Can not learn by experience
 Can not take independent decisions on its own.
 Requires human intervention for each any every step
Differences between Human Attitude and computer Attitudes
Human Computer
Can Think Cannot think by itself
Gets Mental Tiredness Never gets Tiredness
May do mistake Cant do mistake by itself
Has limited speed Very High Speed
Has limited Memory More Amount of memory
Accuracy may be missing Never missing
Ability of a Human to do anything a computer can do but a computer cannot do everything a human can do is
a true statement based on the following table.
Computer users
Computer users can be divided into five categories: home user, small office/home office users, mobile users, large
business users, and power users.
 A home user spends time on the computer for personal and business communications, budgeting and
personal financial management, entertainment, and Web access.

 A small office/home office (SOHO) user includes any company with fewer than 50 employees, as well
as self-employed people that work out of their home.
 A mobile user travels to and from a main office or school to conduct business, communicate, or do
homework.
 A large business user works for a company that has a large number of employees and computers usually
connected to a network.
A Brief History of the Computer

History and Development of Computer
The history of computers can be summarized as follows

Abacus
 Invented by Chinese some 5000 years back
 Assumed to be the first adding machine. It consisted of rows of beads in rectangular frame Beads
represent place holders and performs arithmetic operations
 It worked on the principle of place value notation
John Napier (1550-1617)
 Known for Napier bones used in multiplication and division
 It was an interpretation of the Abacus
 He also introduced the decimal points in computer usage
 He is also known for invention of logarithms
Blaise Pascal (French Mathematician)
 In 1642 invented the Pascaline calculator

 He also invented syringe and the Pascal law of pressure
Gottfried Leibniz
 In 1694, invented a calculator similar in intent to Pascaline but it uses stepped cylinders like a music box.
 It was used to handle all operations (addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication)
 Unfortunately, both Pascaline and this one were too complicated for mass production.
Joseph Jacquard
 Introduced punched card loom in 1801
 Workers were against its mass production due to fear of unemployment.
Charles Babbage
 produced the first commercial calculator in 1822
 “Difference engine”, steam powered, fully automatic
 He got support from British government.
ENIAC (1943-46) (Electronics Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was developed by University of
Pennsylvania
 Designed by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert
 a machine that filled a 30x 50 foot room and its weight was 30 tons.
 It had 18,000 vacuum tubes
 No internally stored program
 The first general purpose computer
EDVAC (1946-52) (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) and EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Computer) were also invented by the University.
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) (1951)
 Stored program concept was introduced
 First commercially available computer.
 UNIVAC was delivered to the bureau of the census in 1951 where it was used for tabulating census data.
 Was the first computer used for business data processing
 Some UNIVAC had the size of a grand piano and much more compact than the ENIAC
 Used RAM of 1000 words.
In 1954 IBM installed the first commercial computer, IBM 650.
 IBM’s dominance in the computer world began in 1960 due to introduction of its 1401 computer.
 This was followed by 370 series of computers in late 1960s
Generations of Computer
Generation in computer language is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of the computer
industry. The computer is often described as having gone through five distinct generations. Each of these
generations is based on the type of technology used during the period. The major characteristics that distinguish
the various generations are:
 Dominant type of electronic circuit element used,
 Major secondary storage media used,
 Computer language used,
 Type or characteristic of operating system used,
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word of data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically tenfold or
better increases in speed and reliability.
Over generations, computers have shown:

 Increasing speed
 Reduced size
 Increasing reliability
 Reducing cost
First Generation of Computer (1946-1959)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - Vacuum Tubes
 Main Memory - Punched Cards
 Input Output Devices - Punched cards and papers
 Languages - Low level machine language
 Operating System - No operating system, human operators to set switches
 Size - Main frame for example ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC
Advantages of First Generation
1. Vacuum tubes were used as electronic component.
2. Electronic digital computers were developed for the first time.
3. These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
4. Computations were performed in millisecond.
Disadvantages of First Generation
1. Too large in size.
2. They were unreliable.
3. Induce a large amount of heat due to the vacuum tubes.
4. Not portable.
5. Limited commercial use.
Second Generation of Computers (1959-1964)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - Transistors as main component.
 Main Memory - RAM and ROM.
 External Storage - Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
 Input Output Devices - Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
 Languages - Assembly language, some high level languages for Example BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN.
 Operating System - Human handles punched card.
 Size - Main frame for example IBM-1401, NCR-300, IBM-600 etc.
Advantages of Second Generation
1. Smaller in size as compares to 1st generation.
2. Much more reliable.
3. Less heat generated.
4. Computation was performing in micro second. Less hardware and maintenance problem.
5. Could be used for commercial use.
Disadvantages of Second Generation
1. Very costly for commercial use.
2. It still required frequent maintenance.
3. Frequent cooling also required.
Third Generation of Computers (1965-1970)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - Integrated circuit (ICs) as basic electronic component.
 Main Memory - PROM and DRAM.
 External Storage - Improve disk (Floppy Disk)
 Input and Output Devices - Keyboard for input, monitor for output.
 Languages - More high level languages.
 Operating System - Complete operating systems were introduced.
 Size - Mini, for example: IBM SYSTEM / 360, ICH-360, HONEY WELL-316 etc.
Advantages of Third Generation
1. Smaller in size as compared to second generation.
2. More reliable.
3. Portable
4. Less electricity consumption.
5. Heat generation was rare.
6. General purpose computer.
Disadvantages of Third Generation
1. Air conditioning was required in many cases due to ICs.
2. Very advance technology was required to make the ICs.
Fourth Generation of Computers (1971-1981)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - LSIC and VLSIC (Micro Processor)
 Main Memory - EPROM and SRAM.
 External Storage - Floppy Disk and Hard Disk.
 Input and Output Devices - Monitor for output.
 Languages - Languages and application softwares.
 Operating System - MS-DOS and PC-DOS
 Size - Micro computer e.g. IBM-PC, Apple Macintosh etc.
Advantages of Fourth Generation
1. Smaller in size and much reliable.
2. No cooling system required in many cases.
3. Much faster computation.
4. Portable and cheap.
5. The heat generated was negligible.
6. Totally general purpose computer.
Disadvantages of Fourth Generation
1. Very advanced technology was required to fabricate to the ICs.
Fifth Generation (1981-Onward)
Main Features
 Major Innovations - ULSIC (Ultra large scale integrated circuit)
 Main Memory - EEPROM, SIMM and DIMM.
 External Storage - Modified magnetic and Optical disks.
 Input/output Devices - Keyboard, Pointing Device, Scanner as input and Monitor as main output.
 Languages - AI (Artificial Intelligence) Expert systems.
 Operating System - GUI based e.g. Windows 95, Windows NT.
 Size - Very small in size example: Laptop, Note book, Digital Diary, Palm top and Pocket PC.
Advantages of Fifth Generation
1. Very large storage capacity.
2. Long bit processor builds.
3. Artificial Intelligence Language developed.
Classification of computers
Types of computers
There are different types of Computers. Their difference is depends on different categories of characteristics.
Classification by method of operation /the type of data they receive and process/
They are classified into three:
1. Analog
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continuous variables; they dont compute directly with
numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current
etc. Examples
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter
 Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into two
measurements, the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
 They are special purpose computers.
Analog computers have limited accuracy
2. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate
directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
 Desk and pocket computers
 The general purpose computers
Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analog ones.
3. Hybrid computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid
computer. A hybrid computer process the information by collecting input data with analog method, convert it
into digital quantities, processes the digital values and convert the output from digital to analog form.
Example:
In hospital, insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patients heart function, temperature and
other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital
component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patients vital signs and to send an
immediate signal to the nurses station if any abnormal readings are detected.
Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified as
special purpose or general-purpose computers
1. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and function are uniquely adapted
to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket calculators etc.
 Counters
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
2. General-purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of store program concept. A program or set of
instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then it is executed by the
computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using different
program. General-purpose computers are more flexible and versatile.
Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
Micro computers: - are the most widely used type of computers. They are single users, can fit on desktops, are
of varying capacity and easy to handle. Microcomputers are sometimes referred as personal computers. They
have video display unit for output purpose. Data is entered through the keyboard and by the help of floppy disk.
Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and shapes for a variety of purposes. Basically they can be grouped
into three: Laptop, Palmtop and Desktop computers.
 Laptop computers are smaller versions of microcomputers about the size of a briefcase designed for
portability. People can easily carry these personal computers with them in their car, on airplane, or when
walking from one location to another.
o Unlike desktop PCs that have mostly detachable components, laptops include all their
components (except their printer) in a single unit
 Palmtop computer is the smallest microcomputer that is about the same size as a pocket calculator. It is
the most portable computer and is growing in popularity among the latest entries in the microcomputer
market.
o Palmtops are typically used for a limited number of functions, such as maintaining personal
calendar, name and address files, or electronic worksheets.
Prepared by :Abel.birhane 2021 10 | P a g e
 Desktop computer is the most widely used type of personal computer (microcomputers).
o Unlike laptop and personal computers, desktop computers have detachable parts. However, since
its size is larger than the other types of personal computers, it is not easily portable.
Mini computers: Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most
microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems.
 The minicomputers' size prevents it from being easily portable although it can be moved more easily
than a mainframe computer.
 Minicomputers cost less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers. Most minicomputers can
function in ordinary operating environments, as they do not need special air conditioning or electrical
wiring.
 Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and scientific applications.
 They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities and colleges,
engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.
Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than
micros and minis and usually have processors with faster instruction processing speeds.
 For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million instructions per second (MIPS).
 A mainframe computer is generally found in a special computer room where environmental factors such
as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions are closely monitored.
 Because of the computer's cost and the value of the information stored there, the rooms in which
mainframes are located have security systems allowing only authorized personnel to enter.
 Mainframe computers are designed to handle the information processing needs of organizations with
many employees and customers or with complex computational problems.
 To give some examples, mainframes can handle the processing of thousands of customer inquiries,
employee paychecks, student registrations, sales transactions, and inventory changes.
 They are also used as the center of computer networking. These computers are used by organizations that
have enormous and complex data processing assignments.
Supercomputer: The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful
computer designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the fastest,
most powerful, and most expensive computer.
 As many as sixty miles of wiring are closely packed inside supercomputers, and tremendous amounts of
heat are generated. Because of this, supercomputers demand special cooling requirements and the room
itself should be air-conditioned.
 Some supercomputers require extra floor support to hold the extreme weight of the complete system that
includes storage units.
 In addition, highly trained data processing professionals are required to operate supercomputers. These
computers can take inputs from over 10,000 individual computers and users at the same time.
 Super computers are largely used by research organizations, military defense systems, national weather
forecasting agencies, large corporations, aircraft manufacturers, etc.
CHAPTER 2
2. COMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer systems can also be categorized as having either an open architecture or a closed architecture.
An open architecture allows third-party vendors to develop and sell hardware and software that is compatible
with the system. These vendors produce products that enhance the computer system. The IBM-compatible
microcomputers are based on the open architecture design. In a closed architecture system, only one vendor
makes all or nearly all of the support systems and does not allow other vendors into the market.

2.1 HARDWARE
Hardware is the various physical components that comprise a computer system, as opposed to
the non-tangible software elements. Most of these physical components are physically separated from
the peripheral to the main circuitry that does the arithmetical and logical processing but they are the
most familiar bits of a computer.
2.1.1 INPUT /OUTPUT SYSTEM

2.1.1.1 INPUT SYSTEM
An input system comprises one or more devices that the user employs to enter data or instructions into
the memory of the computer so that the CPU can subsequently process them. Data, as discussed above, are
unorganized facts that can become useful output by being transformed into information. Instructions may be
input as programs (instructions that direct the performance of the computer), commands (instructions direct a
program), and user responses (instructions from the user created by replying to a question posed by the
computer). Input devices come in many forms. Some of the more common devices are described next.
Keyboard. The keyboard is one of the most common input devices. is an input device consisting of a set of
typewriter-like keys that enable one to enter data into a computer. The keys on the keyboard are often classified
as follows
 Alphanumeric keys - Letters and numbers
 Punctuation keys - comma, period, semicolon, etc.
 Special keys- function keys, control keys, arrow keys, caps lock, etc.
In detail the following are descriptions of the keys of keyboard.

Escape key - Generally used to abort system actions.
Function keys - functions vary from program to program. For example F1 is used to get help most of the times
Enter key - used to enter commands or to return to blank (new) lines in a document.
Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting backward.
Tab key - used to access tab stop.
Caps lock key – used to write small or capital letters.
Shift key - used to produce upper case or lower case letters and sometimes to invoke commands
Control key & Alt key - commonly used in combination with other keys to enter commands e g. Control home.
Insert key - used to enter characters.
Arrow keys - used to move the cursor around the display screen.
Delete keys - used to delete characters.
Num lock keys - used to activate/deactivate the numeric keypad.
Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.
The arrangement of the keyboard's key may differ. The most common in English- speaking countries is the
QWERTY keyboard. It is called QWERTY keyboard because the first five keys on the top row of letters spell Q,
W, E, R, T, and Y. The arrangement of keys in this case is based on typewriter (alphabets and punctuation) and
calculator (numeric pad). This is to make data entry easy.
The other type of keyboard layout is the Dvorak Keyboard. In this layout, the most commonly used letters are
placed in the most accessible places. The home keys are the five English vowel letters A, O, E, U, I (for the left
hand) & the five most often used consonants (D, H, T, N, S) are the home keys for the right hand. The next most
frequently used letters are on the keys one row up, the next easier position to reach.
Mouse: is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display
screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface.
Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit a mouse; its connecting wire that one can imagine to be the
mouses tail. Mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research center in 1963.
Mouse can have as many as three buttons whose function depends on what program is running
Left-button: for left click. E.g selecting text
Right-button: for right click. E.g see property of file
Middle button: for scrolling purpose. This button is sometimes missing.
Most mouse are connected to the system unit by a cable or cord. There are also mouse that are not connected to
system unit by a cable/cord. They are called cordless mouse (wireless mouse). They communicate with system
unit using infrared light, similar technology used in remote controls, or radio waves. Mouse has roller ball at the
bottom. The roller ball converts mouse movements into electronic signals.
SCANNERS: Scanners are peripheral devices used to digitize (convert to electronic format) artwork,
photographs, text, or other items from hard copy. In a sense, a scanner works as a pair ofeyes for your PC. Your
eyes see an image and translate the image into electrical impulses that travel to and are interpreted by your brain.
Similarly, a scanner captures images and converts them to digital data that travel to and are interpreted by the
computer.
A scanner works by dividing an image into microscopic rows and columns and measuring, like the film in a
camera, how much light (or lack thereof) reflects from each individual intersection of the rows and columns.
Each reflection is recorded as a dot, or picture element (pixel). After the scanner collects information from each
dot, it compiles the result into a digital file on the computer.
There are a wide variety of scanners that work in a number of different ways, but the technology behind them is
essentially the same. The following sections discuss the more
Optical Recognition Systems

Optical recognition system uses light to read characters, codes, and marks, and convert them into computer
understandable format. There many types of optical recognition systems:
 OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
 OMR (Optical Mark recognition)
 Barcode Reader
I) OCR: are scanners that read typewritten, computer printed, and in some cases hand printed characters from
ordinary documents. They scan the shape of character and compare it with predefined font shapes found in memory.
Based on the comparison, they can convert the characters into computer code.
Use:
Enter documents found on paper into computer without the need to type it using keyboard. This Makes the job easy.
II) OMR: senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil marks. It doesnt utilize letters of the
alphabet. Instead, with the use of electronic scanners, marks and symbols are converted into appropriate electronic
signals.
It is used to process questionnaires or exams using computer. The read mark is interpreted and matched against
previously entered answer key. Example, the ESLCE is corrected using this device.
III) Bar Code Reader: is a peripheral that reads bar codes printed on products. Bar code uses a pattern
or symbols to represent data. It consists of vertical lines and spaces of different width. There are different kinds
of bar codes; the most commonly used is called UPC (Universal Product Code). It is used to identify product
manufacturer, product number, etc.
Fig bar code and bar code reader respectively
Use: Used in super market, grocery, etc to identify products and their price.
Speech Recognition Systems

Speech recognition is the ability of computers to recognize human speech. We use microphone to enter the
speech into computer. The computer then processes the speech and performs the action ordered by speech.
It allows:
 To issue/enter commands to the computer. For example, instead of going to start button-> programs-
>Microsoft Word to open Microsoft Word, we simply speak into the microphone of the computer Open
Microsoft Word. Then the computer opens the program.
 To enter data using dictation instead of typing from keyboard. This makes data entry very easier.
This is the latest technology and is still under research.
Light Pen: Light pen is a light sensitive pen like device that is used in conjunction with computer
monitor. It is used by touching the screen with this device to create or modify graphics. A light cell in the tip of
the pen senses light from the screen to determine the pens location on the screen.
Touchpad. This input device is a small rectangular surface that operates by means of pressure and
motion, and allows the user to perform all of the functions of a mouse by touch. Moving the fingertip across the
touch pad moves the cursor across the screen. Tapping the touch pad acts as clicks and double-clicks. Touchpads
are most commonly found on laptop computers.
Pointing Stick. Like the touchpad, this pressure-sensitive input device fills the role of the mouse in some
laptops. It is shaped like a pencil eraser and fits between keys in the keyboard. Moving the pointing stick moves
the cursor. This device is mostly found on laptop computers.
Trackball. The trackball is basically an upside-down mouse. Instead of rolling the ball on a surface as
with the mouse, the user rotates the trackball with the hand directly to position the cursor on the screen.
Touch Screen. This input device is often used in public places, such as shopping centers, hotels, and
airports, where users may not have much experience working with computers. The user simply touches the
screen for the desired menu item.
Light Pen. This light-sensitive device is used for entering data by writing on a computer screen.
Engineers, designers, and architects use light pens to draw and modify shapes on the screen.
Graphics Tablet. A graphics tablet is a flat rectangular board used to input drawings or other graphical
data. The user draws on the graphics tablet with an electronic pen or a mouse-like device (called a puck). The
drawing movements are converted into digital signals that are sent to the computer as input. Architects and
mapmakers commonly use this input device.
Video Input Devices and Digital Cameras. Video input devices and digital cameras allow optical and
graphical images to be entered into the computer for storage and processing. Digital cameras allow the user to
store still-pictures as digital files (for example, .jpg s and .gif s) that can be used by the computer like other
graphic images. They may be edited, e-mailed, printed, faxed, inserted into documents, and displayed on the
monitor. Video input devices enable the user to store and process full-motion images generated from camcorders
and VCRs.
Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs). ATMs have revolutionized banking by extending bankers hours
to 24 hours a day. ATM users can borrow cash, transfer funds, and make deposits at their convenience. Most
ATM devices employ some sort of card input that contains information about the user. The user inserts the card
and is prompted to enter a personal identification number (PIN) to authorize access. If the user fails to enter the
correct PIN after three attempts, the ATM will assume an unauthorized person is attempting an illegal access. It
will then implement a predetermined action. This may be to lock the user out of the system or have the ATM
destroy or confiscate the access card. In any case, the user will need to appear in person at the bank and
reestablish access authority.
Point-of-Sale (POS) Devices. POS terminals are found in many kinds of retail businesses; for example,
grocery stores. Most POS terminals use some type of optical scanning device, usually involving laser beams, for
reading the product code on an item. The product code, sometimes called a bar code, is the primary key for
retrieving the price and description data from the database.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Devices. MICR devices read characters printed in
magnetized ink on documents. The banking industry, in particular, has made extensive use of MICR for reading
and processing checks and deposit slips.
Optical Scanning Devices. Optical scanning is the process of digitizing textual or graphic images. The
scanner is a light-sensing device that converts an image into an analog signal that in turn is converted into a
digital signal for computer storage and processing. The resulting file is called a bitmap (.bmp files). Optical
scanning is a popular technique for capturing photographs for computer usage but it may also be effectively used
with printed and handwritten text.
OUTPUT SYSTEM
Like the input system, the output system provides an interface through which computers and humans can
interact with one another. However, now the human is on the receiving end of the process. Output devices are
used to display input data that has been processed by the computer into useful output information. Through its
output system, the computer presents the data it contains in a form that the user can understand. The
presentation is typically in one of four forms: graphics (e.g., charts and photographs), text (e.g., words and
numbers), video (e.g., photographic images in motion), or audio (e.g., music and speech). Probably the most
common output devices are monitors for producing temporary displays (soft copies) and printers for producing
paper copies of documents (hard copies).
MONITORS: A monitor, or screen, can display graphics, text, and video output. To display video in the
monitor, the computer needs a video card (or graphics card) for converting the digital signal (i.e., data in the
form of 0s and 1s) from the processor to an analog signal (i.e., data in the form of a continuous electrical wave)
that the monitor can interpret. Monitors are described in two ways. The first is by the number of colors that the
screen can display. This can range from 4 to 65,536. The second is by the quality, or resolution, of the screen,
which is measured in picture elements (pixels). Pixels are tiny dots of light that combine to form images on the
screen. Typical screens have 320 × 220 pixels, 640 × 480 pixels, or 1,024 × 768 pixels. The more pixels a screen
has, the greater its resolution. Both color and resolution are important for determining the performance and
quality of a computer monitor.
Resolution - the number of pixels displayed
Dot pitch - the distance between pixels
Refresh rate - the speed with which images are redrawn on the screen
Storage devices are different from memory. Memory, sometimes called primary storage, is fast, short-term,
volatile, and relatively expensive. Storage devices, on the other hand, are slower, long-term, non-volatile, and less
expensive.
Types of monitor: Monitors come in three main varieties:
Cathode-ray tubes (CRT): CRT is similar in size and technology to televisions. It uses electron guns that emit
electrons. These electrons are directed towards phosphorous coated screen. The phosphorous coat glows (emits
light) when hit by electron from electron guns, thus creating visible things that we see.
Disadvantage: -large size (bulky)
- consumes much power
Fig CRT monitor and electron gun
Liquid crystal display (LCD): Crystal display is most commonly used in digital watches, clocks, calculators,
etc. In computer, they are commonly used for portable computers. E.g. laptop.
Liquid crystal uses liquid crystal for display purpose, not electron guns. The liquid crystal is deposited
between sheets of polarizing material.
Advantage over CRT: -small size which makes it easy to transport
-consumes less power which makes it suitable for laptop.

light emitted diode (LED)
plasma
PRINTER
Printer is a device that enables us to produce a hard copy of data/information. They have varying speeds,
capabilities, and printing methods.
Based on the way they print, printers are divided into two:
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printer
Impact printers
Impact printer transfer printable material onto paper by striking paper, ribbon, and character together. Most of
such printers take continuous form of paper. Some of impact printers are:
Dot-matrix Printer
They print by striking wire pins against an inked ribbon. The print head of such printers contains pins. When this
pin is pressed against a ribbon and paper, it prints small dots. The combination of small dots printed closely
forms a character.
Daisy-wheel Printer
It has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out in relief. A hammer presses the
wheel against a ribbon producing characters on paper.
Disadvantage:
 They cant print graphics
Non-Impact Printers
They print without having a mechanism that strikes a paper. They print by spraying ink or by using heat and
pressure to fuse black powder onto paper. The various types of non-impact printer include:
Ink Jet Printers

An ink jet printer sprays tiny drops of ink onto paper. The print head of such printers contains a nozzle which has
many holes. Ink is propelled by heat or pressure through the nozzle holes and form character or image on the
screen.
 Produce high quality print
 Quiet because the paper is not struck
 Heavy weight paper is recommended
Laser Printer
They work similarly to photocopying machine. They convert data from computer into a laser beam (kind of
light), why they are called laser printer. They use mirrors to direct light onto a drum which in turn produce
characters on paper. The drum is light sensitive material that becomes charged when it is hit by light. The

charged areas of the drum attracts ink from toner and the ink is transferred onto paper. A heating material heats
the ink and attach it onto ther paper. It produces high quality print.
Thermal printers
Thermal printers use heat to transfer inks from ink sheets onto printing surface. They produce high-quality print.
Because of this, they are used to produce high quality color artwork and text.
They can use plain paper but produce best result on chemically treated papers.
PLOTTERS
Are used in some settings to produce architectural drawings, bar charts, and high-quality graphic images.
They often use paper that is larger than most printers can handle. There are three types of plotters. Pen plotters
use colored pens positioned so that a mechanical arm can access them. The mechanical arm draws the graphic
image with one colored pen, then selects another, repeating the process until the image is complete. Pen plotters
are widely used and produce very high quality images. Electrostatic plotters use electrostatic charges to create
images on specially treated paper. This paper must then be developed like a photograph to produce high-
resolution images. Direct-image plotters, also called thermal plotters, create images on heat sensitive paper. This
process is limited to two-color output.
SPEAKERS AND HEADSETS

Are the two most common devices used for audio output. A voice output device produces voice
commands by imitating phonic sounds. These prerecorded phonic sounds produce synthetic-sounding words.
Some telephone companies use voice output to automate directory assistance, and some automobiles contain
voice output devices that remind drivers to fasten their seat belts.
PROJECTORS
are used to display graphics, text, video output from a computer. In the case of projectors, the output is
displayed onto a screen for an audience to view instead of into a monitor for a single user's viewing. Like
monitors, projectors are attached to the computer through a parallel port. Projector technology varies widely, but
the two most common types are LCDs projectors and digital light processing (DLP) projectors.
MEMORY UNIT
As discussed above, instructions and data needed for immediate processing are usually placed in memory. A
computer has two types of memory: volatile and nonvolatile. They are used for the long- and short-term
retention of information, respectively. RAM and cache are examples of volatile memory the primary memory.
ROM and CMOS are examples of nonvolatile memory.
All storage devices are characterized with the following features:

 Speed
 Volatility
 Access method
 Portability
 Cost and capacity
Basic Units of Measurement
All information in the computer is handled using electrical components like the integrated circuits,
semiconductors, all of which can recognize only two states presence or absence of an electrical signal. Two
symbols used to represent these two states are 0 and 1, and are known as BITS (an abbreviation for BInary
DigiTS). 0 represents the absence of a signal, 1 represents the presence of a signal.
A BIT is, therefore, the smallest unit of data in a computer and can either store a 0 or 1. Since a single bit can
store only one of the two values, there can possibly be only four unique combinations: 00 01 10 11 Bits are,
therefore, combined together into larger units in order to hold greater range of values.
BYTES are typically a sequence of eight bits put together to create a single computer alphabetical or numerical
character. More often referred to in larger multiples, bytes may appear as
Kilobytes (1,024 bytes),
Megabytes (1,048,576 bytes),
GigaBytes (1,073,741,824),
TeraBytes (approx. 1,099,511,000,000 bytes), or
PetaBytes (approx. 1,125,899,900,000,000 bytes). Bytes are used to quantify the amount of data digitally stored
(on disks, tapes) ortransmitted (over the internet), and are also used to measure the memory and document size.
Random-access memory (RAM) temporarily holds data, the operating system (instructions that control
the computers operation), and application software (instructions that manipulate data). The operating system
resides in RAM only while the computer is turned on. The application software remains in RAM only while it is
being used. Unless there is enough RAM to hold the application software for more than one program at a time,
when new application software is retrieved from secondary storage, it is loaded into RAM, replacing the
application software that was previously residing there. Most current computers have enough RAM to run
several applications simultaneously, a process called multitasking. Data and instructions about to be processed
are in RAM, as are the output of the processes. Recall that the data and instructions in working memory (i.e.,
RAM) are electronically stored, as opposed to being magnetically or optically stored. Thus, when the computer
is shut down, all instructions and data in RAM are lost because the flow of electricity ceases. In RAM, any
address can be randomly accessed at any time; hence the name random-access memory.
Main Memory has several uses:
Input area where the data is stored when it is read into CPU, awaiting processing.
Operating system controls the operation of the computer.
Working storage where calculations are performed and data is stored temporarily.
Output area where the information is stored prior to output. Both the input and output areas are buffer.
Application program area where the user program is held.
Read-only memory (ROM) contains instructions that the computer uses to operate various aspects of the
hardware. Unlike RAM, the information stored in the ROM chip is not lost when the computer is turned off.
However, this information is written in the factory and cannot be altered by the user. ROM, for example,
contains the instructions the computer follows to load the operating system when first turned on.
There are different types of ROM, including PROM , EPROM and EEPROM.
PROM /Programmable ROM/ data or program can be stored once in PROM but never changed.
EPROM /Erasable Programmable ROM/ data or program can be erased by removing the device and exposed it
to ultraviolet light.
EEPROM /Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM/ data or program can be completely erased using a special
device and new programs or new data can be stored in it.
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), like ROM, is also nonvolatile memory. Unlike ROM,
the user can change CMOS. For example, CMOS contains date and time information that the user can update.
CACHE MEMORY: is very fast RAM. It is used to store frequently used instructions. Computers that have
cache memory process data faster than computers without it because data travels faster from cache to the CPU
than from RAM to the CPU. Some cache is built directly in the processor chip, while other cache is in a chip
external to the processor chip. This storage of key instructions enables a performance improvement in the
processor. Intel processors incorporate level 1 (L1) and level 2 (L2) caches.
There are two groups of extremely fast memory chips that allow
the computer to operate faster:
(1) Internal cache (L1) is built into the CPU, and

(2) External cache (L2) resides on the motherboard. The L2
cache is an area of high-speed memory that improves
performance by reducing the average memory access
time. L2 cache is also called SRAM.
Both L1 and L2 store data recently used by the CPU. When the
CPU needs data, it first checks the fastest source L1. If the
data is not there, the CPU checks the next-fastest source L2.
If the data still cannot be found, a time-consuming search of the slower
SECONDARY MEMORY (AUXILIARY STORAGE DEVICES)
Inputs are sent to either memory or storage, waiting subsequent processing by the computer. With regards
to computers, there is a commonly accepted distinction between the terms memory (or primary memory) and
storage (or secondary storage). Memory refers to the instructions, information, and data waiting for immediate
processing. For this reason, memory is also referred to as working memory. Memory is saved electronically on
memory chips. Storage, information and instructions are saved on magnetic or optical media. It is faster to access
data and instructions from primary memory than from secondary storage media, but the information in memory
is usually volatile; i.e., it disappears when the computer s power is turned off. (Actually, the situation is a bit
more complicated because there are also some types of memory that are nonvolatile. These will be discussed in
the "Central Processing System" section below.) The information saved in storage media is nonvolatile and
remains in the computer even when power is off. In general, data and instructions are kept in secondary storage
when not needed for processing. When required for processing by the CPU, they are retrieved from storage, sent
to memory, where kept until processed.
Storage systems have two components:

1. the storage medium (e.g., a disk or a tape) that contains the saved information and
2. the storage device or drive that reads from and writes onto the storage medium.
Permanent, non-volatile storage media include floppy diskettes, installed hard disks, compact disks (CDs),
magnetic tape cartridges, removable hard disks, and super floppies. Storage and memory are usually measured in
bytes, which consist of 8 bits (binary digits of 0 or 1). A single byte is used to encode a single character (letter
or number). One thousand bytes are a kilobyte (KB). One million bytes are a megabyte (MB). One billion bytes
are a gigabyte (GB). One trillion bytes are a terabyte (TB). For comparison, the average book contains about 1
MB of information and the storage capacity of human memory is about 10 TB (or 1 million books).
MAGNETIC TAPE, FLOPPY DISK, HARD DISK .
Floppy diskettes employ magnetic storage technology. The disks are 3.5-inches in diameter and are
easily portable. A single floppy can hold 1.44 MB.
Hard disks are also magnetic-based storage media. Both the hard drive and the hard disks are usually
installed inside the computer. Portable external hard drives are connected to the computer by a cable. Current PC
hard disks typically have a capacity from 2 to 50 GB. Hard drives have a faster data access time than floppy
disks. Data access time is the time required to locate a piece of stored information in storage and retrieve it into
primary memory or the CPU.
Zip disks -- Zip disks store 100 - 250 MB of data (depending on the type of drive purchased) and cost
about $11 to $19 each. A special 3.5" removable disk drive is needed to retrieve the information from the
computer and write to the zip disk. An external zip drive can be moved from one computer to another. Due to
the large storage capability of zip disks and mobility of the drives, they are gaining popularity as storage and
backup mediums.
Magnetic tape cartridges use magnetically treated plastic ribbon to store information. Tape cartridges
can hold large amounts of information, up to 80 GB. One disadvantage of tape storage is that information must
be accessed sequentially. For example, to retrieve information storage in the middle of the tape, the entire first
half of the tape must be run. Disks, on the other hand, allow for direct (or random) access, which means that a
piece of information may be located immediately. Magnetic tape cartridges, of course, require magnetic tape
drives.

Removable hard disks are magnetic-based hard disks that can be removed from the hard disk drive and
easily transported. The disk drive that reads from and writes onto the removable hard disk is either installed in
the computer or attached to the computer by a port. The portable hard disk is encased in a plastic or medal
container for protection. The disks typically can store up to 2 GB. The Jaz disk by Iomega is a popular
example.
Super floppy diskettes are magnetic-based high-capacity floppy diskettes. The disks are about the same
size as the standard 3.5-inch disk, but require special disk drives for reading from and writing to the disks. Disk
drives may be permanently built-in the computer or externally connected to the computer through a port. Three
popular super floppies are the Iomega Zip disk, which can store up to 250 MB, the Sony HiFD disk, with a
capacity of 200 MB, and the Imitation Super Disk, which can hold 120 MB.
Optical Disk: Optical disks use laser light to read or write data from optical disk. Laser: light
amplified stimulated emission of rays.
Optical disks use high powered laser light to burn microscopic holes on the surface of the disk to store data.
Burned out part is called pit, and the non-burnt part is called land. Land may represent binary 0 and pit binary 1.
Fig CD pit and land

Optical disks use low powered laser to read data.
Optical Disks: CD-R Drive, CD-RW disks, DVD, Blue ray Discs
Optical Mass Storage Devices Store bit values as variations in light reflection. They have higher area density &
longer data life than magnetic storage. They are also Standardized and relatively inexpensive. Their Uses: read-
only storage with low performance requirements, applications with high capacity requirements & where
portability in a standardized format is needed.
Example of the Optical Drives
CD's (Compact Disk)
Their storage:
~ 700 MB storage
Their Types:
CD-ROM (read only)
CD-R: (record) to a CD
CD-RW: can write and erase CD to reuse it (re-writable)
DVD(Digital Video Disk)
CD: Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB. It can hold large
amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. It contains digital information that can be
read, but cannot be rewritten. Separate drives exist for reading and writing CDs. Since it is a very reliable storage
media, it is very often used as a medium for distributing large amount of information to large number of users. In
fact today most of the software is distributed through CDs.
DVD: Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous clarity.
Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data (as opposed to around 650MB of a CD).
DVDs are primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the computer
too. They are not rewritable media. Its also termed DVD (Digital Video Disk)
DVD-ROM
Over 4 GB storage (varies with format)
DVD- ROM (read only)
Many recordable formats (e.g., DVD-R, DVD-RW; ..)
Are more highly compact than a CD.
Special laser is needed to read them
Blu-ray Technology: The name is derived from the blue-violet laser used to read and write data. It was
developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association with more than 180 members. Some companies with the technology
are Dell, Sony and LG. The Data capacity is very large because Blu-ray uses a blue laser(405 nanometers)
instead of a red laser(650 nanometers) this allows the data tracks on the disc to be very compact. This allows for
more than twice as small pits as on a DVD. Because of the greatly compact data Bluray can hold almost 5 times
more data than a single layer DVD. Close to 25 GB!.Just like a DVD Blu-ray can also be recorded in Dual-Layer
format. This allows the disk to hold up to 50 GB!!
The Variations in the formats are as follows:
BD-ROM (read-only) - for pre-recorded content
BD-R (recordable) - for PC data storage
BD-RW (rewritable) - for PC data storage
BD-RE (rewritable) - for HDTV recording
Summary:
The chapter has introduced the concept of memory units and its categories as the main and the second memory
and their characteristic features. It discusses the features of RAM, ROM, PROM, and EPROM. Auxiliary
Storage Devices like -Magnetic Tape, Hard Disk, Floppy Disk are also discussed .The chapter concludes with an
introduction to the Optical Disks such as CD-R Drive,CD-RW disks,DVD,Blue ray Discs
Fast CPU Low Capacity

Access Registers
Cache
Main Memory
Disk Storage
Slow CPU Tape Storage Very Large

Access Capacity
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU): -
Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is the brains of the
computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the CPU is where most
calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer
system. Many people wrongly call the system case (chassis) as CPU. But the chassis is a housing for devices like
CPU, RAM, disks, motherboard and expansion cards. On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed
circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a
microprocessor.
How CPU Works
CPU operates by performing the following four operations, i.e. instruction execution has four steps:
1) Fetch instruction
2) Decode instruction Instruction cycle
3) Execute instruction
4) Store result Execution cycle
1. Fetch Instruction: fetching instruction is getting instruction from memory. Instructions are stored in
memory and wait execution. The Control Unit gets the instructions from memory and brings it for
execution. It keeps track of which instruction is to be executed next.
2. Decode Instruction: translating instruction into commands that the computer can process. Decoding
understands what the instruction is about and what it tells the computer to do.
3. Execute Instruction: the actual processing of the commands i.e. carrying out what the instruction order
the computer to do.
4. Store Result: writing the result of executed instruction into memory.
Over the history of computer processors, the speed (clock speed) and capabilities of the processor have
dramatically improved. For example, the first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 that was released November
15, 1971 and had 2,300 transistors and performed 60,000 operations per second. The Intel Pentium Processor
pictured above has 3,300,000 transistors and performs around 188,000,000 instructions per second.
CPU has three components, namely:
1. THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The ALU contains arithmetic circuits that can subtract multiply and divide two numbers. More complex
operations such as finding the square root of a number are done by sequence of their basic operations. The ALU
has logic circuits that can compare two numbers to determine if they are equal or if one number is greater than
storage locations called storage registers for storing numbers used in calculations and for storing the results of
calculations. To perform a calculation or logical operation, number is transferred from primary storage to storage
registers in the ALU. These numbers are sent to the appropriate arithmetic or logic circuit. The results are sent
back to the storage registers. The results are transferred from the storage registers to primary storage.
The ALU has two main functions:

 It performs arithmetic and logical operations (decisions). The ALU is where calculations are done and
where decisions are made.
 It acts as a gateway between primary memory and secondary storage . Data transferred between them
passes through the ALU.
Logical operation
Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described below with the aid of truth tables.
AND gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used
to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB
OR gate
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high. A plus (+)
is used to show the OR operation.
NOT gate
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known
as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A
with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate
can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done using NOR logic gates in the same way.
NAND gate
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all
NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the
output. The small circle represents inversion.
NOR gate
This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR
gates are low if any of the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
2. THE CONTROL UNIT

The control Unit controls the whole computer system by performing the following functions:
- directs and coordinates all operation called for by the program
- activates the appropriate circuits necessary for inputs and output devices.
- Causes the entire computer system to operate in an automatic manner.
The control unit contains a temporary storage location called an instruction register for storing the instruction
being executed. It also contains circuits called the instruction decoder which analyse the instruction register
and cause it to be executed.
Processing speed of the processors:- Processing speed is measured in Hertz, a unit used in the definition of
frequency.
20 Hz = 20 cycles per second
1 KHz = 1000 cycles per second
1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second
1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second
Storage Unit byte 210 kilobyte 220 megabyte (Mb) 230 gigabyte 240 terabyte
(Kb) (Gb) (Tb)
Transmission bits per sec kilo Kbps mega: Mbps giga: Gbps tera: Tbps
Speed
Time Unit 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
second millisec (ms) microsec (µs) nanosec (ns) picosec (ps)

Frequency Unit Hertz 103 kiloHz 106 megaHz 109 gigaHz 1012 teraHz
(Hz) (KHz) (MHz) (GHz) (THz)
Table 1: Units of Measurement in Computing
3. REGISTERS
Registers are small amounts of high-speed memory contained within the CPU which store intermediate results of
ALU. They are used by the processor to store small amounts of data that are needed during processing, such as:
 the address of the next instruction to be executed

 the current instruction being decoded
 the results of calculations
SOFTWARE
Software is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task using a
computer. Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures. Software makes the
interface between the user and the electronic components of the computer.
A Program is a set of coded instructions, which tells the computer what to do. For as long as the Instructions are
being carried out they are usually held in the computers internal storage
Software is a set of instruction or programs that order the hardware what to do or to do something. It is an
essential component of the computer system. Without the software, the computer hardware cannot solve your
problems. Therefore, software is a key for productive use of computers. A computer can become a valuable tool
if and only if it possesses the correct software.

Software as a whole is divided into two major classes based on the types of work done by programs. These
categories of software are system software and application software.
System software
The system software is general-purpose software that is used to facilitate the utilization of the hardware. It
consists of instructions or programs that are used to manage the hardware resources of a computer and perform
required information processing tasks. It provides the interface between hardware and the user. Important
categories of system software are: operating system and programming languages.
System software
 Constitutes those programs which facilitate the work of the computer hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machines resources, handles the input/output devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldnt have to or are unable to handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more users friendly.
 It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of communication
between user and a computer.
The important categories of system software are:
1. Operating system
2. Language software
3. Utility programs
4. Network and communications software
System software directly controls the computers hardware, whereas application software is one level
removed from hardware. System software manages the computers resources, enables the various components of
the computer to communicate, runs application software, and makes the hardware respond to the user s needs.
When the system software operates efficiently, the difficult operations of controlling the hardware are
transparent to the user. System software includes four main types:
The operating system
provides an interface between the computer hardware and the user or the application software. Because of
its central importance, the operating system will be discussed in more detail below. Operating system
coordinates the activity between the user and the computer.
The operating system contains two types of instructions.
 System-resident commands are active in primary memory at all times to coordinate input/output requests
and execute programs. This core of the operating system, critical to the functioning of the computer, is
called the kernel and is the first set of instructions to be loaded (booted) from secondary storage in the
hard disk on to primary memory in RAM when the computer is first turned-on.
 Disk-resident commands reside in secondary storage until a request is made to execute special-purpose
programs, at which type they are loaded into working memory.
The operating systems ability to divide the computer program into variable-length portions and to store only a
small portion at a time in primary memory (RAM) is called virtual storage.
In addition to managing memory and application programs, operating systems also perform functions
relating to the peripheral devices connected to the computer. For example, the operating system handles the
requests for print jobs sent to the printer. When more print requests are sent to the printer than can be handled at
once, the operating system assigns them an order and places them in a buffer, an area of memory, awaiting
printing. This process is called spooling.
To make microcomputer systems easy to use, the interface (link) between the user and the hardware has
become simpler and more intuitive. Particularly important for the development of user-friendly computers is
the graphical user interface (GUI).
The GUI allows the user to interact with the computer through icons (graphic symbols) on the screen.
These icons can represent a variety of things, including computer disks, folders, documents, and software
programs. The user instructs the computer to perform particular tasks by pointing to and manipulating the
appropriate icons with a mouse.
Operating systems not GUI-capable, e.g., UNIX, require the user to input commands by typing in words
or pressing specially defined keys. This set-up is called a command-line interface.
Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An operating system has
four major functions; System Administration, Input/output Management, Memory Management, Process
management
 Process management: In operating system terms, a process is a program or part of a program that can be
executed separately. The operating system does the task of managing these processes that are being
executed and waiting to be executed.
 Input/output Management: The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside
world, flow of data to the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key
board or other input devices. Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.
 Memory Management: During processing, some area of memory is used to store the operating system
instructions, application program instructions, and data to be processed. It is the task of operating system
to allocate or assign each of these items to a memory area.
 System Administration: Operating system as a system administrator manages the performance of the
system (e.g response time), system security (username and password), and storage device management
(deleting files, renaming files, formatting disks, creating directories, etc).

Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be classified by:
1. Based on the number of programs they can run a time, operating systems are divided into two:
Single tasking Operating System: on such system, only one program can be run on the computer at a
time. To run another program, you have to close the first program and load another program. For
example, if you are working on Microsoft Word and in addition if you want to open Microsoft Excel,
first you have to close Word first because you can t open two programs at the same time. Then you can
open Excel. Single tasking Operating System cant handle more than one program at a time. Examples of
such operating systems are MS-DOS, and PC-DOS which were used in 1980s.
Multi-tasking Operating System: on such systems you can run as many programs as you like. You can
work on Word and Excel at the same time. Such systems can handle more than one program at a time.
Examples Windows 2000, Windows XP, Macintosh, etc.
2. Based on the number of users they can serve at a time, we divide Operating System into two:
Single User: they can serve only one user at a time. They can t serve more than one user at a time. E.g.
Windows 95, Windows 98/2000/xp, etc
Multi User: lets more than one computer to access the computer at one time. E.g. Unix This is done via
network that connects terminals to the multi user computer.
Real Time Operating System

 A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results are available to influence
the activity currently taking place.
Example: Airplane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.
Its primary characteristics are that it responds to an event within a well- defined time.
There are numerous operating systems. Several of the most popular are discussed below:
 DOS (Disk Operating System) is for single-user IBM-compatible computers. Microsoft Corporation sells
this product under the name MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and licenses another version,
called PC-DOS, to IBM for use in its personal computers. DOS was written for the microcomputer
technology of the early 1980s.
 Macintosh Operating Systems (Mac OS) was introduced in the 1984 and was the first commercial GUI
platform. The latest version supports multitasking, includes multiple Web browsers, and has built-in
networking capability. It also is able to open, edit, and save files created in DOS and Windows platforms.
 Microsoft Windows 95 and 98 are GUI-capable, multitasking operating systems. Unlike the earlier
Windows 3.x series, Windows 95 and 98 are true operating systems, and do not require DOS to run. e.g.,
Windows 98 includes Microsoft Internet Explorer.
 Linux is an interesting operating system because it is not proprietary software. Its code has been made
publicly available (called open-source software). This allows users to customize the software to meet
their personal needs and to share improvements made with others. Applications that run on Linux are
commercially available; for example, from Red Hat Software and Corel Corporation.
 UNIX was developed by Bell Laboratories in the 1970's, and is one of the few small-scale operating
systems that is both multiuser and multiprocessing capable. This allows computers running on UNIX to
process a high volume of inputs from multiple users by using multiple CPUs simultaneously.
LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS convert application programs and any other software programs into the
machine language (discussed below) that actually controls the computer's operations.
An assembler is a program that translates assembly language into machine code.
A compiler is a program that translates a high-level language into machine code. Every high-level language
requires its own compiler.
An interpreter is a program that translates each instructions of the high-level language and executes the
instruction before translating the next instruction. The advantage of interpreter is that it can execute the
program immediately. Compilers require some time to completely convert the program and execute it.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
Computer programmers use artificial languages, known as programming languages, to write the
instructions that tell computers what to do. Programming languages have evolved over time to become more like
the natural languages that human beings speak. This section traces the evolution from machine language to fifth-
generation language.
MACHINE LANGUAGE. Programs for the first computers were written in strings of binary digits
("bits," consisting of 0s and 1s). Thus, this first programming language is often referred to as the first-generation
language (or 1GL). It is also called the machine language because computerspast and presentrequire this
type of instruction in order to perform their operations as machines. Instructions (and data) are represented
ultimately as bits because these strings of 0s and 1s correspond to the actual binary on-off flow of electrical
current through the computer's circuitry.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE. Assembly language (also referred to as the second-generation language or
2GL) was the next step in the evolution of programming languages. In assembly language, commands are written
with mnemonic codes rather than numerical codes. These commands are translated from the source language (the
programmers code) into an object module (machine language).
HIGHER LEVEL LANGUAGES. The evolution of programming languages toward user-friendliness

continued with the development of third-generation languages (3GL). Third-generation languages, such as
FORTRAN (Formula Translation), COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), BASIC (Beginners All-
purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), Pascal called structured programming, Java(object-oriented programming ,
PL/1, and C, are procedural languages. Program instructions are executed in a precise sequence to accomplish a
task. These languages use recognizable statements like PRINT, INPUT, SORT, and IF, which must be compiled
into detailed machine language instructions.
UTILITY PROGRAMS
Utilities are programs that make computing easier. They perform specific tasks related to managing computer
resources or files. There are different utility programs:
i) Troubleshooting programs: enable us to recognize and correct computer problems before they become
serious.
ii) Anti-virus programs: they protect your computer against viruses or other malicious programs that
damage computer. E.g MacAfee, Sophos, Norton, etc.
iii) File compression programs: are used to reduce the size of files or data so that it takes less storage space
or network band. E.g WinZip, WinRAR, etc.
iv) Uninstall programs: this software enable us to safely and completely remove unneeded
programs/software from your computer.
v) Back up softwares: with the help of this software, we can make copies of files to be used in case of the
original data is lost/damaged. This copy is called back up.

vi) Screen savers: helps to prevent your work from being seen by others if you leave your computer idle
for some time.
Network and communications software operates the communications hardware in a computer so that it can
transmit and receive information from other computers. Network and communications software requires two
types of software: software for the PC operating system and software for the network operating system. In some
cases, the latter comes built-in the former.
APPLICTION SOFTWAR
Application Software: - Application software performs useful work for the user. This useful work could be:
 Word processing-document creation
 Spreadsheet-electronic calculation
 Email/communicating-email sending and reading
Users use these software to perform different activities like calculation, video editing, word processing,
presentation, etc.
Some of the uses of application software:
i) Word Processing
This is the most widely used computer application. Word processing is the use of computer to produce
documents that consist primarily of text. Such documents can also contain pictures, drawing, photograph, etc.
Used for:
 Writing letter
 Writing memos
 Producing reports
Some of the softwares used for word processing include:

 Microsoft word
 Corel WordPerfect
 Lotus WordPro
 WordStar
ii) Spreadsheet Software

Spreadsheet software is used to organize, manipulate, and graph numeric information. It enables us to do
financial analysis, and other complicated mathematical calculation electronically. E.g interest rate, payroll,
etc.
Some of the softwares used for this purpose include:
 Lotus 1-2-3
 Microsoft Excel
iii) Database Management system (DBMS)

Database is a collection of related data that is stored in computer. DBMS organizes the collection of data so
that information can be retrieved easily. Database softwaresallow you to create a database and to retrieve,
manipulate, and update the data. Database may contain one or more tables. The following table and other
related tables together form databse.
iv) Presentation Graphics
Presentation graphics helps you to create professional and exciting presentations that could be used in
meeting, group discussion, etc. Such software enables you to incorporate charts, graphics, sound, etc in your
presentation.
Softwares used for this purpose include:
 Microsoft PowerPoint

 Lotus Freelance Graphics
 Corel Presentations
v) Accounting software
Accounting software enables companies to record and report their financial transactions. Tasks done by these
software include:
 Invoicing
 Accounts Receivable
 Accounts Payable
 Payroll
 Inventory
 General Ledger
 Purchase orders, etc
vi) Computer Aided Design

It is used to create design for products, new buildings, etc. They are used by engineers.
Example of softwares used for this purpose include:
AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Parametric
vii) Communication
They are used to transfer data from one computer to another. They enable computers to send and receive data
of any kind such as text, graphics, fax documents, etc.
Some of the softwares used for this purpose are:
 Netscape Navigator-to work on internet

 Internet Explorer-to work on internet
 Procom Plus
 Crosstalk
Computer Virus
Definition: Computer Virus is a small piece of software which designed deliberately to infect computers. Their
infection can vary from annoying (e.g deleting files, destroying the hard disk etc). Computer viruses are called
viruses because they share some of the traits of biological viruses. A computer virus passes from computer to
computer like a biological virus pass from person to person.
There are similarities at a deeper level, as well. A biological virus is not a living thing. A virus is a fragment of
DNA inside a protective jacket. Unlike a cell, a virus has no way to do anything or to reproduce by itself-it is not
alive. Instead, a biological virus must inject its DNA into a cell. The viral DNA then uses the cell s existing
machinery to reproduce itself.
A computer virus shares some of these traits. A computer virus must pick-a-back on top of another program or
document in order to get executed. Once the program is running, the virus then able to inject other programs or
documents.
How do Computer Viruses Spread?
Computer viruses are pieces of codes attached to a program like a popular game or popular application software
or even an E-mail message. A person might download an infected program or document from the Internet and
run it. At this time the virus loads itself into the computer s memory, and then it adds the virus s code to the
running programs. The user really has no way to know that the virus ever runs.
Unfortunately, the virus has now reproduced itself by infecting the running programs. The next time
either of those programs gets executed, they infect other programs, and the cycle continues. Another highway for
the diffusion of viruses is through floppy disks. If one of the infected programs is given to another person on a
floppy disk, then other programs of the destination computer get infected.
As virus creators got more sophisticated, they learned new tricks. One important trick was the ability to
load viruses into memory so the viruses keep running in the back ground as long as the computer is on. This
gave viruses a much more effective way to replicate themselves. Another trick was ability to infect the boot
sector on floppy disks and hard disks. The boot sector is the first sector, which holds a small program that is the
first part of the operating system that the computer loads. By putting its code in a boot sector, a virus can
guarantee it gets executed. It can load itself into memory immediately, and it is able to run whenever the
computer is on. Boot sector viruses can infect the boot sector of any floppy disk inserted in the infected computer
and they spread as a wildfire.
How Computer System infected by a Virus?
When an infected program is loaded into memory, an infected disk is inserted, infected macro is run etc.
Typical sources of viruses are the following:
- Using pirate software.
- Download infected program files (like software or game) from the Internet or newsgroups.
- E-mail attachments (videos, pictures, music, text files).
- Using infected diskettes.
Types of Computer Viruses:
There are numerous types of computer viruses. To make the topic easy to understand, let us see them by
classifying by the ways they infect the computer system.
Virus Symptoms:
Although there are different types of computer system problems that are caused by computer viruses, the
following are few of the symptoms that are most commonly facing an infected computer:
- A program will take longer time to load.
- The disks or files size keeps changing.
- Send email in the name of the computers owner.
- The disk keeps running out of free space.
- Render the disk and programs unusable.
- The drive light keeps flashing when you are doing anything.
- You may not access the hard drive when you boot from floppy.
- Destroy motherboard BIOS.
- Viewing unknown files that you dont know from where they come.
- Your files may get a strange name you dont recognize.
- Clicking noises keep coming from the keyboard.
- You may not open a file.
Computer Virus Prevention:

The first task is to prevent viruses from entering the computer. To do so:
- Use only programs (software) that are installed from the original installation disks or CDS But
this may not enough.
- Avoid the usage of illegal software copies.
- Scan the floppy disk or the attached email or the downloaded programs before using them.

If unknowingly the virus infection is happened, the spreading of the virus must be control or eliminated.
To do so: -Disinfect, the infected file, or disk by using current anti-virus software.
Most Common Types of Viruses and Other Malicious Programs

1. Resident Viruses: This type of virus is a permanent which dwells in the RAM memory. From there it can
overcome and interrupt all of the operations executed by the system: corrupting files and programs that are
opened, closed, copied, renamed etc.
Examples include: Randex, CMJ, Meve, and MrKlunky.
2. Multipartite Viruses: Multipartite viruses are distributed through infected media and usually hide in the
memory. Gradually, the virus moves to the boot sector of the hard drive and infects executable files on the hard
drive and later across the computer system.
3. Direct Action Viruses: The main purpose of this virus is to replicate and take action when it is executed.
When a specific condition is met, the virus will go into action and infect files in the directory or folder that it is
in and in directories that are specified in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file PATH. This batch file is always located in
the root directory of the hard disk and carries out certain operations when the computer is booted.
4. Overwrite Viruses: Virus of this kind is characterized by the fact that it deletes the information contained in
the files that it infects, rendering them partially or totally useless once they have been infected.
The only way to clean a file infected by an overwrite virus is to delete the file completely, thus losing the
original content.
Examples of this virus include: Way, Trj.Reboot, Trivial.88.D.
5. Boot Virus: This type of virus affects the boot sector of a floppy or hard disk. This is a crucial part of a disk,
in which information on the disk itself is stored together with a program that makes it possible to boot (start) the
computer from the disk.
The best way of avoiding boot viruses is to ensure that floppy disks are write-protected and never start your
computer with an unknown floppy disk in the disk drive.
Examples of boot viruses include: Polyboot.B, AntiEXE.
6. Macro Virus: Macro viruses infect files that are created using certain applications or programs that contain
macros. These mini-programs make it possible to automate series of operations so that they are performed as a
single action, thereby saving the user from having to carry them out one by one.
Examples of macro viruses: Relax, Melissa.A, Bablas, O97M/Y2K.
7. Directory Virus: Directory viruses change the paths that indicate the location of a file. By executing a
program (file with the extension .EXE or .COM) which has been infected by a virus, you are unknowingly
running the virus program, while the original file and program have been previously moved by the virus.
Once infected it becomes impossible to locate the original files.
8. Polymorphic Virus: Polymorphic viruses encrypt or encode themselves in a different way (using different
algorithms and encryption keys) every time they infect a system.
This makes it impossible for anti-viruses to find them using string or signature searches (because they are
different in each encryption) and also enables them to create a large number of copies of themselves.
Examples include: Elkern, Marburg, Satan Bug, and Tuareg.
9. File Infectors: This type of virus infects programs or executable files (files with an .EXE or .COM
extension). When one of these programs is run, directly or indirectly, the virus is activated, producing the
damaging effects it is programmed to carry out. The majority of existing viruses belongs to this category, and
can be classified depending on the actions that they carry out.
10. Encrypted Viruses: This type of viruses consists of encrypted malicious code, decrypted module. The
viruses use encrypted code technique which make antivirus software hardly to detect them. The antivirus
program usually can detect this type of viruses when they try spread by decrypted themselves.
11. Companion Viruses: Companion viruses can be considered file infector viruses like resident or direct action
types. They are known as companion viruses because once they get into the system they "accompany" the other
files that already exist. In other words, in order to carry out their infection routines, companion viruses can wait
in memory until a program is run (resident viruses) or act immediately by making copies of themselves (direct
action viruses).
Some examples include: Stator, Asimov.1539, and Terrax.1069
12. Network Virus: Network viruses rapidly spread through a Local Network Area (LAN), and sometimes
throughout the internet. Generally, network viruses multiply through shared resources, i.e., shared drives and
folders. When the virus infects a computer, it searches through the network to attack its new potential prey.
When the virus finishes infecting that computer, it moves on to the next and the cycle repeats itself.
The most dangerous network viruses are Nimda and SQLSlammer.
13. Nonresident Viruses: This type of viruses is similar to Resident Viruses by using replication of module.
Besides that, Nonresident Viruses role as finder module which can infect to files when it found one (it will select
one or more files to infect each time the module is executed).
14. Stealth Viruses: Stealth Viruses is some sort of viruses which try to trick anti-virus software by intercepting
its requests to the operating system. It has ability to hide itself from some antivirus software programs.
Therefore, some antivirus program cannot detect them.
15. Sparse Infectors: In order to spread widely, a virus must attempt to avoid detection. To minimize the
probability of its being discovered a virus could use any number of different techniques. It might, for example,
only infect every 20th time a file is executed; it might only infect files whose lengths are within narrowly defined
ranges or whose names begin with letters in a certain range of the alphabet. There are many other possibilities.
16. Spacefiller (Cavity) Viruses: Many viruses take the easy way out when infecting files; they simply attach
themselves to the end of the file and then change the start of the program so that it first points to the virus and
then to the actual program code. Many viruses that do this also implement some stealth techniques so you don't
see the increase in file length when the virus is active in memory.
A spacefiller (cavity) virus, on the other hand, attempts to be clever. Some program files, for a variety of reasons,
have empty space inside of them. This empty space can be used to house virus code. A spacefiller virus attempts
to install itself in this empty space while not damaging the actual program itself. An advantage of this is that the
virus then does not increase the length of the program and can avoid the need for some stealth techniques. The
Lehigh virus was an early example of a spacefiller virus.
17. FAT Virus: The file allocation table or FAT is the part of a disk used to connect information and is a vital
part of the normal functioning of the computer.
This type of virus attack can be especially dangerous, by preventing access to certain sections of the disk where
important files are stored. Damage caused can result in information losses from individual files or even entire
directories.
18. Worms: A worm is technically not a virus, but a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to self-
replicate, and can lead to negative effects on your system and most importantly they are detected and eliminated
by antiviruses.
Examples of worms include: PSWBugbear.B, Lovgate.F, Trile.C, Sobig.D, Mapson.
19. Trojans or Trojan Horses: Another unsavory breed of malicious code (not a virus as well) are Trojans or
Trojan horses, which unlike viruses do not reproduce by infecting other files, nor do they self-replicate like
worms.

20. Logic Bombs: They are not considered viruses because they do not replicate. They are not even programs in
their own right but rather camouflaged segments of other programs.
Their objective is to destroy data on the computer once certain conditions have been met. Logic bombs go
undetected until launched, and the results can be destructive.

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RIFT VALLEY

Prepared by :Abel.birhane 2021 1|Page

The Characteristics of Valuable Information

1. Accurate: Information must be free from errors.

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processes data Processing

produces output Output

stores results Storage

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What is Information Technology (IT)?

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What are the limitations of computer?

Differences between Human Attitude and computer Attitudes

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A Brief History of the Computer

The history of computers can be summarized as follows

 In 1642 invented the Pascaline calculator

Over generations, computers have shown:

Classification by purpose of application

Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

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2.1.1 INPUT /OUTPUT SYSTEM

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In detail the following are descriptions of the keys of keyboard.

Optical Recognition Systems

Fig bar code and bar code reader respectively

Speech Recognition Systems

Fig CRT monitor and electron gun

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Ink Jet Printers

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SPEAKERS AND HEADSETS

All storage devices are characterized with the following features:

(1) Internal cache (L1) is built into the CPU, and

SECONDARY MEMORY (AUXILIARY STORAGE DEVICES)

Storage systems have two components:

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Fig CD pit and land

Fast CPU Low Capacity

Slow CPU Tape Storage Very Large

CPU has three components, namely:

1. THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The ALU has two main functions:

2. THE CONTROL UNIT

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Table 1: Units of Measurement in Computing

 the address of the next instruction to be executed

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Real Time Operating System

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

HIGHER LEVEL LANGUAGES. The evolution of programming languages toward user-friendliness

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Some of the softwares used for word processing include:

ii) Spreadsheet Software

iii) Database Management system (DBMS)

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vi) Computer Aided Design

 Netscape Navigator-to work on internet

How do Computer Viruses Spread?

Computer Virus Prevention:

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Some of the softwares used for word processing include: