PMS 2023 L1 Test Solutions

• Continental Islands (e.g.
Islands of the Greater Antilles such as Cayman Islands, Cuba,

Hispaniola, etc. and Bahamas group of Islands):
➢ These were once connected to the American continent but separated due to either sea-
level rise or due to the erosion of portions of the mainland by rivers, lakes and ocean
waves.
• Tectonic and Volcanic Islands (e.g. most of the lesser Antilles islands such as Antigua and
Barbuda, Dominica, Martinique, Barbados, etc.):
➢ These Islands were mostly formed by the Ocean-ocean convergence, in which the
South American plate subducted into the Caribbean plate.
➢ At the zone of subduction, sediments in the oceanic plate come out as magma in the
form the volcanic eruptions.
➢ Layer by layer formation of such mountains formed lesser Antilles group of Islands,
which eventually merges to form Island arcs.
➢ This subduction is responsible for the existence of active volcanoes on the Lesser
Antilles (e.g. active volcano Mount Pelée)
➢ Southern Islands: Caribbean Plate interacts with the South American Plate
forming Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago (on the Caribbean Plate), and Venezuela’s
island (including the Leeward Antilles; formed on South American plate).
➢ This boundary is in part the result of transform faulting, along with thrust faulting and
some subduction.
➢ The petroleum-rich Venezuelan oilfields are the result of this complex plate
interaction.
• Coral Islands (e.g. Florida Keys and Barbados (formed by both tectonic as well as coral
growth)): These were mostly formed by coral growth due to warm and shallow water of the
Caribbean Sea providing good ground for coral formation.
Conclusion:
A recent powerful earthquake in Haiti (on the Greater Antilles) in Aug 2021 and the previous one
in 2010 has highlighted the complex movement of the Caribbean plate which has formed these
Islands in the 1st place. Also, the formation of the Caribbean archipelago bears resemblance to
the formation of thousands of islands in South-East Asia, in the Indian Ocean.
2. Continental drift theory was initially ridiculed, but it paved the way for plate tectonics to
explain how Earth’s continents move. Elaborate.
Keywords Continental drift theory (CDT)

Introduction Define in brief CDT and why was it ridiculed.
Explain the evidence and drawbacks of CDT and how
Body
Plate tectonics is an improvement over it.
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Conclude by highlighting that the CDT was just
Conclusion foundational theory and paved the way for future
research on the movement of the earth crust.
Introduction
Alfred Wegener in his paper in 1912 hypothesized that all of the modern-day continents had
previously been clumped together in a supercontinent he called Pangaea. Over 200 million years,
the continents had drifted apart. This was called continental drift theory. But it was widely
ridiculed as a mere hypothesis. It was only in the 1960s, when technologies had developed that
the validity of his theory was proved and further enhanced by McKenzie and Parker, through their
theory of plate tectonics.
Body:
Forces that made continents drift apart (as per Wegener)
• Centrifugal force due to earth’s rotation: causes equator wards drift of the continents.
• Tidal current (tidal current acts east to west as the earth rotates west to east): causes drift
of continents westwards.
• Tidal force (due to gravitational pull of the moon and the sun)
Evidence used by Wegener for his continental drift theory:
Issues with Continental drift theory:
• Unscientific: Wegner’s forces such as tidal currents, gravity are too weak to be able to move
continents.
• Missing links: Wagner’s theory doesn’t consider oceans
• Wegner’s theory doesn’t explain the origin of drift, why it began only in the Mesozoic era
and not before.
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Based on Wegener’s original idea of CDT, McKenzie and Parker in 1967 gave the theory of Plate
tectonics:
As per the theory, the earth’s lithosphere (crust + top part of the upper mantle) is broken into
roughly 20 sections called tectonic plates which float on a ductile layer in the upper part of the
mantle called the asthenosphere. It is the movement of these lithospheric plates, which results
in the formation of various landforms. The force driving it is the convection current in the mantle.
How Plate tectonics theory was an improvement over CDT:
Features CDT Plate Tectonics Theory
Theory Only able to explain the Explains movement and formation of
movement of Continents. both continents and ocean
Origin of drift Mesozoic era- does not Drift is cyclical (Pangaea will form and
explain pre Mesozoic era drift time and again)
Evidence Too generalistic and based Based on well-studied scientific
on assumptions e.g. evidence e.g. gravitational anomalies at
apparent affinity of physical trenches, paleomagnetism has been
features scientifically proved.
Use CDT helped in the evolution Plate tectonics theory was based on
of convection current CDT, convection current theory, and
theory, seafloor spreading, seafloor spreading.
and plate tectonic theory.
Conclusion:
Thus CDT was the foundational theory with its share of drawbacks, plate tectonics theory has
tried to improve it based on new observations. Also, scientists have found that the planet’s
continents will likely again be joined together in about 250 million years. Researchers have
dubbed this future continental configuration “Pangaea Proxima”
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3. What do you understand by the term Sea snot? Discuss its impact on marine life and economic
activity.
Keywords Sea Snot

Economic Activity and Marine life
Introduction Explain the term Sea Snot
Body How and where it has formed.

What are the impacts of Sea Snot.
Way forward
Conclusion A relevant closing statement.
Introduction:
There has been growing environmental concern in Turkey over the accumulation of ‘sea snot’, a
slimy layer of grey or green sludge in the country’s seas (Sea of Marmara), which can cause
considerable damage to the marine ecosystem.
Sea snot is a thick, slimy grey-brown sheet known as marine mucilage that is formed by dead and
living organic material. The sludge forms when algae overloaded with nutrients fests on warm
weather due to climate change.
Body:
Causes for formation of sea snot:
• Sea Snot is marine mucilage that is formed when algae are overloaded with nutrients as a
result of water pollution combined with the effects of climate change.
• The nutrient overload occurs when algae feast on warm weather caused by global
warming. Factors causing nutrient overload:
➢ The overproduction of phytoplankton caused by climate change.
➢ Uncontrolled dumping of untreated household and industrial waste into sea has led
to high pollution from organic compounds like nitrogen and phosphorous.
• The rising water temperatures have also played their part. For instance, the water
temperature in Marmara has increased by 2 to 2.5 degrees Celsius over the past 20 years,
above the global average which has become a prime factor leading to the sea snot outbreak.
• Ever increasing population, which has triggered overfishing in the seas causes a major loss
to the aquatic biodiversity making it vulnerable to sea snot outbreaks.
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Major Impacts of Sea Snot:
Impact on marine life:
• Severe algal growth and the mucilage blocks light that is needed for plants, such as
seagrass, to grow.
• When the algae and seagrass die, they decay and in this process the oxygen in the water is
used up and this leads to low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water. This, in turn, can kill
fish, crabs, oysters, and other aquatic animals.
• The mucilage is now covering the surface of the sea has also spread to 80-100 feet below
the surface, if left unchecked this can collapse to the bottom and cover the sea floor, causing
major damage to the marine ecosystem.
• It has caused mass deaths among the fish population, and also killed other aquatic
organisms such as corals and sponges.
• The large diversity of the sea creatures will be severely affected.
• Fish would not be able to complete their migration, thus threatening fish stocks for the
coming year due to their inability to lay eggs and reproduce.
Impact on economic activity:

• Threat to fishing industry:
➢ The livelihood of fisherman is getting affected as the sludge is getting collected in
their nets, making them so heavy that they break or get lost.
➢ Moreover, the mucilage coating the strings makes the nets visible to fish and keeps
them away.
• It can cause an outbreak of water-borne diseases such as cholera in cities like Istanbul and
cause further strain to the healthcare industry and affect human capital.
Actions being taken in Turkey to control the Sea Snot outbreak:

The following measures are being taken by the Turkey authorities to control the sea snot
outbreak:
• The entire Sea of Marmara has been declared as a protected area.
• A massive clean-up operation has been launched by the authorities using tanker trucks with
suction hoses that effectively act like giant vacuum cleaners.
• In order to prevent the smudge from recurring, immediate steps will be taken to control
water pollution and improve the wastewater treatment.
• The local people, NGOs, environment activists and artists have also joined hands in the
cleaning campaign.
Way forward:
• Measures must be taken to preserve the environment and climate as ultimately irregularities
in the climatic conditions and increasing global warming have resulted in the spread of the
smudge.
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• Steps for treatment of waste water from coastal areas and ships must be prioritised.
• All necessary actions must be taken by the authorities to preserve the water bodies and
control water pollution.
Conclusion:
We as a human beings must put in our efforts to reduce marine pollution as oceans are considered
to be the lungs of the planet, a critical part of the biosphere and are a major source of food and
medicine.
4. What is Phosphorus cycle? Outline the distribution of phosphate rock reserves and production
in India and the world.
Keywords Phosphorus cycle, phosphate reserves
Give the importance of phosphate rock for India and the
Introduction
context of the question.
Describe the phosphorus cycle with a diagram. Give the
details of the phosphate rock reserves and production
Body in India and the world. Also, give reasons for
government focus becoming Atmnirbhar in Phosphorus
production.
Conclude by highlighting the increasing demand for
Conclusion
phosphorus in the future.
Introduction:
Phosphorous is an element, which is essential to plant and animal life. It plays an important role
in cell development. Insufficient phosphorus in the soil can result in a decreased crop yield. Also,
rock Phosphate is the key raw material for DAP and NPK fertilizers and India is 90% dependent
on imports. The government has therefore recently prepared an Action Plan to make India
Aatmanirbhar in Rock Phosphate.
Body:
Phosphorus Cycle:
The Phosphorus Cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the translocation and
transformation of phosphorus in the soil, water, and living and dead organic material. It involved
following stpes:
• Weathering of phosphate from the rock: Weathering, leaching, and mining of phosphate
rocks and sedimentary deposits help release phosphorus from these sources.
• Absorbed from the soil by Plants: Once released, some phosphorus passes through the food
webs of ecosystems—from plants and other producers to predators, grazing animals, and
parasites, returning to the environment when these organisms die and decay.
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• Runoff into lakes and ocean: Much of the released phosphorus from the rocks as well as
those leached from soil, runoffs to the ocean where it is circulated in the marine food web—
taken up by algae and other organisms and incorporated in their tissues. Phosphorus is
returned to land when fish and other marine organisms are harvested and also through
guano (droppings) from seabirds.
• Sedimentation: Phosphorus deposited in deep ocean sediments is less available to circulate.
These sediments of phosphate rock come up again by the plate tectonic process.
• The loss of phosphorus in these deep sediments means that, overall, more phosphorus
moves from land to ocean than returns from ocean to land. Thus, to maintain agricultural
productivity, farmers have to add phosphorus-rich fertilizers to soils ( such as DAP and NPK
fertilizers )
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Distribution of phosphate rock:
• World: Phosphate rock deposits can be sedimentary or igneous and are mined from
sedimentary deposits formed by the deposition of phosphate-rich materials in marine
environments. Large sedimentary deposits are located in China, Northern Africa, Middle
East, and the United States.
o Also, the igneous deposits are mined in Brazil, Finland, Canada, South Africa, Russia,
and Zimbabwe.
o The top four producers of phosphate rock in the world (2019) are: China (produced
nearly half of the world’s total production), Morocco and Western Sahara, the USA
and Russia
• In India main reserves are found in 34% is in Jharkhand, 31% in Rajasthan, 19% in Madhya
Pradesh, 8% in Uttar Pradesh, and 8% Uttarakhand. Small quantities of resources are also
located in Gujarat and Meghalaya.
o In India, Rock Phosphate production is mainly from two states: Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh.
o Imports in India were mainly from Jordan (37%), Egypt (29%), and Morocco (15%)
Issues with phosphorus:

