Environment and Ecology

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I. BIODIVERSITY
 Arittapatti: Tamil Nadu’s first biodiversity heritage site = biodiversity heritage site + houses around 250 bird
species, including three raptors and wildlife such as the Indian Pangolin, Slender Loris, and Pythons + area is rich
in biodiversity and surrounded by seven hillocks that charge 72 lakes, 200 natural springs, and three check dams
+ Anaikondan tank, built during the reign of Pandiyan kings in the 16th century is located in the region + historical
significance, with several megalithic structures, rock-cut temples, Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, and Jain beds +
Biodiversity heritage sites are well-defined areas that have unique, ecologically fragile ecosystems with high
diversity of wild and domesticated species, presence of rare and threatened species, and keystone species +
creation of BHS does not put any restrictions on the prevailing practices and usages of the local communities,
other than those voluntarily decided by them + aims to enhance the quality of life of the local communities
through conservation measures
 Cheetah reintroduction = into Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh, from South Africa and Namibia + the first-
ever intercontinental translocation of a carnivore + world's fastest land mammal and one of the oldest of the
big cat species + Most of the world's 7,000 cheetahs live in South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana, with Namibia
having the largest population + Asiatic cheetah wiped out from India in 1952 is classified as critically endangered
by the IUCN Red List, with its only surviving population believed to be in Iran + reintroduction of the Asiatic
cheetah into India is expected after the Supreme Court lifted curbs on its reintroduction + African Cheetah (IUCN
status: Vulnerable + CITES status: Appendix-I + Around 6,500-7,000 + Bigger in size compared to Asiatic Cheetah)
+ Asiatic Cheetah (Critically Endangered + Appendix-I + 40-50 found only in Iran + Smaller and paler than the
African cheetah + more
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fur, a smaller head and a longer neck + have red eyes and more cat-like appearance) + extinction of cheetahs in
India due to reduced fecundity, hunting, and inability to breed in captivity + Reasons for reintroducing cheetahs
include climate change mitigation and restoring ecosystem functions + Kuno National Park was chosen for
reintroduction due to its similar habitat to that of Asiatic lions, diverse prey population, and equivalent weather
conditions to South Africa and Namibia + Reintroduction programs: Bisalpur Rewilding Project (reintroduced
over 150 endangered Indian antelopes along with other species)
 Four new corals recorded = Four new species of azooxanthellate corals + do not contain zooxanthellae and
derive nourishment from capturing different forms of planktons + discovered from the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands + deep-sea corals + family Flabellidae + previously found in Japan, the Philippines, and Australian waters
+ names are: Truncatoflabellum crassum, T. incrustatum, T. aculeatum, and T. irregular + enhances our
knowledge of non-reef-building solitary corals + Coral reefs, the largest living structures on the planet + built by
and made up of thousands of tiny animals called coral polyps + Polyps are shallow water organisms which have
a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton + Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from the seawater to build
hard, white coral exoskeletons + soft coral polyps attach themselves to these skeletons and add their own
skeletons to gradually form coral reefs + Corals share a symbiotic relationship with single-celled algae called
zooxanthellae, which provide the coral with food and nutrients through photosynthesis + Three types: Fringing
reefs (evolve & develop near continent and remain close to the coastline + separated from the coastline by small,
shallow lagoons + most commonly found) + Barrier reefs (found offshore on the continental shelf + run parallel
to the coastline at some distance + deep and wide lagoon located between the coastline and the barrier reef) +
Atolls (formed on mid-oceanic ridges, shaped circularly or elliptically and are surrounded by seas on all four sides
and have shallow waters in the center called a lagoon) + specific conditions for growth, include stable and warm
water, shallow depths, clear salt water, abundant plankton, and little to no pollution + Indian govt has laws
protecting coral reefs + include guidelines set by the MoEFCC and protection under the Coastal Regulation Zone
(CRZ) of 1991 + CRZ1 category of the law bans hotels and resorts on coral reefs, and the mining and quarrying of
coral reefs is banned in some states except for scientific purposes
 Green Hydrogen = India’s first green hydrogen plant in Jorhat, Assam + powered by a 500 KW solar plant +
installed capacity to produce 10 kg of hydrogen per day and scale it up to 30 kg per day + Green hydrogen is
produced using clean electricity from surplus renewable energy sources such as solar or wind power, to
electrolyze water, emitting zero-carbon dioxide in the process + Hydrogen can be used to produce electricity using
fuel cells, act as an energy storage device, and contribute to grid stability + most abundant element in the Universe
+ does not exist on its own and needs to be extracted from water via electrolysis or separated from carbon fossil
fuels + India's National Hydrogen Mission aims to produce three-fourths of its hydrogen from renewable
resources by 2050, supporting India in meeting its sustainable climate goals + Blue hydrogen (produced mainly
from natural gas, using a process called steam reforming, which brings together natural gas and heated water in
the form of steam + output: hydrogen and carbon dioxide as a by-product) + Grey hydrogen (the most common
form of hydrogen production, created from natural gas, or methane, using steam methane reformation but
without capturing the greenhouse gases made in the process) + Black and brown hydrogen (Any hydrogen made
from fossil fuels through the process of gasification is sometimes called black or brown hydrogen interchangeably,
the most environmentally damaging) + Pink hydrogen (generated through electrolysis powered by nuclear
energy, can also be referred to as purple hydrogen or red hydrogen)
 Historic biodiversity deal gets the nod at COP15 = historic deal that will protect the world's lands and oceans and
provide critical financing to save biodiversity in the developing world + commitments to protect 30% of land and
30% of coastal and marine areas by 2030, restore 30% of degraded lands and waters (30x30 Deal), and reduce
negative impacts of pollution and pesticides + aim to channel $200 billion per year to conservation initiatives,
with wealthier countries contributing at least $20 billion of this by 2025 and $30 billion a year by 2030 +
commitments to identify subsidies that deplete biodiversity by 2025 and then eliminate, phase out or reform
them, and to analyze and report how their operations affect and are affected by biodiversity issues + The new
agreement, called the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), aims to halt the extinction and
decline of biodiversity, enhance and retain natures services to humans by conserving, ensure fair and equitable
benefits to all from the use of genetic resources, and close the gap between available financial and other means
of implementation and those necessary to achieve the 2050 Vision + Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is
a multilateral treaty established in 1993, aims to conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable use, and ensure fair
sharing of benefits from genetic resources + guides national strategies for conservation and sustainable
development, and includes two supplementary agreements: the Cartagena Protocol regulates the transfer of
genetically modified organisms, while the Nagoya Protocol focuses on access to genetic resources and fair sharing
of benefits
 Kerala’s first-ever Scientific Bird Atlas = Kerala Bird Atlas (KBA) is India's first state-level bird atlas that provides
baseline data on the distribution and abundance of bird species across major habitats + KBA was created through
systematic surveys held twice a year over five years + includes nearly three lakh records of 361 species, including
rare and common species + species count was higher during the dry season + species richness and evenness
were higher in northern and central districts + KBA offers authentic, consistent, and comparable data through
random sampling and is considered to be a valuable resource for testing ecological hypotheses and suggesting
science-backed conservation measures
 Species in News: Kannimara Teak = worshipped by the tribes of the Parambikulam Tiger Reserve + has grown by
1.85 meters in height and 9 cm in girth over the last five years + one of the oldest and largest teak trees in the
world + virgin tree for the tribespeople and is named after it + tree had bled when people tried to cut it, so they
protected and worshipped it + Parambikulam Tiger Reserve is located in the Palakkad District of Kerala + lies in
between the Anamalai hills and Nelliampathy hills of the Southern Western Ghats
 Species in News: Neelakurinji = found six varieties + shrub found in the shola forests of the Western Ghats +
blossoms every 12 years + Kallippara hills in Idukki, Kerala + The plant's purplish-blue flowers gave the Nilgiri
Hills its name + the Paliyan tribal people of Tamil Nadu used it to calculate their age + Large-scale wildfires have
destroyed about 1,000 ha of forestland, grantis, eucalyptus plantations, and grasslands, threatening the survival
of the plant's endemic flowers + there are allegations that the fires were set intentionally to destroy the
germination of Neelakurinji seeds
 Species in news: Spot-billed Pelicans = Nematode infestation at Telineelapuram Important Bird Area in Andhra
Pradesh has caused a large number of spot-billed pelican deaths + members of the pelican family and are found
in southern Asia + breed in southern Iran and across India to Indonesia, primarily in large inland and coastal waters
+ limited breeding population in India, Sri Lanka, and Cambodia + During the non-breeding season, they are also
found in Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam + Near Threatened by the IUCN + hunting is prohibited
under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
 Parboiled Rice = major product of Telangana + type of rice that has been partially boiled and steamed before
being dried and milled + makes the rice tougher, increases its nutrient value, and improves its resistance to
insects and fungi + the rice becomes darker and may have an unpleasant smell due to prolonged soaking + setting
up a parboiling rice milling unit requires a higher investment than a raw rice milling unit
 Places in news: Great Barrier Reef = in Australia has been recommended for inclusion on the List of World
Heritage in Danger due to the impact of climate change + according to a joint report by the IUCN and UNESCO's
World Heritage Centre (WHC) + world's largest reef system, stretching across 2,300 km and hosting 400 types of
coral, 1,500 species of fish and 4,000 types of mollusks + Coral cover has increased in the northern and central
regions, but declined in the south due to environmental pressures such as rising temperatures, pollution and
predatory starfish
 Red Sanders = Indian endemic tree species + also known as Red Sandalwood + reclassified as endangered in the
IUCN Red List due to threats such as illegal logging, forest fires, and cattle grazing + in high demand for their rich
hue and therapeutic properties in cosmetics, medicinal products, furniture, woodcraft, and musical instruments
+ endemic to forests in Andhra Pradesh, growing in rocky, degraded, and fallow lands with red soil and a hot and
dry climate + protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and CITES Appendix II + Sandalwood Spike
Disease, an infectious disease caused by phytoplasma, poses a threat to the species + the only way to prevent
the disease's spread is by cutting down and removing infected trees since there is no cure available
 State of the World’s Birds Report = published by Manchester Metropolitan University + 48% of the world's
surviving bird species are declining, with 13.5% currently threatened with global extinction + report draws from
BirdLife International's latest assessment of all birds for the International Union for Conservation of Nature's
Red List + 86.4% of threatened bird species are found in tropical areas, with hotspots concentrated in the tropical
Andes, southeast Brazil, eastern Himalayas, eastern Madagascar, and Southeast Asian islands
II. Climate Change

 Arctic Amplification = Finnish researchers have found that the Arctic is heating four times faster than the rest of
the planet, with Barents Sea north of Russia and Norway warming at a rate seven times faster than the global
average + known as Arctic amplification + caused by a variety of factors, including ice-albedo feedback and lapse
rate feedback + can lead to consequences of this warming include the melting of the Greenland ice sheet +
reduced sea ice in Barents-Kara sea region can lead to potential for extreme rainfall events in India during the
latter half of the monsoons + In 2014, India deployed IndARC, India’s first moored-underwater observatory in
the Kongsfjorden fjord, Svalbard + aims to monitor the impact of the changes in the Arctic Ocean on tropical
processes such as the monsoons
 Bomb Cyclone = caused havoc in the US, leading to 34 deaths and millions without power + A bomb cyclone is a
rapidly intensifying mid-latitude storm with low pressure at its center, which undergoes a process called
bombogenesis, resulting in at least a 24 millibar pressure drop in 24 hours + happens when a cold air mass collides
with a warm air mass, creating an unstable and buoyant atmosphere, causing clouds and precipitation +
Bombogenesis is common along the US coast during winter due to the temperature contrasts between cool land
and warm Gulf Stream current
 Bonn meet = 50th session of the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Implementation and Subsidiary Body for Scientific
and Technological Advice + discussions covered various issues such as assisting victims of climate change,
harnessing technology and expertise, and increasing the participation of marginalized groups + parties were able
to establish Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture and Gender Action Plan and Local Communities and Indigenous
Peoples Platform + a group of 30 countries established the Powering Past Coal Alliance, which aims to phase out
coal-powered thermal energy by 2030 + Paris Agreement, a legally binding treaty on climate change, aims to
limit global warming to well below 20C compared to pre-industrial levels + Countries submit their nationally
determined contributions outlining actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and build resilience to adapt to
the impacts of rising temperatures
 Carbon Markets = India has passed Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2022 which allows the government
to establish carbon markets and a carbon credit trading scheme + Carbon markets have become increasingly
popular as a mitigation strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with almost 83% of nationally determined
contributions submitted by countries + two types of carbon markets: voluntary and compliance markets +
Voluntary markets involve the purchase of carbon credits by corporations or individuals to offset their emissions
+ compliance markets are officially regulated by policies at the national, regional, and/or international level +
EU's emissions trading system (ETS) is an example of a successful compliance market + UN international carbon
market envisioned in Article 6 of the Paris Agreement is yet to kick off, but discussions are still underway + new
Bill empowers the Centre to specify a carbon credits trading scheme, which will issue carbon credit certificates to
companies or individuals who are registered and compliant with the scheme + certificates will be tradeable, and
two types of tradeable certificates are already issued in India for renewable energy and energy savings
 Cloudbursts = Eight people died in a cloudburst near the Amarnath Cave Shrine in south Kashmir +Cloudbursts
are intense, localized rainfall events that can cause widespread destruction, especially in hilly regions + A
cloudburst is defined as rainfall of 10 cm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10 km area, or 5 cm of rainfall
in a half-hour period over the same area + In India, they often occur during monsoon season + can bring 75 mm
of rain per hour, which is about 10% of the annual rainfall in India + consequences include flash floods, landslides,
mudflows, and land caving + can be forecasted six to 12 hours in advance + Meteorological factors such as relative
humidity and cloud cover contribute to cloudbursts, with a high amount of clouds condensing at a rapid rate +
Climate change resulting in flash floods in mountainous areas and urban floods in cities + Short-duration rainfall
extremes will become more frequent and intense
 Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) = conducted by Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
for the entire Indian coast to determine coastal risks due to future sea-level rise + uses parameters such as tidal
range, wave height, coastal slope, and shoreline change rate to quantify the relative risk of physical changes
occurring with rising sea levels + coastal Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Mapping (MHVM) was carried out on the
entire mainland of India + CVI is significant as it provides useful information for coastal disaster management and
building resilient coastal communities + INCOIS, an autonomous body under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, issues
alerts on Potential Fishing Zone, Ocean State Forecast, Tsunami Early Warning, Storm Surge Early Warning, High
Wave Alerts, etc. through dedicated ocean modeling, observations, computation facilities, and the marine data
center
 CRZ norms = first issued in 1991 by MoEF&CC to protect and conserve the coastal environment + regulation zone
is the area up to 500 meters from the high-tide line, with restrictions based on various criteria + CRZ classifications
include CRZ-I for ecologically sensitive areas, CRZ-II for developed areas up to the shoreline, CRZ-III for relatively
undisturbed areas, and CRZ-IV for the aquatic area + CRZ Notification 2018 has eased Floor Space Index Norms
for CRZ-II areas and created new categories for densely populated rural areas. Temporary tourism facilities are
permitted on beaches, and CRZ clearances are streamlined + No Development Zone (NDZ) for islands close to the
mainland coast and backwater islands is 20 meters + Guidelines for conservation and management plans for
ecologically sensitive areas have been created, while defense and strategic projects are exempted from
regulations
 Eco-Sensitive Zones = MoEF&CC plans to file a review petition in SC to reconsider its decision on eco-sensitive
zones (ESZs) + SC directed that every protected forest, national park, and wildlife sanctuary must have a
mandatory ESZ of at least one kilometer from their boundaries + ESZs aim to act as a "shock absorber" for
protected areas by regulating and managing activities around them, minimizing the negative impact on fragile
ecosystems and minimizing man-animal conflict + ESZ boundaries are defined using the criteria provided in
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and ESZs regulate or prohibit certain activities such as commercial mining,
industries causing pollution, and commercial use of wood
 Energy Transition Accelerator (ETA) = launched by US, along with Bezos Earth Fund and Rockefeller Foundation
+ new carbon offset program + Companies can fund clean energy projects in developing countries and earn carbon
credits to meet their own climate goals + ETA will utilize public and private inputs to speed up the transition to
clean power and may benefit renewable energy and old, unviable coal plants + This program comes amid growing
mistrust among developing countries about developed nations' ability to meet climate finance commitments
 Environmental Performance Index (EPI), 2022 = prepared by researchers at Yale and Columbia universities +
ranks 180 countries on climate change performance, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality using 40
performance indicators across 11 issue categories + Denmark tops + India is ranked 180th among 180 countries
+ most low-scoring countries prioritized economic expansion over sustainability or are dealing with civil upheaval
and other crises + principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–
RC) within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change acknowledges the different capabilities
and responsibilities of individual countries in addressing climate change
 EU’s Sustainable Finance Taxonomy = is being criticized by activists as a greenwashing exercise that could
jeopardize the EU's climate change targets + complex system that classifies which parts of the economy can be
marketed as sustainable investments, based on environmental criteria + Greenwashing refers to the act of giving
a false impression that a company's products are eco-friendly, leading consumers to believe they are more
environmentally friendly than they actually are
 Heatwaves = India is currently experiencing a long spell of heatwaves in the early month of April + occur between
March and June and are declared by the IMD when the maximum temperature for a location in plains crosses
400C, or 300C for hills + formed when high pressure aloft strengthens and remains over a region for several days
up to several weeks + common in summer as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’ + This high pressure causes air to
subside and warm, inhibiting cloud formation and increasing shortwave radiation reaching the surface + Low
pressure at the surface can bring warm air from lower latitudes or hot continental winds towards the coast,
causing heatwaves + Heatwaves are declared when certain criteria are met, including departure from normal
temperature or actual maximum temperature in a meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days
+ last for a minimum of four days and can extend up to seven or ten days + criteria for declaring a heatwave are
based on departure from normal and actual maximum temperature + longest recorded heatwave spell in recent
years was between 18 and 31 May 2015
 Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA) = India has expressed concerns over the implementation of KJWA, a
decision under UNFCCC + seeks to recognize unique potential of agriculture in tackling climate change and
reducing emissions of greenhouse gases in the agriculture sector + developed countries are blocking a pro-poor
and pro-farmer decision by insisting on expanding the scope for mitigation to agriculture, compromising the
foundation of food security in the world + Agricultural emissions are considered survival emissions of the poor,
and most farm-related emissions come from methane and nitrous oxide + largest sources of emissions are cattle
belching and the addition of natural or synthetic fertilizers and wastes to soils
 Living Lands Charter = All 54 Commonwealth countries have agreed to dedicate a ‘living land’ to future
generations in accordance with the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration + non-binding agreement mandates
member countries to protect global land resources and prevent degradation, while promoting sustainable
management, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity conservation + result of two years of negotiation at UN
Rio Convention + seeks to support member countries to achieve their commitments under the UN Convention
on Biological Diversity, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change + recognizes the importance of indigenous peoples and local communities in
safeguarding land and ecosystem services + Commonwealth of Nations, consisting of 53 member states, was
formed in the 20th century as a free association united by language, culture, history, and shared values of
democracy, human rights, and the rule of law + Member has no legal obligations
 Long Term-Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LED) = India has announced its long-term strategy to
transition to a “low emissions” pathway at United Nations Conference of Parties (COP) in Egypt + LT-LEDs are a
requirement from the 2015 Paris Agreement, which explains how countries will transition their economies beyond
achieving near-term NDC targets + signifies their path towards the larger climate objective of cutting emissions
by 45% by 2030 and achieve net zero around 2050 + India's approach is based on four key considerations,
including its historical contribution to global GHG emissions being minimal and significant domestic energy needs
for development + India aims to expand nuclear power capacity, produce green hydrogen, maximize the use of
electric vehicles, improve energy efficiency, and increase carbon sequestration
 Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) = launched at the UN climate summit, COP27 + India is partner + Led by
the UAE and Indonesia + includes Sri Lanka, Australia, Japan, and Spain + work on a voluntary basis + aims to
educate and spread awareness worldwide on the role of mangroves in curbing global warming and its potential
as a solution for climate change + UAE intends to plant 3 million mangroves in the next two months, in keeping
with its COP26 pledge of planting 100 million mangroves by 2030 + Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs
that grow in intertidal regions of tropical and subtropical coastlines + thrive in extreme hostile environments,
including high salt and low oxygen conditions + Viviparous i.e. their seeds germinate while still attached to the
parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows into a propagule + A propagule is a vegetative structure that
can become detached from a plant and give rise to a new plant + serve as effective carbon stores while hosting
diverse marine life + destruction of mangroves is mainly due to anthropogenic activities like urbanization,
industrialization, discharge of industrial effluents, domestic sewage, and pesticide residues from agricultural lands
+ Asia has the largest number of mangroves + South Asia comprises 6.8% of the world’s mangrove cover + India’s
contribution is 45.8% total mangrove cover in South Asia + West Bengal has the highest percentage followed by
Gujarat and Andaman Nicobar Islands + Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest regions in
the world + UNESCO World Heritage Site + home to the Royal Bengal tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine
crocodiles + Bhitarkanika Mangroves is second largest mangrove forest in India in Odisha created by two river
deltas of River Brahmani and Baitarani + Ramsar wetlands + Godavari-Krishna Mangroves in Andhra Pradesh
extend from Odisha to Tamil Nadu + backwaters in Kerala have a high density of mangrove forest + Blue Carbon
Initiative, International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem, and UNESCO are some of the initiatives working
towards the conservation and restoration of mangrove ecosystems worldwide
 Mapping: Great Lakes = Scientists are creating a sensor network to monitor the water chemistry of Lake Huron,
one of the five Great Lakes of North America + Acidification of oceans or freshwater bodies occurs when excess
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere gets rapidly absorbed into them, which leads to a lowering of pH and makes
water more acidic + Great Lakes are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes in North America, containing a
fifth of the world's freshwater and a crucial source of irrigation and transportation + increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide could make the Great Lakes more acidic by 2100 + pH decline may lead to a decrease in native
biodiversity, physiological challenges for organisms, and permanently alter the structure of the ecosystem + Lake
Huron project aims to add to the scientific information on this issue, which could have significant consequences
for the hundreds of wooden shipwrecks believed to be resting at the bottom of the lakes
 MARS = Methane Alert and Response System (MARS) = was launched at COP27 to UNFCCC + MARS is a part of
global efforts to track the global warming gas + will be the first publicly available global system to connect
methane detection to notification processes transparently + will integrate data from a large number of existing
and future satellites to identify significant methane emission events + will send out notifications to the relevant
stakeholders and support and track mitigation progress + Methane is the second-most common of the six major
greenhouse gases + colourless and odourless gas + far more dangerous than carbon dioxide in its potential to
cause global warming + Methane accounts for 17% of the current global greenhouse gas emissions and is largely
a sectoral gas + MARS will track the large point emission sources, mainly in the fossil fuel industry, but with time,
would be able to detect emissions from coal, waste, livestock and rice fields as well + Global Methane Initiative
(GMI) focused on promoting methane as a clean energy source by providing technical support to countries + India
is a partner country + Indian Council of Agricultural Research has developed an anti-methanogenic feed
supplement called ‘Harit Dhara’ that can reduce cattle methane emissions by 17-20% and increase milk
production + India GHG Program is an industry-led voluntary framework to measure and manage greenhouse gas
emissions + National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched to raise awareness about climate
change and counter its effects among government agencies, scientists, industries, and communities
 Nord Stream Pipeline Leakage = four leaks reported at various points of the Nord Stream pipelines + connect
Russia and Europe + Two of the leaks occurred in Swedish waters while other two were reported in Danish waters
+ Two pipelines: Nord Stream 1 and 2 + Nord Stream 1 is the bigger of the two + Both pipelines cross the Exclusive
Economic Zones of several countries, including Russia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany + Russia supplies
almost 40% of its natural gas needs via the Nord Stream pipeline + important for Germany's economy + leaks
released more than 500 metric tonnes of methane per hour + biggest methane leak ever + Methane is a potent
greenhouse gas, 80 times more powerful than carbon dioxide over a 20-year period + primary contributor to
ground-level ozone formation, which causes 1 million premature deaths every year + 80 times more potent at
warming than carbon dioxide + Agriculture and allied activities remains the biggest contributor of methane
emission
 Odisha’s Mo Bus = United Nations has recognized Mo Bus, the bus service of Odisha's CRUT authority, as one of
the 10 global recipients of its annual Public Service Awards for 2022 + service aimed to transform the urban
public transport scenario in the city and its hinterland through smart technology, service benchmarking and
customer satisfaction + To increase women's participation in the workforce and make women riders feel safer,
50% of Mo Bus Guides are women + recent award recognizes Mo Bus's role in promoting gender-responsive public
services to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals + 57% of the city's commuters use the Mo Bus, and Mo
E-Ride is estimated to reduce pollution by 30-50% + UN Public Service Awards is the most prestigious international
recognition of excellence in public service, rewarding the creative achievements and contributions of public
service institutions that lead to a more effective and responsive public administration in countries worldwide
 Palli becomes India’s First Carbon-Neutral Panchayat = Palli village in Jammu and Kashmir + become the first
carbon-neutral panchayat in India + powered entirely by solar energy + Carbon neutrality refers to achieving net-
zero carbon dioxide emissions by balancing emissions with removal or eliminating them altogether i.e. carbon
offsetting + can be achieved by carbon offsetting or removing carbon-based greenhouse gases + Paris Agreement,
legally binding international treaty on climate change aims to limit global warming to below 20C and requires
countries to undertake rapid reductions in carbon emissions to achieve a balance between anthropogenic
emissions and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases + India has announced Panchamrita plan, to increase its
non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030, meet 50% of its energy requirements with renewable energy till
2030, reduce projected carbon emissions by 1 bn tonnes by 2030, reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by
45% by 2030 + India aims to achieve net-zero by 2070
 Stockholm+50 = an international environmental meeting hosted by United Nations General Assembly in
Stockholm, commemorating the 1972 UN Conference on the Environment in Stockholm that led to the
establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) + theme of Stockholm+50 is “a healthy
planet for the prosperity of all – our responsibility, our opportunity”
 Super cyclone Amphan = triggered by Marine Heatwaves + Marine Heatwaves (MHWs) are periods of excessively
warm ocean temperatures that can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and industries + occur in both
summer and winter + can be caused by a range of factors, including ocean currents and air-sea heat flux + El Niño
can also increase the likelihood of MHWs occurring in certain regions + becoming more frequent and severe due
to climate change
 Triple-Dip La Nina = it’s a multiyear cooling of the equatorial Pacific Ocean's surface temperature + According to
WMO, the current La Nina is projected to span three consecutive northern hemisphere winters + If it continues
for the next six months, it will be the first “triple-dip” La Nina event of the 21st century + may cause droughts,
heavy rainfall, and fierce winds + La Nina's cooling influence may temporarily slow global temperature rise, it will
not stop or reverse the long-term warming trend + La Nina usually follows El Nino, but the current La Nina event
did not have a preceding El Nino + El Nino and La Nina are large-scale ocean phenomena that affect global weather
and trigger extreme weather events + each cycle lasting between 9 to 12 months and occurring every three to
five years
 Tropical Ozone Hole = found over the tropics + stretching from 30 degrees South to 30 degrees North + about
seven times larger than the Antarctic ozone hole + present throughout the year + ozone layer is important for
life on Earth + it absorbs the most damaging form of UV radiation + its depletion leads to an increase in skin
cancer, cataracts, and harm to plants and animals + Antarctic ozone hole, one of the deepest and largest gaps in
the ozone layer in the last 40 years + now closed, according to the World Meteorological Organization + ozone
hole is caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and carbon tetrachloride used for refrigeration, air
conditioning, foam packaging, and aerosol spray cans + polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica contribute to
ozone depletion when they provide a suitable surface for the conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into
reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily
 UN declares Access to Clean, Healthy Environment as Universal Human Right = every person has the right to a
clean, healthy, and sustainable environment + resolution calls for states and international organizations to adopt
policies and scale up efforts to ensure a clean environment for all + member states can unite in the collective
fight against climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution + declaration is not legally binding, but over 160 UN
member nations, including India, have adopted it + In India, the right to life (article 21), which includes the right
to live with dignity and the right to livelihood, has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to include the right to
a clean environment
 Urban Heat Islands = occur when certain areas within a city experience higher heat loads than surrounding areas
due to heat being trapped in locations resembling concrete jungles + result from dark surfaces, air conditioning,
tall buildings, a lack of trees and green areas, and transportation systems + NASA’s Ecosystem Spaceborne
Thermal Radiometer Experiment (Ecostress) observed higher incidences of heat islands in urban parts of Delhi,
with significantly higher temperatures than surrounding farm areas, indicated by red patches in the data +
Ecostress is primarily responsible for assessing plant temperatures, water requirements, and climate influences
 Western Disturbances = Western disturbances are extratropical storms + originate in the Mediterranean region
+ bring sudden winter rain, snow, and fog to northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent + driven by the
westerlies and are non-monsoonal precipitation patterns + moisture in these storms usually originates over the
Mediterranean, Caspian, and Black Seas, and they shed rain when encountering the Himalayas + more frequent
and strong in the winter season and bring moderate to heavy rain and heavy snow to the region + An average of
four to five western disturbances form during the winter season, and their precipitation is essential for agriculture,
especially for the rabi crops such as wheat, which is crucial for India's food security
III. Conservation & Mitigation

 Air Quality Index (AQI) = measures density of pollutants in the air at different monitoring stations + determine
the safety of the air for breathing + National Air Quality Index (NAQI) given by CPCB, is a 24-hour average +
measured in mg/m3 + CPCB sets standards for air quality based on the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, with the current NAAQS notified in 2009 + Pollutants covered: 1.Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), 2.Nitrogen Dioxide
(NO2), 3.Particulate Matter (size less than 10 m) or PM 10, 4.Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 m) or PM2.5,
5.Ozone (O3), 6.Carbon Monoxide (CO) + Initiatives taken by India for Controlling Air Pollution: SAFAR portal
for Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research + Air Quality Index for eight pollutants + Graded Response
Action Plan + Measures to reduce vehicular pollution: BS-VI vehicles, promotion of electric vehicles, and Odd-
Even Policy + New Commission for Air Quality Management + Subsidy to farmers for buying Turbo Happy Seeder
(THS) Machine
 Bedti-Varada Interlinking Project = included in the major rivers project devised by the then PM Vajpayee
government + planned in 1992 to supply drinking water + aims to link the Bedti river to the Varada river, a
tributary of the Tungabhadra river, which flows into the Krishna river + 2 dams will be built on Hirevadatti and
Pattanahalla river
 Blue Flag Certification = awarded to Minicoy Thundi Beach and Kadmat Beach in Lakshadweep + exclusive eco-
label or certification given to coastal locations around the world as a badge of environmental honour + run by
non-profit organization Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE) + aims to contribute to the SDGs of United
Nations + certification is awarded annually + total of 5,042 beaches, marinas, and tourism boats in 48 countries
have been awarded + Criteria for certification: 1. Environmental Education and Information + 2. Bathing Water
Quality + 3. Environment Management and Conservation + 4. Safety and Services + Total blue beaches in India:
1. Shivrajpur in Gujarat + 2. Ghogla beach in Diu + 3. Kasarkod (Karnataka) + 4. Padubidri (Karnataka) + 5. Kappad
(Kerala) + 6. Eden beach in Puducherry + 7. Kovalam (Tamil Nadu) + 8. Rushikonda (Andhra Pradesh) + 9. Golden
beach in Odisha + 10. Radhanagar Swarajdeep in Andaman and Nicobar + total 12 + Foundation for Environmental
Education (FEE) has 77 member countries and focuses on environmental education and sustainability + Its
programs include Green Key, Eco Schools, Young Reporters for the Environment, Learning about Forests, and
Global Forest Fund
 CCUS Policy Framework = NITI Aayog released a report on Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)
Policy Framework and its deployment mechanism + involves capturing CO2 from large stationary emitters,
transporting it for utilization or storage in geological formations, and depleted oil & gas fields + contribute to
decarbonization and transition to clean energy systems in hard-to-abate sectors like steel, cement, oil & gas,
petrochemicals & chemicals, and fertilizers + expected to enable the hydrogen economy through the
production of blue hydrogen based on the utilization of rich endowments of coal + Direct Air Capture (DAC) can
remove excess CO2 from the atmosphere to contain global temperature within 1.5 degrees from pre-industrial
levels + Retrofitting existing thermal power and industrial plants with CO2 capture infrastructure can sustain
existing emitters + Utilization of the carbon captured: used to produce green urea, which can replace or
complement traditional ammonia and urea production + used in food and beverage applications + injected in a
liquid state for concrete curing and aggregate formation, providing a pathway for producing building materials +
converted to methanol, ethanol, and polymers + CCUS help mitigate climate change, boost crop growth in
agriculture, + used for industrial purposes, and for enhanced oil recovery
 Community Forest Rights (CFR) = Chhattisgarh govt recognized CFR rights of a village in Kanger Ghati National
Park + recognition of CFR rights gives the community power to formulate rules for forest use + acknowledged
under the Section 3(1) (i) of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act + CFR rights, along with Community Rights (CRs) under Sections 3(1)(b) and 3(1)(c), ensure sustainable
livelihoods of the community + community forest resource area is a common forest land traditionally protected
and conserved for sustainable use by a particular community + Kanger valley national park is renowned for its
landscape beauty, biodiversity, and wide range of flora and fauna
 Detecting Microplastics in Human Blood = A study from The Netherlands found microplastics in blood samples
+ half of them are PET plastics used in food grade bottles + Microplastics are tiny bits of various types of plastic
found in the environment and are less than 5mm in length + the most commonly used plastic polymers are
polyethylene tetraphthlate, polyethylene, polymers of styrene, poly methyl methacrylate, and poly propylene
+ health hazards of microplastics are not yet clear, but experiments on rats show accumulation in the liver,
kidney, and gut after oral administration + Initiatives to tackle microplastics include the elimination of single-
use plastic, Plastic Waste Management Rules (every local body has to be responsible for setting up
infrastructure for segregation, collection, processing, and disposal of plastic waste) and the concept of Extended
Producer Responsibility (introduced in Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018), the Un-Plastic
Collective, the Global Partnership on Marine Litter, the London Convention, and the Plastic Pacts
 Dolphins return to the Ganga = due improvement in the quality of the river water + made possible by the Namami
Gange Programme + Gangetic dolphin found mainly in the Indian subcontinent + particularly in Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems + one of five species of river dolphin + indicator of the
health of river ecosystems + Protection accorded: IUCN Red List: Endangered + Wildlife (Protection), Act 1972:
Schedule I + National Aquatic Animal of India + Vikramshila Ganges Dolphin Sanctuary established in Bihar to
protect them + Threats: dam construction, pollution, and decline in the population of aquatic animals + Policy
moves for conservation: (1) Conservation Action Plan for the Ganges River Dolphin 2010-2020, (2) National
Mission for Clean Ganga, (3) Project Dolphin on the lines of Project Tiger
 E-waste Management = Def: E-waste refers to describe old, end-of-life or discarded electronic appliances + two
categories: 1. information technology and communication equipment + 2. consumer electrical and electronics +
includes components, consumables, parts, and spares + contains hazardous substances like mercury, BFR, CFCs,
and HCFCs + Improper disposal and treatment of e-waste can pose significant risks to the environment and
human health + International Conventions and government initiatives: Basel Convention did not initially address
e-waste, but added it in 2006 (COP8) + Nairobi Declaration, adopted at COP9, aimed to find eco-friendly solutions
for managing e-waste + Rotterdam Convention, 2004, promotes sharing information on potentially hazardous
imports and exports + Hazardous Waste Management (HWM) Rules covered e-waste before E-waste
(Management and Handling) Rules, 2011, were enacted under Environmental Protection Act 1986 + E-Waste
(Management) Rules, 2016 replaced the 2011 Rules, and the CPCB issued guidelines for e-waste management +
Management Structure for Hazardous Substances and Swachh Digital Bharat aim to raise public awareness about
e-waste hazards and its proper disposal + NGT Directions: NGT directed for scientific enforcement of E-Waste
Management Rules, 2016 based on the reports of CPCB + there are gaps in collection targets and clear governance
deficits regarding e-waste management + large number of accidents in residential areas due to unscientific
handling of e-waste + NGT directed state pollution control boards to identify e-waste hotspots and ensure
meaningful enforcement of the rule of law
 E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 = introduced by MoEF&CC + replaced previous E-Waste (Management &
Handling) Rules, 2011 + brought producers under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), making them
responsible for the collection and disposal of e-waste + Producers can establish a separate Producer
Responsibility Organisation (PRO) for this purpose + include a Deposit Refund Scheme as an additional economic
instrument + State Governments have been assigned a role in ensuring the safety, health, and skill development
of workers involved in dismantling and recycling operations + Violation of rules can result in penalties + Urban
Local Bodies have been assigned the duty of collecting orphan products and directing them to authorized
dismantlers or recyclers + Allocation of proper space to existing and upcoming industrial units for e-waste
dismantling and recycling
 EV Battery Swapping Policy = Battery-as-a-service (BaaS) is seen as a viable charging alternative +
Manufacturers can sell EVs in two forms: Vehicles with fixed or removable batteries and vehicles with batteries
on lease + Advantages of swapping include low downtimes for commercial fleets, reduced space requirements,
and lower upfront costs + Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) is responsible for the implementation of battery
swapping networks across the country + Battery Swapping is needed due to the high cost of EVs, range anxiety,
inadequate charging infrastructure, and hazard management + FAME scheme (to give a push to EVs and hybrid
vehicles) + PLI scheme for manufacturing Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) batteries in 2021
 Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) = MoEF&CC issued a draft notification designating certain areas in Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra as ESA + Eco-sensitive zones (ESZs) are areas notified by MoEF&CC around
Protected Areas, National Parks, and Wildlife Sanctuaries + to regulate and manage the activities + boundaries of
ESZs can go up to 10 kilometres around a protected area + can include sensitive corridors, connectivity, and
ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, beyond 10 km width + Curbs include a complete ban
on mining, quarrying and sand mining, and phasing out all existing mines within five years + prohibits setting up
new thermal power projects and expanding existing plants, new Red category industries, construction of new
townships and area development projects + allows Orange and White category industries with strict compliance
 Extended Producers Responsibility (EPR) = MoEF&CC released new Guidelines on EPR for plastic packaging under
the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 + EPR means the producer is responsible for managing the product
(plastic packaging) until the end of its life + EPR rules cover three categories: (1) rigid plastic, (2) flexible plastic
packaging of single or multi-layer, and (3) multi-layered plastic packaging with at least one layer of non-plastic
material + Ineligible plastics for EPR will be sent for end-of-life disposal like road construction, waste to energy,
waste to oil, and cement kilns + by using methods prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board + Targets for
recycling set at a minimum of 50% of category 1 (rigid plastic) and 30% of categories 2 and 3 plastic in 2024 +
target of 80% and 60% respectively to be recycled after 2026-27 + Entities failing to meet their obligations can
buy certificates to make up for their shortfall + Non-compliance result in an environmental compensation levy +
amount is unspecified
 Fly ash generation and Disposal = Def: Fly ash is a by-product of burning coal in thermal power plants, created
when mineral impurities in the coal fuse in suspension and solidify into spherical glassy particles + Low-grade coal
used in thermal power plants has a high ash content of 30-45% + high-grade imported coal has a lower ash content
of 10-15% + contains aluminum silicate, SiO2, CaO, oxides of iron and magnesium, and toxic metals like lead,
arsenic, cobalt, and copper + used in making construction materials such as bricks, mosaic tiles, hollow blocks,
cement and concrete production, road construction, and filling low-lying areas and mines + dumping of fly ash
into poorly designed and maintained ash ponds has led to pollution of land, air, and water, with toxic heavy metals
+ leads into leaching into the surrounding soil and entering the food chain + Inhaling fly ash cause diseases:
asthma and neurological disorders + contributes to global warming, reduces crop productivity, and pollutes
groundwater while reducing visibility by creating dense fog in winter + NTPC has collaborated with cement
manufacturers across the country to supply fly ash + Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) started using fly ash
bricks as new construction technology + Maharashtra was the first state to adopt a fly ash utilization policy + web
portal and mobile-based application called ASHTRACK for monitoring fly ash generation and utilization + GST rates
on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%
 Gahirmatha beach = 2.45 lakh Olive Ridley sea turtles crawled ashore on the Nasi-II beach of the Gahirmatha
Marine Sanctuary along the Odisha coast for laying eggs + Olive Ridley sea turtle is a medium-sized species +
found in warm and tropical waters in the Pacific and Indian Oceans + majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three
large groups at Rushikulya rookery near Gahirmatha + known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass
numbers, called Arribadas + Females return to the same beach from where they hatched to lay their eggs in
conical nests, which they dig with their hind flippers + IUCN Red List: Vulnerable + CITES: Appendix 1 + Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972: Schedule 1 + Odisha is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley, followed by Mexico
and Costa Rica
 Green Manure = Punjab agriculture department is providing a subsidy of Rs 2,000 per quintal + it is a type of crop
grown to maintain soil fertility and structure by leaving uprooted or sown crop parts to serve as mulch and soil
fertilizers + green manure seeds are available at block level offices of the agriculture department + limited stock
+ Three main varieties: (1) dhaincha, (2) cowpea, and (3) sunhemp + some crops such as summer moong, mash
pulses, and guar can also act as green manure + can be sown after wheat cultivation + must be leguminous and
bear maximum nodules on its roots to fix large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil + government provides
50% cost assistance for the distribution under Sub-Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP) +
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) promotes cluster-based organic farming with PGS (Participatory
Guarantee System) certification
 Himalayan medicinal plants = Three medicinal plant species from the Himalayas are now on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species + (1) Meizotropis pellita: IUCN Red List: critically endangered + Commonly known as Patwa
+ perennial shrub + endemic to Uttarakhand + threatened by deforestation, habitat fragmentation and forest fires
+ Its leaves contain essential oil with strong antioxidants for use in pharmaceuticals + (2) Fritilloria cirrhosa: IUCN
Red List: vulnerable + also called Himalayan fritillary + perennial bulbous herb + decline of at least 30% due to
long generation length, poor germination potential, high trade value, extensive harvesting pressure and illegal
trade + China uses for the treatment of bronchial disorders and pneumonia + strong cough suppressant and source
of expectorant drugs in traditional Chinese medicine + (3) Dactylorhiza hatagirea: IUCN Red List: Endangered +
Known as Salampanja + threatened by habitat loss, livestock grazing, deforestation, and climate change +
extensively used in Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and other alternative systems of medicine to cure dysentery, gastritis,
chronic fever, cough and stomach aches + perennial tuberous species endemic to the Hindu Kush and Himalayan
ranges of Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan
 Hyper-accumulator Plants for Soil Detox = Heavy metal pollution in India is increasing due to industrialization +
Phytoremediation is a sustainable and eco-friendly remediation method + uses living organisms like plants,
microalgae, and seaweeds to remove toxic heavy metals from soil + Def: Hyperaccumulator plants are a type of
plant that can absorb toxic materials from the soil and accumulate them in their living tissue + have the ability to
absorb hundreds or thousands of times greater amounts of toxic substances than most plants + found in many
parts of the world, including the Mediterranean region, tropical outcrops in Brazil, Cuba, New Caledonia, and
Southeast Asia + typically accumulate nickel + occur on soils that are rich in nickel, cobalt, and manganese
 Green Crackers = environmentally friendly fireworks that can reduce air pollution + Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) created green crackers through National Environmental and Engineering Research
Institute (NEERI) + made with alternative raw materials to reduce their negative impact on the environment and
pose fewer health hazards + 30% less polluting than regular firecrackers and have a lower sound level + do not
contain barium, which causes smoke and emissions, making them less polluting + more expensive than traditional
firecrackers + Three types of green crackers: 1. SWAS Safe Water Releaser, 2. STAR Safe Thermite Cracker, 3.
SAFAL Safe Minimal Aluminum + no sulphur or potassium nitrate, reduced particulate matter and noise levels +
no total ban on firecrackers, only those that are harmful to health are banned + Traders have concerns about the
shelf life of green crackers and the rigorous certification process by the Petroleum and Explosives Safety
Organisation (PESO)
 Green Hydrogen Policy = Ministry of Power released first part of NHM policy + focuses on boosting the
production of green hydrogen and green ammonia using renewable energy + produced through electrolysis of
water using renewable power to split water into hydrogen and oxygen + lower carbon footprint than other types
of hydrogen + Hydrogen is an energy carrier used in fuel cells to generate electricity or power and heat + can
deliver or store a significant amount of energy + high efficiency + zero-or near-zero emissions operation +
benefits: (1) driving the country's transition to clean energy, (2) reducing import dependency on fossil fuels, (3)
creating a new green technologies market worth $18-20 billion, (4) thousands of jobs + new policy offers 25 years
of free power transmission for any new renewable energy plants set up to supply power for green hydrogen
production before July 2025 + allow green hydrogen producers to set up solar power plants in one state to supply
renewable energy to a green hydrogen plant in another state without paying inter-state transmission charges
 Green Jobs = Def: refer to a class of jobs that directly have a positive impact on the planet, and contribute to the
overall environmental welfare + include those involving renewable energy, resource conservation, and energy
efficiency + goal of green jobs is to reduce the negative environmental impact of economic sectors and promote
a low-carbon economy + Initiatives to Promote Green Jobs: Green Jobs Initiative launched to improve
opportunities for individuals to work in green jobs + Skill Council for Green Jobs established as an industry-led
initiative aligned with National Skill Development Missions + assist manufacturers and service providers in India's
green business sector in implementing industry-led, collaborative skills
 India State of Forest Report, 2021 = assessment of India’s forest and tree cover + published every two years by
Forest Survey of India under the MoEFCC + first survey published in 1987 + compiles data computed through
wall-to-wall mapping of India’s forest cover through remote sensing techniques + listed four categories of
forests: (1) Very Dense Forest (tree canopy density of 70% or above), (2) Moderately Dense Forest (tree canopy
density of 40-70%) , (3) Open Forest (tree canopy density of 10-40%), (4) Scrub (tree canopy density less than
10%) + Highlights of the ISFR, 2021: Increasing forest cover (increase with an additional cover of 1,540 km2 +
current forest cover is 7,13,789 km2 i.e. 21.71% of the country’s geographical area + Bamboo forests have
grown) + State-wise gain/losses (highest increase in forest cover - Telangana (3.07%), Andhra Pradesh (2.22%)
and Odisha (1.04%) + Northeast states account for 7.98% of total geographical area but 23.75% of total forest
cover + loss in forest cover in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland have shown loss
in forest cover) + Increase in Mangrove cover + Increase in carbon stock
 Jaldoot App = mobile application + aims to monitor groundwater levels across the country + app developed by
the Rural Development and Panchayati Raj Ministries + enables officers known as Jaldoots to measure well water
levels twice a year and upload geo-tagged photos through the app + app works in both online and offline modes,
allowing for data capture even without internet connectivity + Jaldoot data integrated with the database of the
National Water Informatics Centre
 Kali Bein = a holy rivulet in Sultanpur Lodhi + 165-km rivulet that starts from Hoshiarpur, runs across four districts,
and meets the confluence of the rivers Beas and Sutlej in Kapurthala + polluted with waste water and industrial
waste, turning its waters black + significant to Sikh religion + first Sikh Guru, Nanak Dev, is said to have attained
enlightenment here, and would bathe in the rivulet during his stay at Sultanpur Lodhi + Guru Nanak Dev is said
to have disappeared into the waters one day, before emerging on the third day and reciting the Mool Mantra of
the Sikh religion
 Kaziranga = population of Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve has increased by 200
in four years + IUCN Red List: Vulnerable + Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule 1 + Kaziranga National Park:
located in Assam + declared as National Park in 1974, and a tiger reserve since 2007 + declared a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1985 and recognized as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International + home of the world’s
most one-horned rhinos + home to the big four species: the rhino, elephant, Royal Bengal tiger, and Asiatic
water buffalo + also home to 9 of the 14 species of primates found in the Indian subcontinent + 2,413 rhinos and
approx. 1,100 elephants (2018 census) + 103 tigers (third highest population in India after Jim Corbett National
Park in Uttarakhand and Bandipur National Park in Karnataka) + National Highway 37 passes through the park
area + park has more than 250 seasonal water bodies + Diphlu River running through it + Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuary has the highest density of one-horned rhinos and second highest number of Rhinos in Assam after
Kaziranga National Park + Other national parks in Assam: (1) Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, (2) Manas National
Park, (3) Nameri National Park, and (4) Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park
 Living Planet Report 2022 = published every 2 years by the World Wide Fund for Nature + found a 69% decline
in the wildlife populations of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish across the globe in the last 50 years
+ LPI is a measure of the state of the world’s biological diversity based on population trends of vertebrate species
from terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats + vertebrate wildlife populations have declined by an average
of almost 70% since 1970 + attributes the loss primarily to agriculture and fishing + India has seen a decline in
population of the likes of honeybees and 17 species of freshwater turtles + Mangroves continue to be lost to
aquaculture, agriculture, and coastal development + About 50% of warm water corals have already been lost + a
warming of 1.5 degrees Celsius will lead to a loss of 70-90% of warm water corals + global abundance of 18 of 31
oceanic sharks has declined by 71% over the last 50 years + by 2020 three-quarters of sharks and rays were
threatened with extinction
 Mother Nature a ‘living being’ with legal entity = Madras High Court declared Mother Nature a legal entity with
the rights akin to fundamental, legal, and constitutional rights for its survival, safety, sustenance, and resurgence
+ concept of legal personhood for the environment and animals was introduced in the 1970s by Christopher D.
Stone + Uttarakhand High Court in 2017 granted the Ganga, the Yamuna, and their tributaries legal rights as a
living entity, and in 2018, ruled that the entire animal kingdom had similar rights + Punjab and Haryana High
Court declared the Sukhna Lake a living entity with rights equivalent to that of a person
 Places in news: Basai Wetlands = located in Basai village in Gurgaon, Haryana + has shrunk to a quarter of its
original size over the years due to urbanization + one of India’s Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas + recognized
globally as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by the BirdLife International + housing 20,000 birds of over 280 species
including migratory and endangered birds + not yet declared a protected area by the govt of Haryana + Threat:
Urbanization and upcoming infrastructure development + Def: Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil or
is present near the surface + support both aquatic and terrestrial species
 Places in news: Godavari Estuary in Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS) = meets all nine criteria of Ramsar
Convention but is being ignored + inhabited by endangered species such as fishing cats, Olive Ridley turtles, otters,
and crocodiles + nine criteria laid out by Ramsar Convention includes supporting vulnerable and endangered
species, maintaining biological diversity, and providing refuge during adverse conditions + Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary is the second-largest mangrove forest in India + has over 120 bird species + home to critically
endangered vultures + extensive mangrove and dry deciduous tropical forest + half of the area is backwaters
 Places in news: Gulf of Gabes = gulf on Tunisia’s east coast in the Mediterranean Sea + bounded by Qarqannah
(Kerkena) Islands on the northeast and by Jarbah (Djerba) Island on the southeast + city of Gabs (Ghannouche)
is located at the head of the gulf + Gabs and Sfax are major ports + except for Strait of Gibraltar and Gulf of Venice,
it is the only part of the Mediterranean with a substantial tidal range + Oil and natural-gas deposits have found
in the gulf
 Places in news: Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP) = only floating park in the world + located in Manipur +
integral part of Loktak Lake + characterized by floating decomposed plant material called Phumdi + created in
1966 to protect the natural habitat of the endangered Eld's deer, also known as Sangai + home to the last
remaining population of brow-antlered deer, one of the most endangered deer in the world + Loktak Lake is a
Ramsar site
 Places in news: Khangkhui Mangsor = natural limestone cave system in Manipur + home to Stone Age
communities and a shelter for locals during World War II + Large populations of bats belonging to Rhinolophidae
and Hipposideridae families roosted in the cave system
 Places in news: Orang National Park = Assam govt issued a preliminary notification to add 200.32 sq. km to the
Orang NP + Assam's oldest reserve + located on the northern bank of the Brahmaputra River + home to the great
Indian rhinoceros, pygmy hog, and Bengal tiger + strategic to the Kaziranga Orang Riverine Landscape + tigers
and rhinos use the islands in this landscape to hop between Orang and Kaziranga + Assam govt is pursuing a policy
for the reintroduction of the locally extinct gharial, and the Kaziranga-Orang landscape is ideal for sustaining them
+ Assam has seven National Parks, including Dehing Patkai, Raimona, Kaziranga, Manas, Nameri, Orang, and
Dibru-Saikhowa, with Kaziranga and Manas being UNESCO World Heritage Sites and tiger reserves, along with
Nameri
 Places in news: Sariska Tiger Reserve = massive fire has broken out + 381 forest fires were reported in India with
Madhya Pradesh having the highest number of fires (Forest Survey of India) + Sariska Tiger Reserve, located in
Rajasthan, is the first reserve in the world with successfully relocated tigers + rich in flora and fauna, including
the Royal Bengal Tiger, leopards, Nilgai, Sambar, and chital + threat: marble mining + Other protected areas in
Rajasthan include Desert National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Ranthambore National Park, Sajjangarh
wildlife sanctuary, National Chambal Sanctuary, and Ramgarh Vishdhari wildlife sanctuary
 Places in news: Singalila National Park = will introduce the Red Panda + located in West Bengal + notified as a
National Park in 1992 + Red Panda's number has been declining + currently only 38 in Singalila and 32 in Neora
Valley National Parks + Red Panda Augmentation Programme includes conservation breeding of the Red Panda
+ IUCN Red List: Endangered + also known as the lesser panda + mammal + native to the eastern Himalayas and
southwestern China + inhabiting coniferous and temperate forests, and is mainly herbivorous
 Places in news: Sultanpur National Park = Homestays will be allowed in villages around Sultanpur National Park
in Gurugram to promote tourism + Sultanpur National Park is a bird sanctuary + covers an area of 142.52 hectares
and is a resting place for migratory birds from September to March-April + Sultanpur Jheel inside the park was
accorded sanctuary status in 1971 and the park was upgraded to a national park in 1991 under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act
 Places in news: Pantanal Wetlands = world's largest wetland area + at risk of collapse due to legal land-use
decisions and proposals + located mostly within Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul + extends into Mato Grosso
and portions of Bolivia and Paraguay + contains various sub regional ecosystems with distinct hydrological,
geological and ecological characteristics + Approx. 80% of the Pantanal floodplains are submerged during the
rainy seasons, nurturing a biologically diverse collection of aquatic plants + help to support a dense array of animal
species + largest concentration of crocodiles in the world and jaguars, which hunt caiman in the area + 95% of
the Pantanal is under private ownership, mostly used for cattle grazing
 Podu Cultivation = Podu is a traditional system of cultivation used by tribes in India + different areas of jungle
forest are cleared each year to provide land for crops using slash-and-burn methods + form of shifting agriculture
+ Dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are the crops commonly grown + different names in different regions:
1. Jhum in Assam, 2. Ponam in Kerala, 3. Podu in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha & 4. Bewar masha penda and Bera
in Madhya Pradesh + Telangana govt decided to move non-tribal farmers engaged in shifting cultivation inside
forests to peripheral areas to combat deforestation + Rythu Bandhu scheme (state govt extends financial support
to land-owning farmers at the beginning of the crop season through DBT) + grant helps them cover the expenses
on input requirements such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and labor
 Posidonia Australis: World’s Largest Plant = discovered off the West Coast of Australia + a seagrass 180 km in
length + the plant is 4,500 years old, is sterile, has double the number of chromosomes than other similar plants
+ managed to survive the volatile atmosphere of the shallow Shark Bay
IV. Conservation & Mitigation

 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) = Delhi and other non-attainment cities have shown only
marginal improvement under NCAP + NCAP was implemented in 2019 to reduce particulate matter levels in 132
cities by 20-30% in 2024 + Cities are declared non-attainment if they consistently fail to meet National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) over a five-year period + CPCB is mandated to set standards for the quality of air
under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act + Pollutants covered: 1. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), 2.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), 3. Particulate Matter (size less than 10 m) or PM 10, 4. Particulate Matter (size less than
2.5 m) or PM2.5, 5. Ozone (O3), 6. Carbon Monoxide (CO), 7. Ammonia (NH3) + Air Pollutants that most of us
NEVER heard of: 1.Lead, 2.Benzene (C6H6), 3.Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP), 4.Arsenic(As), 5.Nickel (Ni)
 Occurrence of Lightning = Def: Lightning is a rapid and massive discharge of electricity in the atmosphere + occurs
due to electrical charge difference between two points + generated in moisture-bearing clouds that are 10-12 km
tall + 1. Intercloud or intracloud (IC) lightning (visible and harmless) + 2. Cloud to ground (CG) lightning (harmful
as the high electric voltage discharge for very short time leads to electrocution) + Formation process: Lightning is
caused by the difference in electrical charge between two points + Water vapor moves upwards in the cloud,
condensing and enerating heat + Droplets change into ice crystals, collide and release electrons + creates a chain
reaction that results in a positively charged top layer and negatively charged middle layer of the cloud + potential
difference causes a current to flow, producing heat and shock waves that result in thunder + About 15%-20% of
the current gets directed towards the Earth as lightning
 Orans = Oran Bachao Yatras taking place in Rajasthan for the protection of orans or sacred groves + Def: Orans
are protected areas with sacred values, usually centered around sources of water and a shrine dedicated to a
local deity + defined by a strong community-territory relationship and a well-functioning governance system +
centered around sources of water and typically including woodlots, orchards, pastures, and sacred groves + their
boundaries are established by indigenous and agro-pastoral communities + often associated with religious sites
or burial grounds + find their mentions in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts + home to India's most critically
endangered bird, the Great Indian Bustard + Sacred groves: forest fragments of varying sizes communally
protected and with significant religious connotations for the protecting community + considered symbols of
nature worship and supporting nature conservation + Hunting and logging are strictly prohibited in sacred groves
+ other forms of forest usage are sometimes allowed + Threats: urbanization, over-exploitation of resources, and
clearing for construction of shrines and temples + Around 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all over
India + different names in different states: (1) Sarna in Bihar + (2) Dev Van in Himachal Pradesh + (3) Devarakadu
in Karnataka + (4) Kavu in Kerala + (5) Dev in Madhya Pradesh + (6) Devarahati or Devarai in Maharashtra + (7) Lai
Umang in Maharashtra + (8) Law Kyntang or Asong Khosi in Meghalaya + (9) Kovil Kadu or Sarpa Kavu in Tamil
Nadu
 Ramgarh Vishdhari = Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan + declared as a tiger reserve by the MoEF&CC + India's 52nd
tiger reserve + fourth in Rajasthan + critical for the movement of tigers + home to various other animals such as
the Indian wolf, leopard, striped hyena, chinkara, antelope and foxes + tiger population in the sanctuary is not
high, but it plays an important role in connecting Ranthambore and Mukundra Tiger Reserves of Rajasthan +
Tiger Reserves in India were established in 1973 + are managed by National Tiger Conservation Authority under
Project Tiger + A Tiger Reserve consists of a Core or Critical Tiger Habitat and a Buffer or Peripheral area
immediately abutting a Core area
 Ramsar Sites = India added five new Ramsar sites + total number is 54 + newly added sites: (1) Karikili Bird
Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu), (2) Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest (freshwater marsh, Tamil Nadu), (3) Pichavaram
Mangrove (one of the largest mangrove forests, Tamil Nadu), (4) Pala wetland (largest natural wetland in
Mizoram), (5) Sakhya Sagar (integral part of the Madhav National Park, Madhya Pradesh) + Def: Wetlands are
distinct ecosystems flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, and characterized by aquatic plants
adapted to the unique hydric soil + provide important resources and ecosystem services such as food, water,
groundwater recharge, water purification, flood moderation, erosion control, and climate regulation + India's
Ramsar wetlands cover approx. 10% of the total wetland area in the country + to be designated as a Ramsar site,
a location must meet at least one of the criteria outlined by Ramsar Convention of 1961 + Ramsar Convention is
an international agreement aimed at promoting the conservation and wise use of wetlands + only global treaty
that focuses solely on this ecosystem
 Seoul Forest Declaration = 15th World Forestry Congress held in Seoul + participants adopted Seoul Forest
Declaration + Shared responsibility for forests across institutions, sectors, and stakeholders + Investment in forest
and landscape restoration globally needs to triple by 2030 + importance of a circular bioeconomy and climate
neutrality + Innovative green financing mechanisms + Use of emerging innovative technologies and mechanisms
for evidence-based decision-making + New partnerships launched such as AFFIRM Mechanism and SAFE Initiative
 Single-use plastic = India banned the use of single-use plastic + manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale
and use of SUP plastic, including polystyrene and expanded polystyrene, commodities shall be prohibited + Def:
SUP refers to plastic items that are used once and discarded, including packaging, bottles, bags, face masks, among
others + accounts for a third of all plastic produced globally + 98% manufactured from fossil fuels + India is
ranked 94th among the top 100 countries of single-use plastic waste generation + net generation of 5.6 million
metric tonnes + per capita generation of 4 kg + CPCB announced a ban items measuring under 100 microns +
complete ban on sachets using plastic material for storing, packing or selling gutkha, tobacco, etc. (acc. to Plastic
Waste Management Rules, 2016) + ban on polythene bags extended to polythene bags under 120 microns
 Species in news: Amur Falcon = birds arrive mainly in Manipur and Nagaland during their southbound migration
+ breeding grounds in North China, Eastern Mongolia, and far-east Russia + wintering grounds in South Africa +
Locally known as Akhuipuina + Protection accorded: IUCN Red List: Least Concern + Wildlife (Protection), Act
1972: Schedule IV
 Species in news: Chenkurinji = endemic tree species in the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve, Kerala + tree
belongs to the Anacardiaceae family + was once abundant + present condition of the species is bad with low
regeneration performance + Most trees are old with poor flowering and fruiting rates + medicinal properties + is
used to lower blood pressure and treat arthritis
 Species in news: Dugong = India's first Dugong conservation reserve will be established in Tamil Nadu + will cover
an area of 500 km in Palk Bay + Dugongs are marine mammals and an important part of the marine ecosystem,
living exclusively in the sea + their depletion can have impacts on the food chain + IUCN Red Liststatus: Vulnerable
+ Wild (Life) Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I + CITES : Appendix I + threatened by loss of seagrass beds, which is
caused by ocean floor trawling and human activities such as pollution, illegal fishing, vessel strikes, and unplanned
tourism + Conservation reserves and community reserves are designated as protected areas to act as buffer zones
or connectors between national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and reserved and protected forests + Wildlife
(Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 introduced these protected area categories
 Species in news: Golden Langur = Neighbours of a golden langur habitat in western Assams have opposed a move
by the State government to upgrade it to a wildlife sanctuary + forest is one of the better-known homes of the
golden langur + found only in Assam and Bhutan + has a cream to golden coat with darker flanks, a black face,
and a long tail up to 50 cm in length + lives in high trees and has a herbivorous diet of ripe and unripe fruits,
mature and young leaves, seeds, buds, and flowers + average group size is eight individuals, with a ratio of several
females to each adult male + habitat is bounded on the south by the Brahmaputra River, on the east by the
Manas River, on the west by the Sankosh River in Assam, and on the north by the Black Mountains of Bhutan +
IUCN Red List: Endangered + CITES: Appendix I + Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I
 Species in news: Indian Tent Turtles = listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + highest degree
of protection due to illegal mining in Narmada River and pet trading + IUCN status: Least Concerned + native to
India, Nepal and Bangladesh + three subspecies recorded from the region viz., P. t. tentoria (occurs in Orissa,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Madhya Pradesh), P. t. circumdata (occurs in the western tributaries
of Ganga and the rivers of Gujarat, found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat) and P. t.
flaviventer (occurs in the northern tributaries of Ganga and found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and
Assam) + preferred habitats are freshwater rivers and swamps
 Species in news: Miss Kerala = Denison barb (Miss Kerala) included in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act,
1982 + native freshwater fish species found in parts of Karnataka and Kerala + also known as Red-line torpedo
barb,
Roseline shark, and Sahyadria denisonii + featured with red and black stripes on its body + known to inhabit fast-
flowing hill streams with thick vegetation + Vulnerable on the IUCN Red list + Habitat degradation is caused by
deforestation, mining, agriculture, urban expansion, and hydro-electric projects
 Species in news: Sela Macaque = newly discovered species of old world monkey in Arunachal Pradesh = named
after the Sela Pass + previously identified as the White-Cheeked Macaque due to its white cheeks, long and thick
hairs on the neck area, and longer tail + Sela macaque was geographically separated from the Arunachal macaque
by the Sela Pass + not yet included in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 + faces potential threats from hunting
and habitat degradation due to urbanization and infrastructure development + Sela Pass is a high-altitude
mountain pass located on the border between Tawang and West Kameng districts in Arunachal Pradesh
 Species in news: Snow Leopard = live in the mountainous regions of Central and Southern Asia, and in India + live
in large UTs of J&K and Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh + flagship species
for the high altitude Himalayas + India is party to the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection (GSLEP)
Programme (high-level inter-governmental alliance of all 12 snow leopard range countries) + conservation
efforts: SECURE Himalaya (a community volunteer program), Project Snow Leopard (to promote an inclusive and
participatory approach to conservation), Living Himalayas Initiative (to bring about transformational
conservation impact across the three Eastern Himalayan countries of Bhutan, India (North-East), and Nepal) +
Protection accorded: CITES : Appendix I + IUCN status: Vulnerable + Protection under Wildlife (Protection) Act:
Schedule I
 Species in news: Swamp Deer = population of swamp deer, extinct elsewhere in South Asia and has dipped in the
Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve + also called as barasingha + locally extinct in Pakistan and Bangladesh,
and its presence is uncertain in Bhutan + found in southern Nepal + In Assamese, barasingha is called dolhorina;
dol meaning swamp + also occur in the Kanha National Park of Madhya Pradesh + IUCN Red List: Endangered +
CITES: Appendix I + Wildlife Protection Act of 1972: Schedule I
 Species in news: White-Cheeked Macaque = found in the Arunachal Pradesh + first discovered in China + last
mammal to discovered in Southeast Asia + has distinct white cheeks, long and thick hair on the neck, and a longer
tail than other Macaque species + potential threats are hunting by locals for consumption and habitat degradation
+ not covered by the Wildlife Protection Act of India because its existence in India was not known before
 System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Technique = promises to save 15-20% ground water, improve rice
productivity, and reduce investment on external inputs + suitable for all types of soils + Fields are prepared by
ploughing, laser levelled before transplanting + then 10-12 days old nursery with soil particles around the root is
transplanted in lines + doesn't require continuous flooding and needs intermittent irrigation to maintain soil
moisture near saturation initially, and water is added to the field when the surface soil develops hairline cracks
 Species in news: Great Indian Bustard = Great Indian Bustard (GIB) has adapted a new behavior of laying clutches
of two eggs at a time after receiving additional protein during the monsoon season + largest of the four bustard
species found in India + considered the flagship species of grasslands + GIB population has decreased drastically
to just 150 due to threats such as overhead power transmission, windmills, noise pollution, changes in the
landscape, and cultivation changes + Pakistan supports their hunting + Conservation measures: (1) Species
Recovery Programme of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS)- Development of Wildlife Habitat, (2) conservation
breeding centers, (3) installation of bird diverters, and (4) declaration of GIB habitats as conservation reserves +
Rajasthan government launched Project Great Indian Bustard to protect the species + Protection accorded:
Birdlife International up listed from Endangered to Critically Endangered (2011) + CITES : Appendix I + IUCN
status: Critically Endangered + Protection under Wildlife (Protection) Act: Schedule I
 Sukapaika River = stopped flowing 70 years ago + set to be rejuvenated + Odisha government has started working
on its revival + distributary of the Mahanadi River + branches away from the Mahanadi flows for 40 km before
rejoining its parent river + important for controlling floodwater and maintaining the flow in the Mahanadi River +
Mahanadi River system: largest river system in Odisha + third largest in peninsular India after Godavari and
Krishna + river's catchment area extends to Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Maharashtra
+ Left hand tributaries of Mahanadi: Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, and Ib + Right hand tributaries of Mahanadi: Ong,
Tel, and Jonk + Major Dams/Projects on Mahanadi: Hirakud Dam (longest dam of India) + Ravishankar Sagar,
Dudhawa Reservoir, Sondur Reservoir, Hasdeo Bango and Tandula + Mahanadi basin has abundant mineral and
power resources so the industries
 Tendu Leaves = used as wrappers for tobacco to produce bidi + due to ease of rolling and wide availability, earning
them the nickname "green gold" + also called “abnus” in Andhra Pradesh, “kendu” in Orissa and West Bengal,
“tembru” in Gujarat, “kari” in Kerala, “tembhurni” in Maharahstra, and “bali tupra” in Tamil Nadu + Forest produce
is defined by Indian Forest Act, 1927 and includes several categories like timber, non-timber, and minor minerals
+ Non-timber forest products also called minor forest produce or non-wood forest produce + further categorized
into medicinal and aromatic plants, oilseeds, fiber & floss, resins, edible plants, bamboo, reeds, and grasses
 Theri Desert in Tamil Nadu = small desert consisting of red sand dunes + dunes contain sediments dating back to
the Quaternary Period + made of marine deposits + desert has a low water and nutrient retention capacity +
susceptible to aerodynamic lift + presence of heavy and light minerals (ilmenite, magnetite, rutile, garnet, zircon,
diopside, tourmaline, hematite, goethite, kyanite, quartz, feldspar, and biotite) + iron-rich heavy minerals present
in the soil underwent leaching by surface water and then oxidised due to favourable semi-arid climatic conditions
+ Formation: might have been due to the confinement of beach sand locally after regression of the sea + or due
to high-velocity winds from the Western Ghats blowing east, inducing migration of sand grains and accumulation
of dunes + Another theory: red sand is brought from the surface of a broad belt of red loam in the plains of the
Nanguneri region by south-west monsoon winds + Deforestation and absence of vegetative cover in Aralvaimozhi
gap and Nanguneri plains are considered to be the major causes of wind erosion
 Tiger Density in India = tiger density: Terai and Shivalik hills (10-16 tigers per 100 km2 and in dry deciduous forests
of central India (6-10 tigers per 100 km2) + carrying capacity in the Sunderbans at around 4 tigers per 100 sq km2
+ factors that determine tiger density: availability of food and space, tolerance levels exhibited by locals and
policymakers towards management strategies + tiger population has dropped by 95% over the past 150 years
(World Wide Fund for Nature) + India has 70% of the global tiger population + Madhya Pradesh has the highest,
followed by Karnataka and Uttarakhand + Kanha Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh is the first tiger reserve in India
to officially introduce a mascot, Bhoorsingh the Barasingha + Protection Status: Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972: Schedule I + IUCN Red List: Endangered + CITES: Appendix I + National Tiger Conservation Authority
(NTCA) launched M-STrIPES mobile monitoring system for forest guards + Petersburg Tiger Summit in 2010 saw
leaders of 13 tiger range countries resolve to double the tiger population in the wild with the slogan T X 2 + Global
Tiger Initiative (GTI) program by the World Bank brought global partners together to strengthen the tiger agenda
+ GTIC is its institutionalized form with the Global Tiger Forum and the Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection
Program
 World’s first Fishing Cat Census = done in Chilika Lake + Asia's largest brackish water lagoon + has 176 fishing
cats + census by Chilika Development Authority (CDA) and Fishing Cat Project + Fishing cats are twice the size of
house cats + excellent swimmers + prey on fish and other aquatic creatures + nocturnal + IUCN Red List:
Endangered + CITES: Appendix II + Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I + main threats are habitat
destruction, depletion of prey, and poaching for its skin + Chilika Lake in Odisha + located at the mouth of the
Daya River + the largest coastal lagoon in India + the second largest brackish water lagoon in the world after The
New Caledonian barrier reef + Ramsar Site + formation of Chilika Lake began around 20,000 years ago when
sediment-laden river Mahanadi met the Bay of Bengal, forming sand bars and a huge brackish water lake
V. Disaster Management
 Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) = Union Cabinet approved CDRI as an International
Organization to grant exemptions, immunities, and privileges under the United Nations Act + consisting of
countries, UN agencies, multilateral development banks, private sector, and academic institutions + promote
disaster-resilient infrastructure, research and knowledge sharing in risk management, standards, financing, and
recovery mechanisms + Launched at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit + focuses on developing disaster-
resilience in ecological, social, and economic infrastructure + aiming for substantial changes in policy frameworks,
future infrastructure investments, and reducing economic losses due to disasters
 Tetrapods = Unusual vibrations in Mumbai were caused by the relocation of tetrapods as part of the Coastal Road
Project + four-legged concrete structures used to prevent erosion and water damage along coastlines + first used
in France in the late 1940s + form an interlocking but porous barrier that dissipates the power of waves and
currents + large structures and interlocked tetrapods act as a stable barrier against waves + placed along Marine
Drive in the late 1990s to break and dissipate waves and maintain the reclaimed shoreline in South Mumbai
VI. Geographical Features

 Derecho = The US states were hit by a storm system called a Derecho which turned the skies green + Derecho is
a widespread, long-lived, straight-line windstorm associated with rapidly moving showers or thunderstorms +
generally occur during summertime beginning in May, with most hitting in June and July + sky turns green during
the Derecho due to the interaction of light with the huge amount of water in severe thunderstorms + three types
of Derechos: Progressive, Serial, and Hybrid + mostly occur across central and eastern parts of the United States
+ also been documented elsewhere in the world, including Russia, Germany, Finland, Bulgaria, and Poland
 Hunga Islands, Tonga = Hunga-Tonga-Hunga-Haapai volcano has erupted near Pacific nation of Tonga, causing
large tsunami waves to reach the shore + volcano consists of two small uninhabited islands, Hunga-Haapai and
Hunga-Tonga + eruption produced a tsunami throughout Tonga and neighboring Fiji and Samoa + Pacific Ring of
Fire is an area along Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes + home to about
75% of the world's volcanoes, more than 450 volcanoes, and about 90 per cent of the world's earthquakes occur
here
 India’s first open Rock Museum = in Hyderabad + Geological Survey of India classified rock systems into four
major divisions: 1. Archaean Rock System + 2. Dravidian Rock System + 3. Purana Rock System + 4. Aryan Rock
System + [I] Archaean Rock System: consists of two systems-(a) Achaean granites and gneisses, and (b)
Dharwarian sedimentary + (a) Archaean Gneisses and Schists (pre-2500 million years): contains the first formed
rocks of the earth + primarily gneisses and granites, having no marks of fossils + generally known as the basement
complex or fundamental gneisses + cover two-thirds of peninsular India + occur in the Himalayas + (b) Dharwar
System (2500-1800 million years ago): oldest sedimentary strata, formed from weathering of Archaean rocks
around 2500-1800 million years ago + do not contain fossils and found in metamorphic forms + found in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Chotanagpur plateau, Meghalaya plateau, Aravalis, and the Himalayan region + have
metallic and non-metallic minerals like copper, tin, graphite, lead, zinc, etc. + [II] Dravidian Rock System: also
known as carboniferous rock system + formed during the Paleozoic era, i.e., from 600- 300 million years ago + not
much abundant in India + have plentiful fossils and beginning of coal formation can be seen in this period + quality
of carboniferous coal is high + found in extra- Peninsular regions of the Himalayas and the Gangetic plains +
comprises of limestones, shale and quartzite and Mount Everest is formed of upper Carboniferous limestones +
[III] Purana Rock System: has two divisions: (a) Cuddapah system and (b) Vindhyan system + (a) Cuddapah system:
observed in Cuddapah districts of Andhra Pradesh + non-fossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones and limestones were
accumulated in the depression between two-fold mountains which is known as synclinal basins + have a large
accumulation of building purpose cement grade limestones and quartzites + contains ore of iron, cobalt, nickel,
manganese etc. + (b) Vindhya Rock System: ancient or old sedimentary rocks + derived its name from Vindhya
mountains + diamond-bearing regions from which Golconda and Panna diamond mined + [IV] Aryan Rock System:
has the following four subsystems: (1) Gondwana Rock System: found mainly in Jharkhand, Damodar valley,
Pench valley in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh + found metallic minerals like iron, manganese, uranium etc.
other than coal + low carbon content as it is much younger than Carboniferous coal + have nearly 98% of India’s
coal reserve + (2) Jurassic Rock System: Jurassic period saw marine transgression which caused sea level to rise
and shoreline to move towards land + resulting in floods and shallow-water deposits in Rajasthan and Kutch +
Another transgression occurred between Guntur and Rajamundry on the east coast of the Peninsula + Kuchchh
has coral limestone, shales, and conglomerates + (3) Deccan traps: formed by magma flow over the solidified rock
system and volcanic outbursts from the end of Cretaceous till beginning of Eocene + mainly found in Kuchchh,
Saurashtra, Maharashtra, Malwa plateau, and Northern Karnataka + Regur, or black soil, is formed due to
weathering of these rocks over a long time + (4) Tertiary rock system: formation of this type of rock system occurs
from 60 to 7 million years ago + most noteworthy period in India’s geological history as the Himalayas were born
and recent form came in this period
 International Monsoons Project Office (IMPO) = hosted at Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune,
for five years + will foster international monsoon research under the leadership of the World Climate Research
Programme + it will expand scientific approach to solving monsoon variability, enhance prediction skills, promote
knowledge sharing and capacity building in agriculture, water resources, disaster management, hydropower, and
climate-sensitive socio-economic sectors + Monsoon winds blow from the northeast during cooler months and
from the southwest during the warmest months of the year, bringing large amounts of rainfall
 Mauna Loa = world's largest active volcano, erupted after 38 years, causing ash and debris to fill the sky +
Hawaii’s biggest Volcano + one of five volcanoes that make up the Big Island + While it is not the tallest, it
comprises about half of the island's land mass + is situated north of the currently erupting Kilauea volcano + Any
volcano that has erupted within the Holocene period (the last 11,650 years) is considered to be active + Volcanic
Explosivity Index (VEI) is used to measure the explosivity of a volcano, ranging from 1 to 8, with a higher VEI
indicating greater explosivity + Recently Erupted volcanos: Sangay Volcano (Ecuador), Taal Volcano (Philippines),
Mt. Sinabung,Merapi volcano,Semeru volcano (Indonesia) + Volcanoes in India: Barren Island (Andaman Islands
- India’s only active volcano), Narcondam (Andaman Islands), Baratang (Andaman Islands), Deccan Traps
(Maharashtra), Dhinodhar Hills (Gujarat), Dhosi Hill (Haryana) + Mid-Continental Belt is a volcanic belt that
extends along the Alpine Mountain system of Europe, North America, through Asia Minor, and the Himalayan
Mountain system
 Places in news: Darvaza Gas Crater = also known as the "Gateway to Hell" + crater has been burning for the last
50 years + is located in Karakum desert, Turkmenistan + created in 1971 during a Soviet drilling operation that hit
a pocket of natural gas, causing the earth to collapse and forming three sinkholes + Scientists set fire to the
methane in the pit to stop it from leaking into the atmosphere + tourist attraction + officially renamed the Shining
of Karakum + Methane is harmful as it is the primary contributor to the formation of ground-level ozone + a
hazardous air pollutant and greenhouse gas, which causes one million premature deaths every year + 80 times
more potent at warming than carbon dioxide
 Places in news: Erra Matti Dibbalu = a rare red sand dune formation located between Visakhapatnam and
Bheemunipatnam + reminder of million years of geological processes + is listed among the 34 notified National
Geological Heritage Monument Sites of India by the Geological Survey of India + sediments of Erra Matti Dibbalu
are mainly derived from the Khondalite rocks of the Eastern Ghats and hold significant geological value
 Places in news: Shiveluch Volcano = on Kamchatka Peninsula, Russian Far East is in danger of violent eruption
due to increased activity + one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Kamchatka + erupted at least 60 times
in the past 10,000 years + home to 29 active volcanoes, part of the Ring of Fire, prone to eruptions and
earthquakes + has two main parts: Old Shiveluch and Young Shiveluch within an ancient caldera + Young
Shiveluch, the smaller peak, is the extremely active part with a growing lava dome and stronger fumarole activity
 Western Disturbances = extratropical storms that bring sudden winter rain to northwestern parts of the Indian
subcontinent, caused by westerlies + carry moisture in the upper atmosphere, originating from the
Mediterranean, Caspian, and Black seas + result in moderate to heavy rainfall in low-lying areas and heavy snow
in mountainous areas, affecting winter and pre-monsoon season rainfall across northwest India + occur more
frequently during the winter season and are crucial for agriculture, especially for rabi crops like wheat, which is
vital for India's food security

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II. Climate Change

III. Conservation & Mitigation

IV. Conservation & Mitigation

VI. Geographical Features

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