• Import dependency (India imports 90% of its phosphate requirement): Any volatility in
international prices affects the domestic prices of fertilizers and impedes farmer’s interests.
• Pollution: Sewage and runoff from the agricultural fields is the main cause of excessive
growth of microscopic plants (phytoplankton) in lakes and rivers (leads to eutrophication)
o India ranks 2nd in global phosphorus pollution after china
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Need for sustainable use:
Phosphate rock is a finite, irreplaceable, nonrenewable resource. And it can be depleted in the
future. Therefore there is a need for resource conservation by:
• Phosphorus recovery: phosphorus recovery can be carried out from wastewater and its
sludge, due to their high phosphorus content.
o Chemical precipitation is the main process for achieving a phosphorus-containing
mineral suitable for reuse as a fertilizer, such as struvite.
• Reduction of food waste may have the potential to conserve significant amounts of
phosphorus
• Recycling of human wastes
Conclusion:
In India, phosphate production in 2 million tn (2016-17) while the demand was 4.5 million tn
(demand for phosphate fertilizers is expected to increase gradually). Given the importance of
phosphorus for the agriculture sector in India, there is a need for recovery and optimum
consumption of phosphorus. Also, the government is trying to explore the indigenous deposits of
phosphoric rocks.
5. Wind is one of the most dominating geomorphic agents in shaping the earth’s surface in cold
as well as in arid climates. Explain
Keywords Wind, Geomorphic agent, Cold and arid climate
Introduction Briefly describe wind as a geomorphic agent
Give the erosion and depositional features formed by
Body
the wind in both cold and Arid climates.
Conclude by highlighting the usefulness of wind erosion
Conclusion
for climate and life forms.
Introduction:
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Geomorphic agents are moving mediums such as running water, wind, waves, etc. which remove,
transport and deposit earth materials. The wind is an important geomorphic agent in cold and
arid environments, where fine sediments are exposed to wind e.g. beaches, deserts, soil
disturbed by agriculture.
Body:
In the Cold Climate:

Wind plays an important role in cold climate geomorphology.
Main reasons for this are:
• High frequency of strong winds and storms in the Arctic
• low precipitation
• reduction of the vegetation cover by the cold, which is increased by the wind blowing away
the snow and exposing the ground surface, leading to the destruction of the vegetation.
Impact on landscapes and landforms by winds in cold regions”

• Extremely strong winds are well-known both from the Arctic and Antarctica.
• In South Victoria Land, Antarctica and on both sides of the peninsula of West Antarctica,
‘where rock is exposed, denudation is powerful as a result of summer insolation, frost
weathering, and strong winds.
• The violent wind acts as a formative agency on rock and snow surfaces.
• Lack of vegetation in periglacial areas greatly increases the efficacy of the wind.
• It transports snow, dust, and sand;creates small heaps of coarse detrital material like those
in stony deserts; it polishes boulders and bed rock; it furrows the snow and shapes it into
sharp-edged sastrugi’
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• Arctic and Antarctic are characterized by strangely eroded rocks, special wind-formed lakes,
dunes, and loess deposits that owe their formation to wind erosion controlled by snow cover
and frost formation.
• Secondary effects of wind in cold environment:
➢ Snow drift and accumulation, glacier formation, permafrost formation, deflation
features which could later be lake basins, and deposition of mineral material together
with snow, so called niveo-haeolian deposits.
➢ Deflation of snow cover can increase the thickness of permafrost, and form patterned
ground which has connections with wind activity.
• Loess (both in an arid and cold climate): Loess is the fine, mineral-rich dust, which
accumulates at the edges of the desert.
o E.g. Loess from Gobi (cold desert) to Korea, Japan, Taiwan (at times), and even Western
USA (blowing east)
o Loess deposits are found in northern China, central Europe, the Great Plains of North
America, and parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
o Loess develops into very fertile agricultural soil
In arid climate:
Landforms formed due to wind erosion:
• Mushroom rocks: rock pedestal shaped as mushroom due to erosion by wind
• Deflation basins or blowouts: formed by the removal of particles by wind
• Inselbergs or Monadnock: It is an isolated hill rising abruptly from the level surrounding
plains.
• Yardangs: These are the ridge of rock formed parallel to the prevailing wind direction.
• Wind bridges: holes formed by powerful winds when widened to form an arch-like feature.
• Demoiselles: Rock pillars formed by differential erosion of layers of resistant rocks above
soft rocks
• Zeugen: It is a table-shaped rock formed when more resistant rock is reduced at a slower
rate than softer rocks surrounding it
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Landforms formed due to deposition by wind:
• Ripple Marks: It is formed by saltation (i.e. the transport of dust particles over an uneven
surface
• Sand dunes: These are the mounds of sand in the deserts.
o Longitudinal dunes: It is parallel to the wind movement e.g. In the Sahara, Libyan,
Australian, South African, and India’s Thar deserts.
o Transverse dunes: It is deposited perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction
o Barchans: are crescent-shaped dunes, with the windward side being convex
o Parabolic dunes: It is U-shaped but is much longer and narrower than barchans.
• Aeroplankton: these are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the wind.
Aeroplankton deposits millions of airborne viruses and bacteria every day on every square
meter around the planet.
Conclusion:
Wind erosion and the transport of dust particles from deserts play an important role in ecosystems
globally, e.g. by transport of minerals from the Sahara to the Amazon basin. Saharan dust is also
responsible for forming red clay soils in southern Europe. Also, the Indian monsoon gets
enhanced by the Arabian dust thus benefitting the farmers.
6. Describe the phenomenon of Madden Julian Oscillation. Contrast its impact on Indian monsoon
with that of El Nino Southern oscillations.
Keywords Describe, Contrast; MJO, ENSO, Indian monsoon.
Introduction Relevant introduction defining MJO.
Body • Characteristics and Functioning of MJO phenomenon,

• Impact on Indian monsoon,
• ENSO- differentiate its impact from that of MJO.
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Conclusion Relevant and balanced take on the issue with optimistic conclusion.
Introduction:
Madden Julian Oscillation is a traversing oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon which affects
weather activities across the globe. It can be defined as an eastward moving 'pulse' of clouds,
rainfall, winds and pressure near the equator that typically recurs every 30 to 60 days.
Body:
It brings major fluctuation in tropical weather, leading to enhanced and suppressed rainfall
activity in the tropics, on weekly to monthly timelines. It is most prominent over the Indian and
Pacific Oceans, and is very important for the Indian monsoonal rainfall.
• MJO consists of two parts or phases. Strong MJO activity often dissects the planet into
halves. One half within the enhanced convective phase and the other half in the
suppressed convective phase.
o Enhanced rainfall (or convective) phase: winds at the surface converge, and the air
is pushed up throughout the atmosphere. At the top of the atmosphere, the winds
reverse (i.e., diverge). Such rising air motion in the atmosphere tends to increase
condensation and rainfall.
o Suppressed rainfall phase: winds converge at the top of the atmosphere, forcing air
to sink and, later, to diverge at the surface. As air sinks from high altitudes, it warms
and dries, which suppresses rainfall.
• It is this whole dipole structure that moves west to east with time in the Tropics, causing
more cloudiness, rainfall, and even turbulence in the enhanced convective phase, and more
sunshine and dryness in the suppressed convective phase.
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Impact of MJO on Indian Monsoon
• The journey of MJO goes through eight phases. When it is over the Indian Ocean during
the Monsoon season with a low periodicity (~30 days), it brings good rainfall over the
Indian subcontinent.
• On the other hand, when it witnesses a longer cycle (>40 days) and stays over the Pacific
Ocean, MJO could lead to a dry Indian Monsoon.
• In simple terms, shorter the cycle of MJO, better the Indian Monsoon; because then MJO
visits the Indian Ocean more often during the four-month-long period.
El Nino and MJO are both oceanic and atmospheric phenomena, which affect weather on a
large scale up to the mid-latitudes.
• The El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an irregular cycle of change in wind and sea
surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of
much of the tropics and subtropics.
o The warming phase of the sea temperature is known as El Nino and the cooling phase
as La Nina.
o This sea temperature oscillation is accompanied by an oscillation in the weather
patterns in the tropical western Pacific.
o ENSO is known to strongly influence the rain in many countries in South America and
Asia.
Contrasting impact:
• El Nino phenomenon is static and impacts over the fixed positions in the tropics, while MJO
is a traversing phenomenon.
• El Nino i.e. warming of surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean is associated with lower
than normal monsoon rainfall in India, while MJO has a varying impact.
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• Presence of MJO over the Pacific Ocean along with an El Nino is detrimental for Monsoon
rains.
Conclusion:
In a country like India, where majority of agricultural activities are in the form of dry land farming,
the variability of monsoon needs to be accurately predicted. The study of these phenomenons
hence acquires a lot of importance, particularly due to changing weather patterns as a result of
climate change.
7. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) have become emblematic of a changing mountain
cryosphere especially in the Himalayas. Elucidate.
Keywords Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)

Introduction Briefly define what is GLOF
Explain how changing the cryosphere in the mountain is
Body leading to increasing GLOFs. List down some of the
impacts and measures to be taken in the case of GLOFs.
Conclude by stating the importance of glacial lakes and
Conclusion
NDMA guidelines to mitigate the impact of GLOFs.
Introduction:
The cryosphere refers to frozen components of the Earth system e.g. snow, ice sheets, glaciers,
ice shelves, lake ice, etc. A GLOF refers to the flooding that is caused when the water dammed by
moraine or glacier is released suddenly. Recent GLOF in Chamoli (Uttarakhand) (Feb 2021) and
Kedarnath tragedy (2013) remind us of GLOF caused by changing cryosphere in the Himalayas.
Body:
Changes in the mountain cryosphere (due to global warming) has increased the severity and
frequency of GLOF
• As per the recently released IPCC AR6 report:
o Global warming will lead to the receding Snowline & Melting Glaciers over the
coming decades, thereby impacting the mountain cryosphere across the world,
including the Himalayas.
▪ This global nature of glacier retreat, with almost all of the world’s glaciers
retreating synchronously, since the 1950s is unprecedented.
o This will cause increased glacial lake formations, increased floods, and increased
scarcity of water in the future, esp. in the states across the Himalayas.
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o E.g. Glacier thinning and retreat in the Sikkim Himalayas (primarily due to global
warming) has resulted in the formation of new glacial lakes and the enlargement of
existing ones due to the accumulation of melt-water.
• Data from satellite observations (Study by UNDP 2010): The frequency of GLOF events is
increasing in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region since the second half of the 20th
century due to the combined effects of climate change and deforestation.
• Mountain Slopes (as per IPCC SROCC report): Retreating glaciers have destabilized
mountain slopes increasing the chances of potentially dangerous glacial lake formation.
o The Himalayan states such as Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Jammu and
Kashmir, are surrounded by more than 200 potentially dangerous glacial lakes formed
by glacial melt.
• As per the new study published in ‘The Cryosphere’: Glacier hazards will increase as the
climate warms. It has predicted increased GLOF frequencies during the next decades and
into the 22nd century.
• As per the Kathmandu-based ICIMOD “Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment” (2019): Melting
glaciers will increase river flows, pushing up risks of high altitude lakes bursting their banks
causing floods (GLOFs). From the 2060s, however, river flows will decline
Causes of GLOF: Melting glaciers leaves behind water accumulated around the loose, natural
“glacial/moraine dams” made of sand, pebbles, ice, and ice residue. As these dams are loose and
weak they abruptly breach on top of the glacial lake which causes flash floods in the downstream
areas.
GLOFs have three features:
• Sudden releases of water
• Very rapid events, lasting hours to days
• Large downstream river discharges
Factors that trigger GLOFS:
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8. Enumerate some of the impacts and implications of Marine Heat waves on Ecosystem Structure
and Biodiversity of the Oceans in the world.
Keywords Marine Heat Waves (MHWs), Ecosystem, Biodiversity
Introduction Define in brief MHW
Enumerate some of the causes of MHW. Also, give its
implication with focus on ecosystem and biodiversity
Body
changes in the ocean. Try to show on a map the places
affected by MHWs in recent times.
Conclude by giving some measures to mitigate the
Conclusion
impact of MHWs.
Introduction:
Similar to the heat waves in the atmosphere, Marine Heat Waves (MHWs) occur when ocean
temperatures are extremely warm for an extended period of time (seawater temperatures exceed
a seasonally varying threshold for at least 5 consecutive days). As per the IPCC report, MHWs has
become twice more frequent in the past four decades and are having a significant impact on the
Marine ecosystem.
Body:
Causes of MHWs:
• Ocean currents: It can create areas of warm water and air-sea heat flux
• Warm air: It can enhance (e.g. Sirocco warm local winds in the Mediterranean) or suppress
the warming in an MHW.
• Atmospheric warming of ocean surface
o Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have increased by 0.6°C per century since 1880 (as
per IPCC AR5).
• El Niño, La Nina, and other Climate models: They can affect the temperature of the ocean
across regions.
Impacts and implications of MHWs:
• Changes Ecosystem structure: MHWs support certain species and suppresses others. E.g.,
after the MHWs in Western Australia, the fish communities had become more “tropical”
nature.
o Also, In the Pacific Ocean, there has been the growth of toxin-producing
algae and suppression of growth of small organisms at the base of the ocean food
chain.
• Can introduce invasive animals in the marine ecosystem due to altered temperature and
habitat range.
o Spiny sea urchin (southeastern Australia) has been moving southward into Tasmania
at the expense of kelp forests which it feeds upon
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• Ecosystem vulnerabilities have increased: Marine ecosystems beyond a certain coping
range won’t be able to survive.
o E.g. Heat Wave Killed Marine Wildlife en Masse in a huge die-off along the Pacific Coast
(June-July 2021)
• Leads to Biodiversity loss: e.g. 2016 MHW in Australia caused severe bleaching of the Great
Barrier Reef
• Marine productivity has reduced: MHWs reduce mixing between water layers, thus
reducing, the supply of oxygen and nutrients for marine life.
• Economic Impact: e.g. outbreaks of Pacific oyster mortality syndrome (affected the pacific
oyster aquaculture industry and tension between the US and Canada)
o MHW impacted the abalone fishery (Australia, 2011)
Conclusion:
As per the IPCC report, human activities are responsible for 84 to 90 % of the MHWs in the last
decade. By 2081, the frequency of marine heatwaves could jump by 20 to 50 times. Thus there is
a need for raising general awareness and improving our scientific understanding of MHWs
physical properties and ecological impacts to better predict future conditions and protect
vulnerable marine resources and habitats.
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9. In the present day scenario of climate change and globalised land market, discuss the impact of
depleting land resources on the economy and society of nations, with relevant examples.
Keywords Discuss, depleting land resources, impact, examples.
Introduction Relevant introduction explaining the context of depleting land resources.
Body • Land resources and their depletion,

• Impact of depleting land resources,
• Explain with examples.
Conclusion Relevant and balanced conclusion.
Introduction:
When natural resources are consumed or exploited faster than they get replenished, it leads to
their depletion. Land resources are getting depleted at a faster rate in recent decades than ever
before, as a result of exploding population, ever increasing demands, land degradation and
desertification.
o In India itself, close to one-third of the land is considered degraded at present.
o Goal 15 of Sustainable Development Goals rightly emphasizes to “Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss".
Body:
Many factors contribute to this phenomenon and in turn worsen the impact of such depletion.
• Overburdening due to rising population: The total global population is more than seven
billion. An increase in the populace expands the need for resources and conditions necessary
to sustain it, leading to depletion of land resources. In addition, it contributes to increased
ecological contamination.
• Poor farming practices: Humans are causing a lot of stress to land resources due to the over-
reliance on food production for daily nutritional requirements.
o Poor irrigation practices, for example, are a key contributing factor to salinization and
alkalization of the soil that sustains plant growth.
o Poor soil management practices and the use of heavy machinery and farming
equipment also destroy the soil structure making it unsuitable for plant growth.
o Some farming practices such as excessive use of pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides
equally kill important soil micro-organisms that are essential in replenishing nutrients
in the soil.
• Deforestation: The World Bank reported that the net loss of global forest between 1990 and
2016 was 1.3 million square kilometers. Globally we deforest around ten million hectares of
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o This hinders the economic activities including agriculture of nations and forces them to
depend on other countries. They are then exposed to market fluctuations.
• Increased stress on remaining resources: As proportion of infertile wastelands and dumping
grounds increases, more pressure is created on remaining land resources to provide for the
population’s increasing demands. It jeopardises food and nutrition security, even leading to
famines.
• Ecological services: Land resources form the basis of many ecosystems, when soil quality
reduces; other activities dependent on this resource also deteriorate, for example, eco-
tourism. Economic value of ecological services is also lost in the process.
• Extinction of species: Other life forms, flora as well as fauna, are not able to survive in the
depleted region. The economic activities such as animal rearing, etc are negatively impacted.
Impact on society
• Increased social disparity: Land degradation sharpens the impact of poverty, social divides,
fuelling the social conflicts.
• Vulnerable to disasters: It leads to increased occurrence of natural hazards like drought,
landslides, floods, etc. They take a toll on human life and property as well as the economy of
the nation.
• Ecological disturbance and loss of biodiversity is compounded by loss of natural as well as
cultural heritage and traditional knowledge, for example, Adivasi tribal practices and
customs.
• Social harmony is eroded as struggle for limited resources (for example, food, water,
housing) creates social tensions, even riots and civil strife.
• Political instability: Depleting and degrading land resource also threatens the hold of the
state/ government over the body politic. Many African nations are suffering from this
phenomenon.
Conclusion:
Programs aimed at checking against deforestation such as REDD (Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation) created by the World Bank, the New York Declaration on
Forests and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Bonn
Challenge, etc are initiatives that could help reduce the depletion of natural resources. Nations
across different geographies need to come together to build a consensus and take concerted
actions.
23
10. Explain the concept of 'Day light Saving Time'. Analyse the role played by DST in the economy
of an area.
Keywords Day light saving time

Role played by DST in economy of an area
Introduction Explain the concept of DST
Body About DST.

Objectives of DST.
DST role in economy of an area.
Conclusion A relevant closing statement.
Introduction:
Daylight Saving Time, also called summer time, is the system for uniformly advancing clocks, so
as to extend daylight hours during conventional waking time in the summer months. In countries
in the Northern Hemisphere, clocks are usually set ahead one hour in late March or in April and
are set back one hour in late September or in October.
Body:
About DST:
• The practice was first suggested in a whimsical essay by Benjamin Franklin in 1784.
• Several countries, including Australia, Great Britain, Germany, and the United States,
adopted summer Daylight Saving Time during World War I to conserve fuel by reducing the
need for artificial light.
• DST is in practice in some 70 countries, including those in the European Union.
• India does not follow daylight saving time; countries near the Equator do not experience
high variations in daytime hours between seasons. (There is, however, a separate debate
around the logic of sticking with only one time zone in a country as large as India.)
• In the US, it is practiced everywhere except in Hawaii and most of Arizona. In Australia, DST
is observed in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania besides some other,
smaller territories; and not observed in Queensland and Western Australia among other
territories.
Objectives for using DST
24
• Achieve energy efficiency: Increasing focus on energy efficiency due to climate change
because of over consumption of energy makes DST relevant. DST is thus environmentally
sustainable concept.
• To ensure that the clocks show a later sunrise and later sunset — in effect ensure a longer
evening daytime.
• Completion of routine work an hour earlier.
• DST is meant to save energy.
DST role in economy of an area
Possible Positive role:
• On energy consumption:
➢ Energy is an important sector of the economy that creates jobs and value and extends
its reach into economy thus contributes to economic growth and daylight saving time
has its purported effect on energy usage.
➢ A report presented by U.S Department of Energy to Congress concluded that four week
extension of daylight time saved about 0.5% of the nation’s electricity per day.
• On Retail:
➢ Those who benefit most from DST are the retailers, sporting goods makers, and other
businesses that benefit from extra afternoon sunlight.
➢ Having more hours of sunlight in between the end of the typical workday and bedtime
induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports.
➢ In 1984, Fortune magazine estimated that a seven-week extension of DST would yield
an additional $30 million for 7-Eleven stores
• On leisure sector:
➢ The National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry
revenues $200 million to $300 million.
➢ A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union's
leisure sector by about 3%.
• On human capital:
➢ As we know economic impact of a better health could add $12 trillion to global GDP
in 2040 and DST can significantly contribute to it as DST proponents argue the benefits
of longer evenings in providing healthier lifestyle and a better healthy society.
• Increased safety: Crime rates and traffic accidents decrease as a result of less evening
activity in the dark
Possible negative role:

• On Agriculture sector:
➢ DST can harm some farmers and others whose hours are set by the sun. One reason
why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when
field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer, their labor is less valuable.
25
➢ Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change due to DST. Their cows
are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems.
• On energy consumption:
➢ Critics of DST argue lights have become increasingly efficient, so lighting is responsible
for a smaller chunk of total energy consumption than it was a few decades ago. Heating
and cooling probably matter more, and some places may need air-conditioning for the
longer, hotter evenings of summer daylight saving time.
• Loss of workdays due to injuries:
➢ A study of mining injuries across the U.S., found that there was a spike in workplace
injuries of nearly 6 percent on the Monday following the shift to daylight saving time.
➢ An even greater cause for concern is that the severity of these injuries, as measured by
days of work lost because of the injuries, increased by a whopping 67 percent,
representing 2,600 more workdays lost, simply because of injuries experienced on
that one day.
• On labour and work productivity:

➢ Workplace productivity the week after DST drastically decreases. People are tired and
lethargic due to a reduction in sleep.
➢ For instance, a slight drop in stock market performance is usually observed after the
switch
• On human health affecting human capital:
➢ DST increases the risk of heart attack by 25%, while a return to original times lowers
the risk by 21%.
➢ The disrupted sleep patterns might affect memory, learning, social interactions and
overall cognitive performance.
➢ Several health problems as a result of disruption of the circadian rhythm (body clock)
• On accidents:
➢ One hour of lost sleep in the US, one study calculated, increases the fatal crash rate by
5.4% to 7.6% for six days following the transition.
Conclusion:
Inspite of the above mentioned points it would be hard to attribute any gains or losses
economically to daylight saving time because there are so many other potential variables.
26
11. Plate tectonics has an important role to play in formation of various landforms on earth. Discuss.
Keywords Plate tectonics, formation of landforms
Introduction Give a brief introduction on tectonic landform
Body Write about landforms formed due to plate tectonics
Conclusion A relevant closing statement
Introduction:
Developed from the 1950s to the 1970s, the theory of plate tectonics is the modern update
to continental drift theory, an idea first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912.
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into large slabs of solid rock, called
“plates,” that glide over Earth's mantle, the rocky inner layer above Earth’s core.
Body
o A tectonic plate is a massive, irregularly -shaped slab of solid rock, generally
composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere
o Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units
o A Plate can be called a continental or oceanic plate, depending on which two occupy
a larger portion of the plate
o This theory proposes that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major and
some minor plates, which move constantly over the Globe throughout the history
of the Earth
o Plates form three types of Boundaries:
▪ Divergent Boundaries:
• Formed when plates pull away from each other
• These are the constructive plate margins
• Volcanic activity is associated with such boundary
• Found along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Zone, Circum-Pacific Zone
▪ Convergent Boundaries
▪ Formed when one plate subducts under another
▪ Location where sinking of one plate occurs another is called 'Subduction
Zone'
▪ These are destructive Plate boundaries
▪ Mainly associated with Faulting and Folding
▪ Causes Earth Quakes'
▪ Transform Boundary
• Crust is neither produced nor destroyed
27
• Plates slide horizontally past each other
Role of Plate tectonics in formation of various landforms:
The activity that occurs when two tectonic plates interact with each other can have a major
impact on the landscape of the Earth, needless to say. Although the process can take millions
of years, the landforms created by plate tectonics offer some of the most impressive natural
land features in the world.
• Landform: Folded MOUNTAINS

➢ Plate Boundary: CONVERGENT
➢ Type of Plates: Continental Plate (CP) vs. Continental Plate (CP)
➢ How is it formed: Two continental plates collide. Continental plate is not dense enough
to subduct. As a result, the continental crust folds upward (nowhere else to go) creating
a chain of folded mountains.
➢ Eg: Himalayan mountains
• Landform: Formation of Cordillera

➢ Cordillera is a system of mountain ranges, that consist of a number of Parallel chains
28
➢ Formed when two plates collide, to result in folding and faulting
➢ American Cordillera known as Rockies are formed because of collision of North
American and Pacific Plate
➢ Andes are formed because of collision of Nazca Plate and South American plate
• Landform: RIFT VALLEY

➢ Plate Boundary: DIVERGENT
➢ Type of Plates: 2 Continental Plates (CP) pull apart
➢ How is it formed: Two continental plates (CP) move away from each other, stretching
out the crust, until it begins to break/fault. As crust is stretched wider, the valley drops
deeper. Eventually can lead to the creation of a new body of water if low enough.
➢ Eg:East African Rift valley
• Landform: MID-OCEAN RIDGE

➢ Plate Boundary: DIVERGENT
➢ Type of Plates: 2 Oceanic Plates (OP) pull apart
➢ How is it formed:Two oceanic plates (OP) move away from each other, allowing
magma to rise up from inside the Earth. The magma reaches the bottom of the ocean,
turns in to lava and cools (forming new rock). This cycle continues constantly spreading
the sea floor and adding new material along this chain of mountains. Sea Floor
spreading occurs at these mid-ocean ridges.
29
• Landform: VOLCANOES
➢ Type of Plates: Oceanic Plate (OP) vs. Continental Plate (CP)
➢ How is it formed: The MORE DENSE oceanic plate (OP) subducts under the less dense
continental plate (CP) and is driven down in to the HOT asthenosphere/mantle.
Subducted plate MELTS due to extreme heat and friction. Melted plate rises up through
the crust, where it reaches the surface and cools. Happens repeatedly to create large
volcanoes.
➢ Eg: Hawaiin Volcanoes
• Formation of Island Arcs

➢ Lithospheric slab subducts along convergent plate, then remelts to leak into the crust
to form a series of Volcanoes, which form a chain of islands called an ''Island Arc''
➢ Type of Plates: Oceanic Plate (OP) vs. Oceanic Plate (OP)
30
➢ How is it formed: The same process that forms volcanoes on land. Subducted OP melts
and rises to reach the surface of the OP. This happens repeatedly, building and building
until the volcano breaks the surface of the water, creating a chain of islands along the
subduction zone.
➢ Ex: Japanese Islands, Kuril islands, Aleutian Islands of Alaska
• Faults And Fault Landforms :

➢ A lithospheric plate moves in different directions, the brittle rocks of the earth’s surface
experience stress and strain.
➢ When these rocks finally break and move in different directions, they cause a fracture
in the crust called a fault.
➢ There are four main types of faults, characterized by how the crustal blocks move:
normal, strike, slip or transcurrent, reverse, and overthrust faults.
➢ Fault movements give rise to distinctive landforms. For example parallel normal faults
can drop a block of crust down into a graben, or push a block up, into a horst
➢ Block mountains are fault landforms formed at divergent boundaries.
➢ Eg: Sierra Nevada in USA
• Landform: DEEP-OCEAN TRENCH

➢ Type of Plates: Oceanic Plate (OP) vs Continental (CP) or Oceanic Plate
➢ How is it formed: As the MORE DENSE oceanic plate (OP) subducts under the less dense
plate (CP or OP), it pulls the front edge of the less dense plate down, creating a deep
‘zone’ (TRENCH).
➢ Eg: Mariana trench
31
Conclusion
Thereby we can find the motion of lithospheric plates in plate tectonics creates distinctive rock
structures that are often eroded into characteristics landforms.
12. Analyse the impact of ocean currents on coastal countries across the globe. Explain with
suitable examples.
Keywords Analyse, Explain; Ocean currents, impact, examples.
Introduction Relevant introduction explaining the phenomenon of ocean currents.
Body • Impact of ocean currents on coastal countries,

• Explanation with examples.
Conclusion Relevant and optimistic conclusion.
Introduction:
Ocean currents, which are abiotic features of the environment, are continuous and directed
movements of ocean water. These currents are on the ocean’s surface and in its depths, flowing
both locally and globally.
Body:
• Winds, water density, and temperature variations all drive ocean currents. Coastal and sea
floor features influence their location, direction, and speed.
o Earth’s rotation results in the Coriolis Effect which also influences ocean currents.
• Surface ocean currents are driven by global wind systems that are fueled by energy from the
sun.
o These currents transfer heat from the tropics to the Polar Regions, influencing local and
global climate.
o The warm Gulf Stream originating in the tropical Caribbean, for instance, carries about
150 times more water than the Amazon River.
32
• Deep Ocean currents are caused by differences in water density, resulting from the
variability of water temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). This process is known
as thermohaline circulation.
o In cold regions, when sea water freezes, it leaves behind salt, increasing the density of
the surrounding seawater. This sinks, making way for lighter, warmer water, thereby
starting the ‘global conveyer belt’.
The importance and impact of ocean currents on the coastal countries across the globe are as
follows:
• Effects on climate and weather: Ocean currents have significant impact on movement to
heat energy and moisture between the oceans and the atmosphere as they circulate water
worldwide.
o For example, the Gulf Stream is a warm current which originates in the Gulf of Mexico
and moves north towards Europe. It keeps the sea surface warm, which keeps Western
Europe warmer than other areas at similar latitudes.
o The North Atlantic drift and Kuroshio warm currents bring in rainfall along the
western coast of Europe and eastern coast of Japan respectively.
o Labrador, Kurile and Falkland cold currents are responsible for heavy snowfall in the
affected areas during winters.
o The Benguela and Peru currents have caused the existence of the Kalahari Desert
along the Western coast of South Africa and the Atacama Desert along the South
American coast respectively.
33
o The Humboldt Current is a cold current moving off the coast of Chile and Peru. It keeps
the coast cool and the northern part of Chile arid. It leads to extremely productive
waters. However, when El Nino disturbs the current, Chile’s climate is also altered.
• Effects on marine life: Ocean currents are important for the distribution of world's sea life
as they transport nutrients, planktons, etc from one area to another which favours the
growth of fishes. The mixing of warm and cold currents lead to abundant fish catch in the
coastal countries.
o For example, ocean currents have enriched the famous fish catch areas of the North
Sea, Grand Bank and George Bank near Nova Scotia, Peruvian coast, Eastern Pacific
near Japan, etc.
• Ease & challenges of Navigation: Since ancient times, sailors have used the knowledge of
ocean currents and winds to ease navigation in sea routes around the coasts and across the
globe.
o Understanding of currents is essential to augment the speed of ships, reduce the
shipping costs and fuel consumption and also to avoid obstacles such as icebergs and
debris.
o Ice-free port in higher latitudes: The Arctic port of Murmansk in Russia is ice free all
year as the seas near Murmansk are warmed by relatively warm Atlantic water that
flows into the Barents Sea via the Norwegian Current and North-Cape Current.
o The convergence of cold and warm ocean currents causes dense fogs which creates
obstacles in navigation.
• Transport of Debris: Ocean currents also move the debris around the world which in turn
leads to formation of icebergs as well as trash Islands.
o For example, the Labrador Current and Falkland currents bring icebergs from Arctic and
Antarctic oceans respectively into the shipping lanes in the north and South Atlantic
oceans respectively.
• Energy Independence: Ocean currents are emerging as a possible source of alternative

energy for the coastal countries. As dense water carries an enormous amount of energy that
can be captured and converted into usable form through use of water turbines.
Conclusion:
Hence, ocean currents are crucial for the conducive weather, navigation as well as fish stock. In
present scenario of climate change, it is imperative to understand and predict the pattern of these
currents to better utilise them to the advantage of humankind.
34
13. Why have rare earth metals gained increased importance in the last few decades? Outline their
distribution and its impact on growth of industries across the world.
Keywords Why, Outline; Rare Earth Metals, importance, distribution, impact.
Introduction Relevant introduction focusing on defining Rare Earth metals.
Body • Increasing demand and reasons

• Global distribution and its nuances,
• Impact on industries- monopoly of china.
Conclusion Relevant conclusion.
Introduction:
Rare Earth metals are a group of 17 chemical elements consisting of scandium, yttrium and 15
Lanthanide elements, which come together in the Periodic Table. The most abundant rare earth
elements are cerium, yttrium, lanthanum and neodymium. These metals have many similar
properties which often cause them to be found together in geologic deposits.
Body:
The metals are called ‘Rare’ not because of lack of abundance in nature. In fact, Lutetium and
Thulium which are the two least abundant Rare Earth elements (REEs) both have an average
crustal abundance which is nearly 200 times greater than the crustal abundance of gold. But these
metals are very difficult to mine because it is unusual to find them in concentrations high
enough for economical extraction.
REEs are increasing in demand due to the fact that they are essential for new and innovative
technology that is being created.
Although the amount of REE used in a product may not be a significant part of that product by
weight, value, or volume, the REE can be necessary for the device to function. For example,
magnets made of REE often represent only a small fraction of the total weight, but without
them, the spindle motors and voice coils of desktops and laptops would not be possible.
There is an explosion of demand for many Industrial Products and items that require a rare earth
metal:
• Rechargeable batteries: they use Rare Earth metals; demand for these batteries is driven by
demand for portable electronic devices such as cell phones, computers and cameras.
35
• Electric vehicles: Batteries using Rare Earth metals are also used to power electric vehicles.
The demand for electric mobility is increasing in the present day scenario of climate change
and increased emphasis on fossil energy independence.
• Air pollution control: They are used for the production of car catalytic converters among
other equipments.
• Glass making & metallurgy: They are used as catalysts, phosphors and polishing compounds
which are in turn used in producing optical quality glass, magnets, electronic devices,
fluorescent screens, etc.
• Military equipments: Rare Earth metals are used in production of night vision goggles,
precision guided weapons and other defence technology like projectiles and armoured
vehicles, lasers, radar and sonar system.
Rare Earth metals are relatively abundant in Earth's crust. According to estimates, the total
worldwide reserves are approximately 120 million metric tons.
• World resources of rare Earth metals are mostly found in the form of Bastnasite and
Monazite.
➢ Bastnasites are found in China and the United States.
➢ Monazite deposits are found in Australia, Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, South Africa,
Sri Lanka, Thailand and the United States.
➢ Monazite deposits are also found in India
36
• Most of these reserves are located within China, and are estimated at some 44 million
metric tons. They are found in Jiangxi, Guangdong, Sichuan and Shangdong provinces in
China.
• The United States also has significant reserves, estimated to amount to 1.5 million metric
tons mainly found in California and Florida.
• Rare earth minerals are also rich in Russia. Tomtor in far eastern region may form up to 12%
of the total world resources with the proven reserves numbering approximately 154 million
tonnes.
• In India, monazite is found in coastal and inland placer deposits. A large rare earth project
is operational in Orissa.
• REEs are also found in Myanmar, Australia, Canada, South Africa,etc.
However, the main constraint is the occurrence of mineable concentrations. Hence significant
amounts are produced only in a few countries.
• China is the dominant producer of Rare Earth elements. As of 2020, China produced a 57.6
percent share of the total global rare earth mine production, making it by far the
world's largest rare earth producer.
• United States was the second major producer with 15.63% of world production followed
by Myanmar at around 12%.
Impact of distribution of REEs on Growth of Industries

The Rare Earth Elements (REE) market is projected to register a CAGR of  7.5% during the forecast
period (2021-2026).
• In the medium term, the major factors driving the growth of the market are:
o the high demand from emerging economies,
o the dependency of 'Green Technology' on rare earth elements,
o Companies focusing on R&D.
• The increasing scandium usage in aerospace applications is likely to provide opportunities
for the market, during the forecast period.
• Asia-Pacific dominates the global market, owing to the increasing production of rare earth
metals and rising demand from industries, such as consumer electronics, etc.
• China’s dominance and its impact on supply chain resilience:
➢ China is not only the largest producer but also the dominant consumer of rare Earth
elements which are, used mainly in manufacturing electronics products for domestic
and export markets.
➢ Hence, China dominates the industries which use REEs. The monopolistic hold of China
over the production of REEs has helped it to shape the market trends in its favour.
➢ As a result, China has an edge over other economies in electronics manufacturing,
renewable energy equipments like batteries and PV cells, etc and it exploits the
advantage.
37
➢ For instance, China had announced plans to reduce its export quota to 35,000 tons
per year in 2010–2015. This announcement triggered some panic in the Global Markets
and rare Earth prices shot up to record high levels.
• There is a growing concern that the world may soon face a shortage of the rare earths, due
to :
o Increased demand and strained, inconsistent supply,
o Impact of COVID-19 on the market and industries,
o Dependence of the EU on these elements, as they lack reserves of their own,
o REEs cannot be substituted by other elements
o REEs have a low recycling rate.
• This in turn jeopardises the industries in economies other than China, and leaves them
vulnerable to China’s geopolitical pressure tactics.
Conclusion:
As a result of the increased demand and low supply, future prices are expected to increase and
there is a chance that countries other than China will open REE mines.
14. The distribution of major climatic types provides a basis for division of the world into major
natural regions. Elucidate.
Keywords Climatic types, Major Natural Regions

Explain in brief relation between climate and type of
Introduction
natural region found there
Give in detail how various climatic factors that
Body determine vegetation, soil, economy, people of various
natural regions
Conclude with relevant suggestion esp. in light of
Conclusion
climate change.
Introduction:
Climate refers to the temperature and moisture conditions of an area over longer period of time.
Distribution of major natural regions is strongly controlled by climatic factors (precipitation,
temperature, wind etc.). E.g. Areas with moderate to high temperatures and abundant rainfall
(Equatorial type climate) throughout the year are heavily forested (Tropical rain forest). Koeppen
in his classification laid great emphasis on associating climate types with natural vegetation zones
of the world. Vegetation is primary factor determining natural regions.
Body:
Climatic types decide different natural regions through various factors:
38
• Temperature influences plant processes, including photosynthesis, transpiration,
respiration, germination, and flowering as well as type of plants.
o E.g. Evergreen conifers dominate very cold areas at high latitudes or altitudes, whereas
small frost-resistant tundra species occupy still higher latitudes and altitudes.
• Precipitation: Temperate zone areas with moderate precipitation usually support broad-
leafed, deciduous trees, whereas tough-leafed evergreen shrubs (chaparral-type vegetation)
occur in regions with winter rains and dry summer.
• Winds: Local winds like Fohn, Chinook, Sirocco and Mistral also produce marked changes in
temperature and thus vegetation of the area.
o British type climate is under westerlies influence throughout year and thus have
deciduous types of vegetation
• Soil type of the natural region: Soils in warmer or wetter climates are more developed than
soils in cooler or drier climates. Thus, promoting luxuriant vegetation.
o In a tropical climate the soil can become so leached that there are very few nutrients
available from soil minerals. So, vegetation needs to have deeper roots and utilize
nutrients on top soil as soon as they are formed.
o Also, sandy and dry soil of desert region makes certain animals adapt to conditions e.g.
Camel (hot deserts), Bacterian camel, IIamas ( South American cold desert)
• Areas with very predictable and stable climates tend to support fewer different species of
plant and animal life forms than regions with more erratic climates.
Major climatic types and their corresponding thirteen natural regions of world are:
Major Climatic Types Major Natural Regions
1.Hot, wet equatorial Equatorial Region: Tropical rain forests: Amazon tropical
(5-10 degree north and rain forest is known as Selvas. It has red and yellow soils of
south of the equator. low fertility (due to leaching)
E.g. Amazon, the • Human settlements are small and scattered with
Congo, Malaysia) intensive subsistence agriculture due to inaccessible
dense forests.
• This is due to year-round rainfall and uniform hot
temperature throughout the year
2.Tropical Monsoon (5- Tropical Deciduous Forest Region: Monsoon forests (more
30degree N and S, open and less luxuriant than equatorial) and Deciduous
Indian sub-continent, trees due to marked dry period
South China, Thailand) • Agriculture is the dominant occupation (due to heat and
good rainfall, presence of Laterite soil, alluvial soils in
river valleys)
• It has heavy summer rain and dry winter season
(Monsoon winds)
39
3.Savannah or Sudan Savanna Region (tropical grassland): It has tall grass and
type (confined to short trees e.g. Bush-veld. Trees are deciduous with water-
tropics, Sudan, East storing structure e.g. Baobabs and bottle trees
Africa, IIanos and • The most famous savannas are in Africa. Serengeti
Campos of Brazil, 5°N National Park, in Tanzania, has three distinct types
and 20°S latitudes) of savanna grassland: long grass, intermediate grass,
and short grass.
• This is because Sudan type climate has distinct wet and
dry seasons with extreme diurnal range of temperature
4.Tropical Desert: Tropical Desert: Vegetation is Xerophytes (drought
Saharan type, Mid- resistant scrubs) e.g. bulbous cacti
latitude types (between • The primitive Bushmen of Kalahari Desert in South
20° and 30°N and S Africa and Aborigines of Australia practice food
latitudes, Saharan gathering and hunting as food is sparse.
desert, Arabian, Thar, • This is because deserts have annual precipitation of less
Australian desert, than 10 inches with hot climate and no cold season.
Atacama) Also, Soils are sandy with saline deposits.
5.Western Margin or Mediterranean Region: Vegetation consists of forests and
Mediterranean type shrub: It has small broad leaves and widely spaced small
(western portion of trees (absence of shade). It’s called world’s orchard lands
continental areas e.g. Citrus fruits- oranges, limes
between 30-45-degree • The reason for it, hot dry summer and mild wet winter
N and S, Mediterranean with moderate temperature which is good for citrus
region, California, tip of fruits
south African) • Also, the absence of frost due to warm local winds (e.g.
Sirocco) encourages the production of delicate citrus
fruits.
6.Central Continental Mid latitude Grassland (Temperate grassland): It is
(Steppe type): Prairies treeless (because of the scanty rainfall, long droughts and
of north America Pustaz severe winters) and grasses are shorter than Savannah
of Hungry, Pampas of • Climate favor wheat and maize cultivation: grasslands
Argentina and Downs have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanized
of Australia wheat cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the
world’
40
7. Mid-Latitude Mid-Latitude Deserts (Steppe Lands): located in the in-
Deserts (Steppe terior plateau and basins in Asia and North America. They
Lands): are surrounded by high mountain regions. Tibet, Gobi and
Patagonia plateau in Argentina is typical examples.
• It receives scanty rainfall as the interior location is
surrounded by high mountains which prevent the inflow
of moist air
8.Warm Temperate East Margin Region: It has wet luxuriant forest and
Eastern Margin: china bamboo, deciduous trees and evergreen (due to warm
type (between 20° and moist summer and cool dry winter).
48° latitude N and S, • It also contains maize belt of Parana-Paraguay basin,
Eastern china, Uruguay sugarcane belt of Natal, corn and cotton belt of USA.
Basin)
9.Cool Temperate Cool (Mid Latitude) Region: Deciduous forests: Trees shed
Western margin their leaves in winter to protect them from winter snow and
(British type): Britain, frost. Hardwood found here is used for lumbering.
North-west Europe, Coniferous forests are found on hill slopes.
Netherlands, West • Deciduous and hardwood are found because of this
Norway, Tasmania, region is under permanent influence of Westerlies
New Zealand throughout year. It is region of cyclonic activity and thus
rain throughout year.
• Suitable climate allows for Mixed farming (Both
agriculture and animal rearing)
10.Cool Temperate The Taiga region: Evergreen coniferous forests: Only
Central continental conifers like Pine, fir, Larch etc. are adapted to inhospitable
(Siberian type): climate
Canada, Russia, absent • This is because it has very cold winter of long duration
in southern hemisphere and cool brief summer. It also has low annual
precipitation distributed throughout year
• Due to inhospitable climate, population is sparse and
consists mostly of native tribes. Life is primitive and
hard.
11.Cool Temperate Mixed forests (coniferous and deciduous): heavy rainfall,
Eastern Margin the warm summers and the damp air from fogs, all favor the
(Laurentian type): growth of trees but severity of the winter excludes forests
North east America, that are not adaptable to cold
North china, Korea, • These are rich fishing grounds as planktons grow in
Japan abundance in the area of convergence of warm and cold
currents.
41
12.Tundra or Polar Tundra Region: has a growing season of less than three
lowlands (North of months and the warmest month not exceeding 10 degree C
Arctic circle) (the tree-survival line), there are no trees in the tundra. It
supports only the lowest form of vegetation, mosses,
lichens and sedges
• The ground is often too cold for plants to set down
roots, and without plants, few animal species can
survive.
• The population is extremely sparse due to extreme
climate. There are scattered tribes of Lepps, Finns.
13. Polar Highlands Polar Highlands Region (Ice cap type): Antarctica and
Greenland are examples of large land masses in Polar
Regions having permanent ice caps.
• The harsh environment does not encourage
permanent settlement. The Eskimos of, Canada and
Alaska, the Yakuts of Siberia lead a nomadic life.
Also, natural regions can in turn influence Climate

• Anthropogenic activities affects macro-climate: large tracts of land converted to plantation,
intensive agriculture practices, burning of fossil fuels and other economic activities are
contributing to change in climate of the region
• Natural Vegetation: It affects the temperature of the region significantly. Often areas with
dense forest cover like areas in thick foliage of Amazon jungles receive less insolation and
are, often, cooler than the areas in open space.
• Soil can also influence climate on a smaller scale (micro climate): Soils that are wetter or
denser hold heat and stabilize the surroundings from temperature changes more so than
drier, looser soils.
o Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers. Such soil
differences may give rise to slight variations in the temperature of the region.
o Cities, where there are fewer plants and less exposed soil, often experience what is
called a “heat island” which means that the city is warmer than other nearby areas.
These microclimates can have different plant and animal communities than the
surroundings and are important to creating ecological niches.
• Humidity impacts micro-climate as it is modified by vegetation, with relative humidity
within a dense plant being somewhat greater than those of the air in the open adjacent to
the plant.
42
Conclusion:
Thus, climate has an important role in deciding natural vegetation regions. Climatologists have
sometimes used vegetation as the best indicator of climate e.g. forests exist under more moderate
mesic climates, savannas and grasslands prevail in semiarid climates, and deserts characterize still
drier climates. Currently, global average temperature has increased and precipitation pattern has
altered over the past 100 years due to increases in greenhouse gases. There is shifting of species
and vegetation zones northwards and upwards in elevation. Therefore, in order to mitigate the
impact, there is need for more collaborative effort and robust data collection to predict possible
range shifts and associated ecological risks.
15. Why are corals so important for marine ecosystem? Give an account of global distribution of
Coral reefs along with reasons for its absence on the western coast of continents in tropical
areas.
Keywords Corals, Marine Ecosystem
Introduction Briefly define what is coral and its importance
Explain the various dimensions of coral usefulness for
biodiversity, ecosystem, and humans. Give the global
distribution with the help of the map. Then go on to
Body
explain the reason for its absence on the western coast
of tropical areas. Also, in brief, highlight the issues with
coral bleaching and some measures taken.
Conclude by re-stating the importance of Corals for the
Conclusion
sustainability of the ecosystem.
Introduction:
Corals are marine invertebrates that typically form compact colonies of many identical individual
polyps. A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are
formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Coral reefs have extremely
high biodiversity and productivity, and they are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the
Oceans’. They cover 0.1% of the Ocean surface but support 25% of all known marine species.
Body:
Corals are important for the marine ecosystem as:
• Corals are the basis for the formation of other ecosystems: E.g. the grazing of coral
formations by parrotfish leads to the formation of very large expanses of sand; this, through
the action of currents, leads to the formation of islands and shallows, and ultimately to the
formation of mangroves and other coastal forests
• Important for protection of coastal ecosystem: Reefs are found along more than 150,000
km of coastline in more than 100 countries and territories.
43
o They form a barrier that absorbs the forces of waves, currents, storms, hurricanes, etc.
coming from the open sea, thereby reducing coastal erosion.
o Thus, they protect both the ecosystems between the reefs and the coasts, such as
lagoons with seagrass beds, as well as human settlements along the coast.
• An important source of Food resource: Reef animals are an important source of protein.
Coral reefs provide about 10% of the fish caught worldwide (70-90% for the Southeast Asian
countries)
• Important for carbon sequestration: Coral reefs (made of calcium carbonate) are an
important reservoir of carbon and help sequester ocean carbon, thus are an important part
of the carbon cycle.
• Importance for Medicine: e.g. Coral organisms are used in the search for treatments for
certain cancers or the aging of cells. The coral’s skeleton, (used since 1970) for bone grafts,
is a promising lead for bone regeneration.
• Economic importance: As per an estimate, the total annual net benefit of the world’s coral
reefs is $29.8 billion. Reefs are the backbone of tropical regions’ economies, through reef-
related tourism and marine exports.
Suitable condition for coral reef formation

• Equatorial oceans with warm ocean currents: It provides stable climatic conditions for a
longer period of time
• Tropical warm waters (30°N and 30°S latitudes): with an ideal water temperature of around
20°C
• However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C in winter and 38 °C
in summer
• Shallower water: Depths for coral growth should be 45-55m (corals need the presence of
sunlight)
• Need clear saltwater: Therefore corals are not found near the mouth of the rivers e.g.
Bangladesh
Distribution of Coral reefs:
• Corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, but shallow-water reefs form only in a
zone extending from approximately 30° N to 30° S of the equator.
44
• Cold-water corals cover a wide range of depths (up to 2000 m) and latitudes (70°N – 60°S,
can be seen as far as Norway). They are most common on deep shelves, continental slopes,
and along the flanks of oceanic banks and seamounts
Coral reefs are absent on the west coast of tropical continents because of:
• Presence of Cold coastal currents: E.g. on the west coast of Americas (Peru cold current),
west coast of Africa (Benguela cold current and Canary current), West coast of Australia (
west Australian cold current)

• Coral reefs do not flourish in the cold currents due to the upwelling of the cold water from
depths that cools the warm surface water (corals can’t survive in cold waters). The ideal
temperature for corals is 20 degrees C.
Coral reefs have gone through unprecedented mass bleaching events in recent years including
in 2016, 2017, and 2020. Some of the causes are:
• Anthropogenic impacts: overfishing, overexploitation, increased sedimentation, marine
pollution, and nutrient overloading
• Ecological impacts: high and low-temperature extremes, violent storms, flooding, sub-aerial
exposures, Ocean acidification, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, predatory
outbreaks, and epizootics.
Bleaching may also be Beneficial
• Resistance to bleaching: As per recent research, corals that are consistently exposed to low
levels of stress may develop some kind of resistance to bleaching.
Some of the measures for protecting Corals:
• Global
o UNCLOS: chapter17 for "Agenda 21"- sustainable development of marine environment
o International coral reef initiative- an informal partnership
45
• India Specific measures:
o COMAPS: coastal ocean monitoring and prediction system by Government of India
o CBAS- Coral bleaching alert system by INCOIS
o Coral Reef Recovery project by Tata and Gujarat government at Mithapur Bio-rock
technology near Gulf of Kuchh
o ReefWatch India- NGO involved in Re-Building and Re-Growing as well as rescuing
naturally broken reef system in Andaman and Nicobar Island
Conclusion:
Despite being critical for the marine ecosystem, Corals of the world’s major coral reef regions have
experienced some degree of coral bleaching and mortality since the 1980s. Therefore it becomes
more important to protect this ‘rainforest of oceans’ to ensure the sustainability of the ecosystem
and humans.
16. Highlight the pattern of drought risk for multiple regions, population groups and economic
sectors in India and the World. Also, list down some of the challenges in drought management
in India.
Keywords Drought Risk, population groups, drought management

Introduction Briefly describe what is drought and drought risk
Give the pattern of drought risk using the map in India
and the world and for different regions, people, and
Body sectors. Then point out the issues in drought
management and some NDMA guidelines to solve
them.
Conclusion Conclude with a relevant suggestion
Introduction:
Drought is a condition of lack of precipitation (rain, snow, or sleet) for a longer period of time
which results in a water shortage. Similarly, Drought risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from
any future drought (hazard), and lack of people capacity to handle it (exposure and vulnerability).
Over 68% of India is vulnerable to drought.
46
Body:
Data on droughts (as per UNDRR report)
• Two-third of the world will be under water-stressed condition by 2025

• Over 700mn people are at risk of being displaced by drought by 2030
• India: Overdependence on groundwater and lack of water-storing infrastructure and
increased vulnerability of Indian cities esp. for Deccan region (leading to migration and
desertification)
Drought risk for multiple regions:

• Drought risk more for poor countries: e.g. although some regions in the U.S., Europe, Africa,
and South Asia are similarly exposed to severe drought events, the drought risk is lower for
the U.S. and Europe (has more capacity to deal with it) but high for African and South Asia.
o Severe droughts in the 1980s resulted in massive socioeconomic disruptions in the
West African Sahel (over half a million people were killed)
• South-Central America: as per FAO, 65% of the world production of corn and most of the
world production of soybeans comes from Argentina and Brazil. Given their dependence on
rain-fed agriculture, drought risk is high. E.g. Chaco plain and the central Pampas are at
higher risk.
• Drought risk is lower for remote regions: E.g. Tundras and Tropical forests, and higher for
populated areas.
47
Drought risk in India:
Drought risk for Population groups:
48
• Farmers: As per ILO, 1.1bn people are engaged in agriculture. India has roughly 48% people
dependent on agriculture while the USA has just 2%.

o Thus drought risk for farmers in South Asia, Africa, and Central America is quite higher than
that of the US, Australia, and Europe
o Drought can increase the price of feed and deplete water stores for animals and other farm
uses. Also, Dry conditions can reduce the ability of dairy farmers to grow feed and can
impact the availability and cost of bought-in feed.
▪ Drought along with crop failure is one of the prominent reasons for the high farmer’s
suicide rate in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra.
• Tribal: They are the most vulnerable community to drought as they are directly dependent
on natural resources. Many of the Native American communities have opted out of planting
due to prolonged drought.
o Many sub-Saharan African nations are in civil war due to prolonged resource scarcity,
drought, and famine e.g. Somalia
• Poor: higher drought risk due to poor coping capacity. Higher drought risk leads to the
migration of people to other areas in search of livelihood and food.
o Drought increased food inflation thus endangering the food security of the poor.
49
o They also face poor health and the spread of diseases like cholera, diarrhea,
malnutrition, and hunger which sometimes cause death.
• Women: women are hit the hardest during droughts due to food and water scarcity, loss
of income, and a range of health problems resulting from it.
Drought risk for the Economic sector:

• Agriculture: For the rainfed and subsistence agricultural economy in Asia and Africa,
drought risk is very high.
o About 10-15% of rice and maize grown area is affected by the flash droughts each year
in India.
• Dairy Industry: the scarcity of feedstock leads to decreased dairy production
• Food Processing Industry: e.g. production of ethanol, sugar, and other commercial products
gets impacted
• Manufacturing Industries: water scarcity leads to over withdrawal from groundwater, which
may increase the water security of vulnerable communities.
Challenges in drought management in India:

• India has currently a reactive and relief centric approach: Need to shift to integrated
management with an emphasis on prevention, mitigation, and preparedness.
• No uniform definition: there is any universally accepted definition for drought
• No indicator or index: to measure advent and severity of a drought event
• Longer period: droughts have generally slow onset, silent spread, and gradual withdrawal,
and therefore difficult to determine the beginning and end
• Spatial expenses are greater and difficult to quantify impact: Spread of droughts is
generally far greater than other natural calamities and also, the damage to the ecology,
farmer’s livelihood, and health impact are difficult to quantify.
o So droughts are by far considered the most damaging of all-natural disasters
• Issues in Assessment and Early Warning: Forecasts often do not match user needs, and
many times there are conflicting forecasts from different agencies.
NDMA guidelines for Drought Management:

• Institutional framework: create Separate Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) and follow a
watershed management approach.
• Early Warning: Space-based monitoring, automatic weather stations
• Prevention and Mitigation: Automatic weather station and rain-gauges, cloud seeding, crop
diversification, etc.
• Capacity Development: national training and capacity building program for drought
management, research on drought, capacity building of PRIs and ULBs on drought mitigation
50
Conclusion:
To reduce the global threat of drought (increasing threat due to climate change), there is a need
to follow the guidelines of the Sendai framework on drought risk mitigation as well as the National
Drought Policy (WMO, 2013), to move towards a drought-resilient society. States in India can
also emulate Maharastra model of drought mitigation which prioritizes horticulture and
floriculture under controlled water and temperature technology e.g. Cultivation of Jerbera
flowers, beetel leaves, Turdal, oilseeds, and biodiesel plants.
17. Examine the reasons behind the global wildfire crisis which has a huge impact on the lives of
humans, ecosystems and economies around the world.
Keywords Global Wildfire crisis, Humans, Ecosystem, Economies

Briefly give the context of the question with data and
Introduction
examples e.g. recent fire incidents
Give the reason for increasing wildfires- both natural
and anthropological. Then enumerate the impact on
Body
humans, ecosystems, and economies. Also, suggest
some measures to mitigate its impact.
Conclude by highlighting that forest fires are useful for
Conclusion a few species and ecosystems but human-induced fires
are tilting the balance.
Introduction:
As per the Global Forest Watch, forest fires in India have increased by 125% (between 2015 and
2017). At a global level as well, the world is undergoing through wildfire crisis, with reports of
wildfires in Siberia, the Amazon basin, Pantanal wetland (South America), Australia, and the
rainforest of Indonesia.
51
Body:
The reasons behind the global wildfires:

• Natural Causes: Environmental causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as
o Extreme climatic conditions: e.g. high wind speed and direction, temperature, low
level of moisture in soil and atmosphere, and duration of dry spells.
o Lightning strike: e.g. in Australia, most bushfires are caused by lightning
o The friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity: e.g. in deciduous forests of
northeast India Rolling stones that result in sparks: In the mountainous forests e.g.
Uttrakhand
o Role of El Nino and La Nina: e.g. Indonesian in 2019 experienced high forest fire
incidents due to el Nino impact
o Role of sudden stratospheric warming in Antarctica: 2020 bush fires in Australia was
further strengthened
• Human related causes
o Intentional fires:
▪ Economical reasons: e.g. Human-caused fires are also a major issue in Indonesia,
where large areas of peatland were burned during last year’s fires to be converted
into tree plantations.
• In Pantanal (South America): Soy and cattle farmers set fires on their land
during the summer, but drought and strong winds caused these fires to rage
out of control and surpass traditional barriers such as roads and streams.
▪ Graziers and gatherers start small fires to get good grazing grass for their cattle
and to gathering minor forest produce such as Madhuca Indica flowers and
leaves of Diospyros elanoxylon.
52
▪ Shifting cultivation practice: esp. North-Eastern region of India and in parts of the
States of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh).
▪ Forest fires by villagers to ward off wild animals.
o Unintentional fires: logging activity-related fires, campfires in forests for recreation,
E.g. through discards cigarette butts
• Climate change: It is increasing the fire season and size of areas affected by the fire.
Droughts, which might be exacerbated by climate change, also make wildfires more likely.
▪ E.g. Australia has been experiencing such a drought over the past few years, which
contributed to the widespread of wildfires in 2020.
o Climate change is changing the nature and intensity of the fires: There are more
pyro-cumulonimbus clouds – clouds formed on top of heat sources – that can
bring lightning-intensive storms and increase the spread of fire.
o In Siberia and Russia, climate change is causing winters to become shorter and
weather to become drier and windier, leading to more intense fires occurring
across larger areas.
Impact of global wildfires:
• On Humans:
o Loss of livelihood for rural poor, forest communities and tribal people: nearly 300
million people in India are directly dependent upon non-timber forest produce from
forest areas for their livelihood. Their livelihood gets impacted greatly.
o Human and habitat loss: e.g. 33 people died in California in 2020 wildfires
o Psychological impact: loss of loved ones and homes and surroundings has a huge
impact on one's mental state
• On Ecosystem:
o Hydrological effects of the fires: E.g. in Siberian and Russian, deforestation caused by
the fires has led to flooding in some areas that have never experienced flooding before.
o Loss of biodiversity and extinction of animals and plants
o May change the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
o Loss of wildlife habitat and their lives: Extinction of many species
o Soil erosion: It affects the productivity of soil and production.
o Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover.
o Loss of carbon sinks resource and increase in the CO2 percentage in the atmosphere.
• On Economies:
• The economic loss of valuable timber resources: esp. earning of for poor forest-
dependent communities
• Degradation of catchment areas: leading to economic loss in terms of water availability
• Poor weather and pollution: leading to health risk and diversion of commercial flights
e.g. forest fires in Indonesia
o E.g. Sydney's economy lost as much as A$50 million each day it is blanketed with
a toxic haze from smoke billowing in from the fires.
53
• Loss to GDP: E.g. Australian forest fires in 2020 cost the country over $100bn.
Measures to control:
• Policy measures:
o National Policy on Forest Fire: finalized by the government
o National Plan for forest fire management: National Forest Fire Danger Rating System,
Firefighting tools and machinery (e.g. Fire Beaters, Pulaskis Tools, Forest Fire Showel,
etc.)
o Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme (FFPMS, 2017): a revised version of
Forest Management Scheme
• Community participation: by the involvement of NGOs, Voluntary Organisations, Village
Forest Committees (VFCs), etc.
o Institutionalize the partnership with forest fringe communities
o Devise forest fire forecasting system at the local level
• Forest Fire Monitoring: FSI uses NASA’s MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-
radiometer) and VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) satellites for its Forest
fires alert system 2.0
• Use of technology (such as Remote Sensing, GPS, and GIS) in planning, developing, and
operationalizing Fire management systems.
Conclusion:
Though natural forest fires are good for certain forest-dependent species, the increasing incidence
of forest fires has made environmentalists worried about the loss of the ecosystem. Also, the
COVID-19 pandemic led to a shift in attention and budget away from fighting forest fires. What
is needed is awareness among local communities and favorable policies e.g. in the Amazon basin
a plot of land without forest is worth more on the market than that with forest. This needs to
change.
18. How do agglomeration economies affect the development of cities? Do you think advancement
in Information technology and current Covid19 pandemic have reduced the need for physical
proximity, and hence the value of agglomeration economies? Comment.
Agglomeration economies, Information Technology,
Keywords
Covid19 Pandemic
Introduction Briefly define what is agglomeration economies
Enumerate the positive and negative impact of
agglomeration on urban centres. Also, give the impact
Body of social distancing and digitization led reduced need
for physical proximity on agglomeration economies.
Give your opinion and justify it.
54
Conclude by giving balanced view and mention certain
Conclusion policies and measures taken by government for
agglomeration
Introduction:
Agglomeration economies refer to the localized economy in which a large number of services,
companies, and industries exist near one another and benefit from the gains in efficiency and cost
reductions that result from this proximity. Agglomeration economies are a fundamental
explanation for the existence of cities. E.g. Diamond Agglomeration of Surat; Bangalore and
Silicon Valley agglomeration is known for IT and knowledge economy.
Body:
Agglomeration economy impact on Cities:

Positive impact:
• Sharing: Sharing of infrastructure, facilities, suppliers, and workers. This leads to economies
of scale and thus reduced input cost in the city
• Availability of human resource: agglomeration provide large and diversified labor and
market, thus it allows better matches between employers and employees. This will reduces
costs by increasing work tenure, reducing training costs, and reducing the probability of bad
matches.
• Promote innovation and development: agglomeration allows for diverse, high-density
environments for innovation and economic productivity gains. Knowledge exchange, both
formal and informal, is critical to innovation in rapidly changing industries such as high tech
or finance
• Amenity value: It also provides external benefits in the form of more and diverse
consumption choices, from the boutique coffee purveyor to one-off originals of a local dress
designer.
55
• Specialization: Agglomeration Economies as factors of Economic Growth and development
of cities by providing-
o Good supply networks
o Supply of trained workers: due to the presence of training centers and labor market
pooling
o Infrastructure built specifically for the industries and services
o Good transport links
o Local trade of specialized inputs and better availability of public intermediate inputs
tailored to the technical needs of the industry.
o Enhanced intra-industry linkages and inter-industry urbanization economies, which all
enhances productivity.
• Lower cost of obtaining raw materials, manufacturing, and distribution: e.g. Jamshedpur
in Jharkhand is ideal for Iron and Steel industries
• Examples of Agglomeration Economies:
o Silicon Valley: for the IT sector,
o London, Dubai, Singapore, and Mumbai: for finance and consultancy services
o Chinese SEZ (Guangzhou and Shenzhen): for manufacturing industries
o West Midlands car industry (UK): the hub for car production in the UK. Around this
area developed good transport links and firms servicing the industry with spare parts.
o Transportation Industry of Namakkal (Chennai)
Negative impact:
• Negative externalities: Traffic congestion, pollution, disease spread, etc. leading to
diseconomies of scale.
• Higher crowding and increased waiting time: due to infrastructural and bureaucratic
bottleneck. E.g. Bangalore and Mumbai commute time is very one of the highest
• Decrease in the pricing power of firms: Due to many competitors in the area as well as a
shortage of labor.
• Increases inequality both within urban areas and between urban and rural areas: E.g.
Mumbai’s Dharavi slums show stark inequality with its posh Mumbai suburbs.
• High land prices
• Corruption
• Lack of reserve areas
Pandemic and IT technology have reduced the need for agglomeration economies:
• Digitization of economies: increased online services both private and government services
has reduced the need to travel to cities e.g. Online program by many universities
• Decentralization of economic activity: E.g. work from home culture (companies such as
Google has completely shifted to work for home for its employees)
• Gig Economy: is promoting decentralization of employment
• Declining transport cost: it has reduced the need to stay in the city. E.g. Delhi metro has led
to increased urbanization in NCR suburbs areas
56
• Firms benefit by choosing to locate in lower rent, less accessible places, or bid down the rent
for more accessible locations because accessibility is less valuable than it was before.
o Therefore IT sector and footloose industries try to shift production to lower-cost areas
thus promoting the growth of tier- B and C cities.
However, agglomeration economies are still needed:
• Increased need for innovation and Capital: The pace of innovation and knowledge creation
throughout the economy makes proximity even more valuable as access to key players
(innovators, venture capitalists) becomes more important.
• IT and Footloose industries also need agglomeration: Information-based firms also benefit
from sharing of local infrastructure, skilled labor pools, and intermediate suppliers; and from
better matching.
• Values of agglomeration are still needed as shown by the re-emergence of some
downtowns and the continued growth of megalopolises around the USA, India, and other
countries despite rising pandemic, IT growth, and increased congestion.
Conclusion:
Thus, despite digitization and distancing by pandemic, the need for agglomeration still lies intact
as agglomeration economies are highly complex and connected space economies. Thus the
government is promoting the development of megacities through taxation concession, stable
policy, cheaper land, administrative ease, and good governance facilitating the development of
Industrial clusters (SEZ and NMIZ). To ensure equity, the gains of agglomeration can be taxed
as rents which can then be redistributed to other cities that have been hard hit by agglomeration
19. Discuss in brief an ‘earthquake swarm’ and its various impacts. Also, bring out the differences
between an earthquake and an earthquake swarm.
Keywords Earthquake swarm, impacts, differences, earthquake and swarm
Introduction What is earth quake swarm
Body • About earthquake swarm
• Its impacts
• Differences
Conclusion A relevant concluding statement
Introduction:
An Earthquake swarm is a sequence of mostly small earthquakes with no identifiable mainshock.
Swarms are usually short-lived, but they can continue for days, weeks, or sometimes even months.
They often recur at the same locations. Swarms are observed in volcanic
environments, hydrothermal systems, and other active geothermal areas.
57
Body:
Occurrences of Swarms across the world:
• India: Since 11 November 2018, an earthquake swarm has been observed in the region of
Dahanu, Maharashtra, an otherwise aseismic area. Ten to twenty quakes are felt daily, with
magnitudes usually smaller than 3.5 (maximum magnitude 4.1 in February 2019).
• Philippines: An earthquake swarm occurred from early April 2017 to mid August 2017 in the
Philippine province of Batangas.
• Europe:
➢ Czechia/Germany: The western Bohemia/Vogtland region is the border area between
Czechia and Germany where earthquake swarms were first studied at the end of the
19th century. Swarm activity is recurrent there, sometimes with large maximum
magnitudes,
➢ France: Ubaye earthquake swarms In Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, the Ubaye Valley is
the most active seismic zone in the French Alps. Swarm activity in an area where usually
only a few lowmagnitude events occur every year.
• Central America
➢ El Salvador: In April 2017, the Salvadoran municipality of Antiguo Cuscatlán, a suburb
of San Salvador, experienced a sequence of close to 500 earthquakes within 2 days.
• Northern America
➢ United States: Between February and November 2008, Nevada experienced a swarm
of 1,000 lowmagnitude quakes generally referred to as the 2008 Reno earthquakes The
Yellowstone Caldera, a supervolcano in NW Wyoming, has experienced several strong
earthquake swarms since the end of the 20th century.
➢ Atlantic Ocean: In El Hierro, the smallest and farthest south and west of the Canary
Islands, hundreds of small earthquakes were recorded from July 2011 until October
2011.
Impact of earthquake swarms:

• Each earthquake within the swarm redistributes stress, which may in turn influence the
subsequent swarm evolution, especially if the crust is in a critical state.
• Slider-block models have shown that earthquake swarms can result from a self-organized
critical stress field without any external pore pressure source which can cause damage.
• Earthquake swarm activity also shares some common features with tectonic earthquake
clusters, in particular embedded aftershock sequences which point to an important role for
stress triggering collapse of structures.
• The potential for destruction from these events varies widely. Some cause considerable
amount of damage but others are relatively harmless.
• Dhanau swarm caused casualties and damage to structures.
• Low intensity swarms which cause just shaking, maybe a cause of residents of inhabitants of
the area. Especially in areas with reservoirs.
58
• They can be witnessed even in areas with no documented seismic activity in the recent past
as was seen in Rhone Valley region.
Differences between an earthquake and earthquake swarm:
Earthquake Earthquake swarm

Main Shock Definite main shock Not present
After shock Generally occur after the No after shocks
mains shock
Occurrence Duration One main shock but Usually short-lived, but they
followed by Aftershocks, can continue for days,
which become less frequent weeks, or sometimes even
with time, although they months.
can continue for days,
weeks, months, or even
years for a very large
mainshock.
Cause Sudden release of energy in Hydro-seismicity due to
the Earth’s lithosphere that water percolation as well as
creates seismic waves. seismic activity.
Frequency of occurrence Regularly Rare
Reoccurrence Can happen at varied time They can reoccur
intervals. frequently.
Magnitude Low to high Low
Intensity Low to high Low
Destruction to life and Very high Relatively less
property
Conclusion:
Given the different nature of the swarms, they pose a different kind of challenges to manage
them. Most swarms pose very little threat but the strongest swarm may be pose risk. Identifying
potential hazards ahead of time and planning in advance can reduce the dangers of serious injury
or loss of life from an earthquake. Repairing and reinforcing building foundations, anchoring
overhead lighting fixtures to the ceiling, securing furniture and other objects to walls and floors,
and following local seismic building standards will help reduce the impact of swarms.
59
20. Eurasian Economic Union countries are resource rich. Highlight the distribution of these
resources and the challenges hindering their commercial exploitation.
Keywords Outline; Eurasian Economic Union, distribution of resources; challenges.
Introduction Relevant introduction to the Eurasian Economic Union.
Body • Details of distribution of resources,

• Challenges in exploitation.
Conclusion Relevant and balanced conclusion.
Introduction:
The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) is an economic union of states located in Eastern
Europe, Western Asia, and Central Asia. Member countries include Russia, Armenia, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is estimated that nearly 200 million people live within the member
states and that EAEU countries have $5 trillion in combined GDP.
Geographically, this region is at the eastern end of Europe, bounded by the Arctic in the north,
the Pacific Ocean to the east and East Asia, the Middle East and part of Central Asia to the south.
Body:
Distribution of resources:
The Eurasian Economic Union is seen as an energy superpower, as it produces about 20.7% of the
world's natural gas, 14.6% of the world's oil and gas condensate (in 2012), making it the world's
top producer in both domains.
• Most of it comes from Russia, with Kazakhstan contributing 1.9% and 0.6% in gas and oil
production respectively.
• While small oil and gas reserves were discovered in Belarus, there are no such resources
in Armenia.
• EAEU also produces 9% of the world's electrical energy and 5.9% of the world's coal, making
it the third and fourth producer in the world, respectively.
60
• Kazakhstan:
o While current proven oil reserves in Kazakhstan totals 30 billion barrels, possible
onshore and offshore hydrocarbon reserves dwarf proven reserves, with an estimated
60-100 billion barrels left to uncover, mostly in the Kazakh part of the Caspian
Sea. Some experts estimate that the offshore Kashagan field alone may contain 35
billion to 50 billion barrels of oil. Kazakhstan’s vast natural resources are projected to
meet 2-3% of predicted global oil demand in the next decade.
o Kazakhstan’s proven gas reserves stand at 3 trillion cubic meters and projected
reserves at 5 trillion cubic meters.It is amongst leading countries in reserves of iron ore,
chromite, wolfram, bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, manganese, gold, silver and uranium.
o Approximately one-fifth of the world's uranium reserves are located in Kazakhstan.
Total resources of uranium are more than 1.5 Mt, and more than 1.1 Mt can be mined
by in situ leaching.
• Russia has the world's largest natural gas reserves, the 8th largest oil reserves, and the
second largest coal reserves and is the second-largest exporter of rare earth minerals.
o It has the biggest mining industry in the world producing mineral fuels, industrial
minerals, and metals.
o The iron ore deposits of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, close to the Ukrainian border in
the southwest, are believed to contain one-sixth of the world's total reserves.
o Russia is a leading producer of aluminum, arsenic, cement, copper, magnesium metal,
and compounds such as nitrogen, palladium, silicon, and vanadium.
o Russia also produces one fifth of world’s timber.
• Kyrghystan:
o Kyrgyzstan has vast deposits of coal in most of the regions in the country. The geologists
estimated that the nation had nearly 27 billion tons of coal reserves, 3 billion of which
were believed to be of exceptionally high quality.
o Coal can be found in approximately 60 different areas in the country with some notable
examples being Sulukta and Karakeche. Karakeche is exceptionally vital since it is the
source of nearly half of the nation's coal production.
o It has abundant hydropower; gold, rare earth metals; locally exploitable coal, oil, and
natural gas; other deposits of nepheline, mercury, bismuth, lead, and zinc
• Armenia:
o Geographically, Armenia is mountainous. This geographical peculiarity renders the
country rich in mineral resources.
o The mineral resources of Armenia include iron, zinc, aluminum, copper,
molybdenum, gold, lead, silver and antimony.
o Armenia is the 6th largest producer of molybdenum in the world.
o The country is also rich in other rare and hard to find metals. Armenia possesses some
of the world’s most diverse nonmetallic minerals including tuff, zeolites, nephelite
syenites, perlite, scoria, marble, pumice stone, and basalts.
61
o The industrial minerals found in the country are cement, diatomite, limestone, and
gypsum.
• Belarus:
o Belarus has a significant amount of shale oil reserves within its borders. However, most
of the oil reserves have remained unexploited.
o It is estimated that Belarus has between 5 and 11 billion tons of oil in reserves
throughout the country. Some of the other natural resources in Belarus are peat
deposits, forests, natural gas, brown coal, fertile land, limestone, Iron, clay, chalk, and
sand.
The challenges faced by these countries in exploiting these resources are:
• Intensive depletion of minerals: Kazakhstan is facing inability to restock the depleted
reserves as exploitation greatly exceeds the speed of their growth after exploration.
o Sometimes the ores discovered are of low quality, for example, recently discovered
copper and gold fields in Kazakhstan. These are not able to compensate for depleted
reserves.
• Lack of access: A large percentage of Russian reserves are in remote northern and eastern
regions that lack adequate transport, are distant from major population and industrial
centers, and experience severe climates. Enterprises built there in the Soviet era had
curtailed operations sharply.
• Cost of extraction: For example, the main reasons the oil in Belarus has not been exploited
are the high cost of extraction, the high sulfur content in the oil, and existence of cheaper
substitutes.
• Environmental challenges: Kazakhstan faces industrial pollution, land degradation
and desertification, and contamination from its former role in nuclear
weapons development and testing in the Semipalatinsk region.
o Significant improvements in the environmental situation of the northern Aral Sea area
has been made owing to dam construction and river flow regulation.
• Economic policies: for example, Kazakhstan law holds that no sector of the economy is fully
closed to investors, and a large number of Kazakhstan's mineral production enterprises have
significant foreign ownership.
o Despite being open to foreign investment and even listed on Western stock exchanges,
the ownership structure of some major mineral producing enterprises is not entirely
transparent leading to corrupt practices.
• Disparity in resource distribution: Russia and Kazakhstan have most of the concentration of
resources whereas Belarus, Armenia lack such resources. This has resulted in lack of
enthusiasm of Russia and Kazakhstan in signing off on agreements like EAEU common gas
market.
62
Conclusion:
The EAEU holds the key to energy security for the region. It is imperative that the member
countries cooperate to develop technology and markets in order to utilise these resources to the
best. It is an important step that Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus and Armenia have come together to
create a common electricity market as well as a single hydrocarbons market by 2025.
63

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• Continental Islands (e.g.

Islands of the Greater Antilles such as Cayman Islands, Cuba,

Keywords Continental drift theory (CDT)

Issues with Continental drift theory:

Keywords Sea Snot

Body How and where it has formed.

Impact on economic activity:

Actions being taken in Turkey to control the Sea Snot outbreak:

Issues with phosphorus:

In the Cold Climate:

Impact on landscapes and landforms by winds in cold regions”

Keywords Describe, Contrast; MJO, ENSO, Indian monsoon.

Introduction Relevant introduction defining MJO.

Body • Characteristics and Functioning of MJO phenomenon,

Keywords Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)

Factors that trigger GLOFS:

Keywords Discuss, depleting land resources, impact, examples.

Introduction Relevant introduction explaining the context of depleting land resources.

Body • Land resources and their depletion,

Conclusion Relevant and balanced conclusion.

Keywords Day light saving time

Introduction Explain the concept of DST

Body About DST.

Conclusion A relevant closing statement.

Possible negative role:

• On labour and work productivity:

Introduction Give a brief introduction on tectonic landform

Body Write about landforms formed due to plate tectonics

Conclusion A relevant closing statement

Role of Plate tectonics in formation of various landforms:

• Landform: Folded MOUNTAINS

• Landform: Formation of Cordillera

• Landform: RIFT VALLEY

• Landform: MID-OCEAN RIDGE

• Formation of Island Arcs

• Faults And Fault Landforms :

• Landform: DEEP-OCEAN TRENCH

Keywords Analyse, Explain; Ocean currents, impact, examples.

Introduction Relevant introduction explaining the phenomenon of ocean currents.

Body • Impact of ocean currents on coastal countries,

Conclusion Relevant and optimistic conclusion.

• Energy Independence: Ocean currents are emerging as a possible source of alternative

Introduction Relevant introduction focusing on defining Rare Earth metals.

Body • Increasing demand and reasons

Conclusion Relevant conclusion.

Impact of distribution of REEs on Growth of Industries

Keywords Climatic types, Major Natural Regions

Also, natural regions can in turn influence Climate

Suitable condition for coral reef formation

west Australian cold current)

Keywords Drought Risk, population groups, drought management

• Two-third of the world will be under water-stressed condition by 2025

Drought risk for multiple regions:

Drought risk for Population groups:

dependent on agriculture while the USA has just 2%.

Drought risk for the Economic sector:

Challenges in drought management in India:

NDMA guidelines for Drought Management:

Keywords Global Wildfire crisis, Humans, Ecosystem, Economies

The reasons behind the global wildfires:

Agglomeration economy impact on Cities:

Impact of earthquake swarms:

Differences between an earthquake and earthquake swarm: