Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Insecurity is the fundamental challenge undermining political and social economic development
of west African states. Since 1990’s, terrorism, insurgency and religious extremism have been the
hallmark of growing security challenges in the west African sub-region. In recent time, violence
arising from communal conflicts has gained currency across various local communities in the
Thus, insecurity is the most appalling challenges that different countries around the world are
battling with, although, the declining phases of security situations globally are gradually taking
new shapes and dimensions in many countries in the world (Eze, 2018). States in Africa and the
west Africa, in particular, are becoming susceptible as a result of rising episodes of ethnic and
communal-related conflicts. The region experienced civil wars and genocide in the 1980’s and
early 1990’s with some states conflicts that lasted for a decade (Mohammed, 2016). Equally, the
trend of natural phenomena that were connected to climate change has further compounded the
security peril among the countries in the region. More so, the multifaceted diversity of cultural
and religious background was said to be in particular, the tiding rise of crisis in Africa. The most
consequences. For instance, farmers-herders crisis has been among the most devastating resource
For example, the violent conflicts involving herdsmen and farmers in Nigeria stand out as one of
the most unsettling security concerns which have grave implications on security in west Africa.
In addition, in Nigeria, while the Boko Haram pandemonium predominantly in the NorthEast
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part of the country and the increased agitations for self government in the SouthEast and the
SouthWest pose grave security threat to the unity of Nigeria (Eze, 2018), the emerging trend of
cattle rustlers and disputes over land use between farmers and Fulani cattle herders have also
destabilize the security architecture and socio-political stability in the west African sub-region
(Ameh, 2017). The grime cases of these new security threats frequently reported from different
parts of the country, have considerably increased the upsetting of the socio-economic and
political conditions in Nigeria, which has overwhelming negative implication in the security
In recent time, Nigeria in particular has experienced a significant increase in natural resource
conflicts. The clashes between farmers and herders have become worrisome, mainly in wetland
areas of the middle belt, west and central part of the northern Nigeria. The conflicts differ
depending on the circumstances and situations associated with it. However, the grime nature of
these new security threats often reported daily from diverse parts of the country have
considerably worsened the already appealing socioeconomic, political and security conditions of
Nigeria (Eniola,2016). The cases of farmers-herders’ conflicts are assuming new dimension and
becoming more volatile in nature. In many areas in the Northern Nigeria, the crises have not
Inferring from the biblical antecedents of farmers-herders conflicts, right from the time of
Noraham (Genesis 13:1-18), it is obvious that ownership, possession and access to grazing land
have been an age-long issues that have been causing loss of lives, property, severity of
relationships among communities, tribes and races . The amicable separation of Abraham and his
nephew Lot to avert possible fight between them over grazing land is a true reflection of the
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crisis ravaging today. So, the peaceful separation of two of them helped resolve the conflict
between their workers caused by clash of interests. The text of Genesis 13:1-18 which is
employed, as the theological frame work for this study tends towards both conflicts and
prevention. It also nharps on conflicts resolution because it relates how Abraham had to amicably
separate from Lot , his nephew, so as to end the strife or conflict that erupted between his
herdsmen and those of Lot. On the other hand , their action equally served as a conflict
prevention exercise since their agreement to separate effectively prevented further clashes among
the two groups of herdsmen and thereby generated peace between the two relatives (Abraham
and Lot).
Against this background, this study seeks to examine the implication of farmers-herders conflict
in Nigeria on regional security in West Africa, in order to proffer a lasting solution towards
The Farmers-Herders conflicts in Nigeria, particularly in the Northwest and the North central of
Nigeria, apart from unimaginable destruction of lives and property, have also affected adversely
the socio-economic activities in these areas . The consequences of these have been food
shortages, lack of commercial -oriented sedentary farmers due to series of deaths resulting from
conflicts have, for a long time, been a common feature of economic livelihood in the west Africa,
(Idowu,2017).
Statistics reveal that the prevalence of Fulani herders in several parts of North central Nigeria
and some parts of southeast is largely attributable to the presence of "special ” pasture
availability of land for leasing , support from influential people, availability of water , absence of
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Furthermore, the causes of the conflict relationship between farmers and herders were the
destruction of farms and crops, shooting and killing innocent people, threat and intimidation,
rape and sexual harassment, bush burning , water pollution, armed robbery by the Fulani
nomads, spraying of weeds with weedicides , cattle rustling, and killing. Even though the two
groups are at the forefront of the conflict, there are many actors involved with competing
interests.
Consequently, the conflict has generated humanitarian, economic, social, security and natural
effects on the socio-economic development of Nigerian community, and this has far-reaching
Available literature attributes climate change, moderate weather, green vegetation, forage as the
main factors that attract herders to a particular place (Folami,2018). Obviously, lake chad has
shrunk by 90% since the 1990’s , due to climate change, an increase in the population and
unplanned irrigation. Its basin covers part of Nigeria, Niger Republic, Chad and Cameroon , and
has been a water source for between 20 million people. This singular phenomenon of the lake
chad has , invariably forced many of the Herders in these neighboring Nigerian states to migrate
to Nigeria NorthWest , North central and South West. So, the increase in competition for limited
grazing land has often let to violent conflicts between herdsmen and farmers in many parts of
Nigeria. The conflict has recent time , taken more dangerous dimension, as the herdsmen now
carry sophisticated ammunition with which they kill and maim perceived opponents at will . This
regional security in West Africa. It will ascertain the underlying factors responsible for the
continued hostility between farmers and herders in Nigeria. It will also determine the relationship
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1.2 Statement of the Problem
In Nigeria, the conflicts between Farmers and Fulani herders have been a major problem, not
only for the local communities, but a national and regional one with ontold hardship and regional
insecurity within the West African Region. Several studies and reports have warned of possible
escalation of these conflicts into armed conflicts, if measures are not put in place to check the
ugly scenarios (Gbaka,2015). The social issue being addressed here concerns a law known as
"National Grazing Reserve Establishment and Development Commission Bill (Section 6),
shortened here as "Grazing Grounds Bill", which was presented to the Nigerian legislators for
consideration and approval . It seeks to empower designated agents of the federal government to
acquire parcels of land and hand them over to the Fulani herders, as grazing grounds for
The aim of this study is to examine the implication of farmers-herders conflict in Nigeria and on
(¡¡) Examine the factors responsible for the continued hostility between the Farmers and the
Herders in Nigeria.
(¡¡¡) Ascertain the measures put in place by Nigerian government in resolving the farmers-
herders conflict.
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(iv) To proffer enduring solution to farmers-herders conflict in Nigeria and as it affects the
The following questions were raised, so as to carefully address the subject-matter of this research
work :-
(i) What is the effect of farmers-herders conflict on the socio-political stability in West Africa?
(ii) What are the factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers and herders in
Nigeria?
In order to critically investigate the subject matter of this study, the following hypotheses were
raised :-
African countries.
(ii) Ho: There are no significant factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers
H1: There are significant factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers and
herders in Nigeria.
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This study will be beneficial to the Nigerian government, having identified the relative factors
that are responsible for the persistence of the farmers-herders conflict. It will also assist the
security agencies on the appropriate measures to be adopted in order to checkmate the constant
hostility between the farmers and herders in Nigeria. It will equally be useful to the governments
of other West African states in tackling the aforementioned conflict. This research study shall
also be of immense importance to the students of tertiary institutions, particularly the students of
masters in public and international affairs of the university of Lagos who may be carrying
regional security in West Africa. It examines, among other things, the relative factors that
account for the continued hostility between farmers and herders in Nigeria, and determines its
CONFLICT
This is a form of friction , discord or strong disagreement arising within or between groups as a
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
This deals with the process of designing , launching and running a new business.
FARMER
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This is a person who engages in agricultural activities such as , crops cultivation, who earns a
GRAZING RESERVES
These are areas set aside for the use of pastoralists and are intended to be the foci of livestock
development
HERDERS
These are people of nomadic or semi nomadic culture who are known , in recent time , for
PASTORAL
This is an aspect of agricultural activities which basically deals with producing livestock, rather
RANCH
RUSTLE
This is the act of ranching up and stealing of animals , especially cattle, horses, or sheeps.
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REFERENCES
Ameh,S. A(2017). Cattle Rearing and Its Contribution to the Nigerian Economic Analysis .
Triple A Research Journal of Social Science and Humanity (JSSH), vol. 1(1)006-051.
Eniola, F. (2016). Key Issues In Livelihoods Security Of Migrant Fulanis Pastoralist : Empirical
Evidence From South West Nigeria . AEGIS European Conference On African Studies -
African Alternatives: Initiatives and Creativity Beyond Current Constraints . Leiden , The
Netherlands .
Eze, S. E. (2018). Natural Resource Conflict in Northcentral Nigeria: A Handbook and Case
Folami, A. T. (2018). "Terror, Territoriality and the Struggle for Indigeneity and Citizenship in
Gbaka, E.(2015). Managing Conflict Between Farmers and Pastoralists In Benue State , Nigeria.
Peace Trends : Center for Sustainable Development and Education In Africa, vol 2(3)-3.
Idowu, B. (2017). Conflict and Cooperation: Fulani Relations with the Samba and Mambila
Imo, S. M. (2017). The Transformation of Pastoralists and Cultivators in Nigeria. Paper in Press
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher ensured that relevant literature and theoretical frameworks on the
implications of farmers-herders conflicts in Nigeria on regional security in West Africa, and how
they relate to the study are well discussed. In this chapter, attempts have been made to
understand the theories that are important in the investigation of the subject matter under study.
The theoretical framework that provides the basis for this study was equally expounded.
Le Meir and Hochet (2017), discussed that theorising farmers-herders conflicts remain very
difficult, since the actors, causes and dynamics are complex and varied. Hence combination of
theories is needed to explain vividly farmers-herders escalation. This study therefore adopts a
theories are:
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*Frustration-Aggression Theory.
Social discontent theory states that social movement activity is a rational response to
unsatisfying conditions in society. And because these conditions always exist, so does discontent
with them. Despite such constant discontent, people protest only rarely. This theory emphasizes
the feelings that people have when they are not satisfied with their situations resulting from
This theory is built around the concept of "relative deprivation", which is defined as the sense of
frustration that people experience when they observe other people having something they desire
The social discontent theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people
who feel deprived of some goods(s) or resource(s). According to this approach, individuals who
are lacking some good, service,or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to
improve (or defend) their conditions. However, there are two significant problems with this
theory. First, since most people feel deprived at one level or the another almost all the time, the
theory has a a hard time explaining why the groups that form social movements do when other
people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning behind this theory is circular - often the only
Social discontent theory also agues that social movements are made up of individuals in large
societies who feel insignificant or socially detached or deprived. Social movements according to
this theory provide a sense of empowerment and belonging that the movement members who feel
socially discontented, otherwise, not have (Le Meir and Hochet, 2017).
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2.2.2 Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT)
Regional security complex theory was developed by Barry Buzan and Ole Waever. This theory
idenrifies a regional security complex as a group of states whose primary national security
concerns are so closely interwined together that they cannot be extracted or addressed
independently of each other. The theory views security interdependence as a factor in the
creation regionally based clusters. The RSCT provided a framework for analysis and comparison
of regional security of different regions. According to this theory, regional security complexes
are defined as distinct and stable patterns of security interactions between actors. This means
that, an actor's security concerns are primarily generated in their immediate neighbourhood. The
security of each actor in a region interacts with the security of the other actors. (Le Meir and
Hochet, 2017).
theory of aggression proposed by John Dollard, Neal Miller, Leonard Doob, Orval Mowrer and
Robert Sears in 1939, and further development by Neal Miller in 194, and Leonard Berkowitz in
1961. The theory states that aggression is the result of blocking or frustrating a person's efforts to
attain a goal (Friedman, 2018). When first formulated, the hypothesis stated that frustration
always precedes aggression and aggression is the sure consequence of frustration. Two years
later, however, Miller and Sear re-formulated the hypothesis to suggest that while frustration
creates a need to respond, some form of aggression is one possible outcome. Therefore, the
reformulated hypothesis stated that while frustration prompts a behaviour that may or may not be
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aggressive; any aggressive behaviour is the result of frustration (Zillman, 2009). It attempts to
give an explanation as to the cause of violence. Frustration is the "condition which exists when a
goal - response suffers interference", while aggression is defined as" an act which goal -
response is injury to an organism (or an organism surrogate). The theory emphasizes that
frustration causes aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the
aggression gets displaced unto an innocent target (scapegoat). This theory is also used to explain
riots and revolutions, which both are believed to be caused by poorer and deprived sections of
society who may express their bottled up frustration and anger through violence (wordpress.com,
2015).
According to Olu-Adeyemi (2017), a number of other variables influence the use of violence as
well, for example, the culture, the society, and the political environment. The culture must, at
least accept, if not approve, violent actions as a means to an end. Violence is also more likely if
the current leadership and/or the socio-economic/political system is seen as unresponsive. Olu-
Adeyemi also established that the central theme of the theory is that scarcity is the product of
means that one's access to means of livelihood ( farming or grazing as the case may be) is being
thwarted by another or possibly by particular circumstances and that one's reaction to this
thwarting is that of annoyance . Olu-Adeyemi also added that , deprivation is not based on wants
and needs , but on the wants and needs that we feel we ought to have or deserve. More often than
not , the herdsmen are frustrated due to desertification. Thus, the reality is that they face forced
migration and as they migrate , series of challenges are encountered which in turn brings
frustration. Similarly, farmers who have struggled to cultivate farmlands also get frustrated
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whenever herds of cattle destroy their farmlands. The Fulani herdsmen terror is a struggle over
values and claims to scarce resources in which their aims are to neutralise , injure or to eliminate
the host communities in a bid to fend for their animals . The violent activities of the Fulani
herdsmen occur because of the accumulation of residual instigatory effects of frustration. The
terrorist activities of the herdsmen are traceable to the desertification that has caused depletion in
grazing opportunities or scarcity of feed for their animals which, in the long run, affects their
economic well-being. If a herdsman loses his flock to drought and water scarcity, he may be
frustrated because of loss of livelihood. From the reality, he may be aggressive and since he can
not channel it to the natural causes , he may in the long run, channel it to any person or group
that obstructs his migration to a safe area. On the side of farmers and host communities in
Nigeria, frustration also occurs whenever animals of the herdsmen trample on their farmlands to
eat their crops. And because they are frustrated too, they become aggressive and channel their
aggression to the herdsmen and their cows. Owing to this reality, conflict and confrontation are
inevitable.
2.3.1 Herdsmen
The Fulani originated from the Senegambia before spreading out into about 20 states, which cut
across West Africa and the Sahel as well as Western Sudan and Central African Republic
(McGregor, 2017).
The people are found in large numbers in Nigeria, but while some have moved into the cities,
many are still living as semi-nomadic herders. However, this group which owns and rears herds
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of animals like cattle for commercial purposes are called "Herdsmen". Fulani herdsmen or Fulani
pastoralists are nomadic or semi- nomadic herders whose primary occupation is raising livestock
(Iro, 2014). They usually move their herds from one place to another in search of pasture and
fresh water. It is predominantly the occupation of the Fulani ethnic group in Nigeria. They are
often armed and visibly move about with weapons (like daggars, matches, arrows, etc) to protect
their livestocks. The more distributing issue about the herdsmen is that they also block the
highways with their cattle, rob and kidnap people, keep them captives in the bush and demand
ransome. The herdsmen have also been involved in the rape of old and young women and
burning of communities (The Vanguard, 2015). Due to their violent nature and associated
killings, the group was recently described as the world's fourth deadliest militant group (GTI,
2.3.2 Farmers
Farmers (also called agriculturers) are persons who engage in agriculture, raising living
organisms for food or raw materials. The term, therefore applies to people who do some
combination of raising field crops, orchards, vineyards, poultry, or other livestocks. Based on this
broad definition, farmers are both the herdsmen who herd or keep livestock like cattle, goats and
sheep, and crop farmers. However, for this work, farmers (those who raise field crops) also
Farmers-herdsmen conflict is as old as the existence of man. It started from the children (Cain
and Abel) of the first man (Adam). Abel was a shepherd and Cain was a farmer, according to
Bible account. However, Cain killed Abel in the field out of jealousy. Okoro (2018) averted that
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farmers-herdsmen conflicts are conflicts occuring between peasant farmers or subsistence
cultivators and nomadic or transhumant livestock keepers. According to Hagmann (2017), there
exist differences between "herder - herder conflicts" and "farmer - herder" conflicts. He
maintained that herder-herder conflicts are usually conflicts between nomadic or transhumant
livestock keepers that arise between recieving groups over their territory's resources and
incoming groups searching for water and pastures, and cattle raiding. Herder - herder conflicts is
a conflict that results from theft of cattle or other animals among the Fulani herdsmen. It is
herdsmen rustling cattle of other herdsmen, or when an unexperienced herders entrust their
animals in the care of experienced herders under agreements, and when such agreements are
breached, conflict occasions within. The violent cattle raids among pastoralists in East Africa are
examples of herder-herder conflicts. Hussein, Sumberg, and Seddon (2019) see farmers-herder
conflicts as comprising different types of conflicts, including ethnic conflicts, interest conflicts,
resource disputes , political action , evictions, killings , cattle raiding and cattle rustling.
The farmers-herders conflicts have impacted adversely on the socio-economic development and
Socio-economic development is the relationship between economic activity and social life . It is
the continuous improvement in the well-being and standard of living of the people. It therefore,
centres on poverty reduction or reduction of suffering of the poor and increase their access to
social services. It also requires action to increase the poor’s ability to generate an income in order
to meet their basic needs . The impacts of socio-economic development are seen in changes in
laws, changes in the physical environment, ecological changes and changes in security situations
of every society .
2.3.4 Security
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Security is the act of protecting a person, building, organisation, or country against threats, such
as, crimes or attacks. It is the safety as well as the measures taken to be safe or protected against
harm or threat. In the context of this study, security can be defined as the safety of a state or
organisation against criminal activities such as terrorism, banditry, or any other conflict(s).
The security situation in West Africa has really suffered a great deal of instability as a result of
the incessant farmers-herders conflicts in the sub region,. particularly in Nigeria. And this has
resulted in grace adverse effect on the security architecture in the sub region. There is, therefore,
a strong need for the countries in the sub region to come together and activate synergic efforts to
tackle this menace headlong. No nation grows under an insecure atmosphere. Nigeria, as a
frontline state in West Africa, should strive and contrive modalities to ensure that the regular
farmers-herders conflicts are given a lasting solution that would promote harmonious co-
Violence involving farmers and herders in Nigeria has been surging in recent time. The rise of
farmers-herdsmen conflicts in Nigeria is more pernicious than fatality figures alone, and it is
often amplified by the emotionally potent issues of ethnicity, religion, culture, and land.
Ironically, most livestock herders have no association with extreme groups and are often victims
of their actions. Nevertheless, once the genie of intercommunal conflicts are unleashed, passions
take over. Attacks become deadlier, expulsions more frequent, and reprisals extend to
communities not immediately linked to the initial flashpoint. The stakes quickly shifts from
questions over resource access or local politics to deep-seated notions of identity. (The Vanguard
2015).
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Although farmers and herders have held competitive relations for centuries, the current climate
farmers-herders disputes and spirals of intercommunal violence is complex. And this accounts
for the upsurge in the rate of farmers-herders conflicts in Nigeria. The violent conflicts involving
the farmers and the herders in Nigeria stands out as one of the most unsettling security concerns
in the sub region. Insecurity is the most appalling challenge that different areas around Nigeria
are battling with. The declining phases of security situations in Nigeria are gradually taking new
shapes and dimensions, and is assuming an alarming toll on the security stability of the sub
region. Countries in West Africa are becoming susceptible as a result of the rising episodes of
Generally, farmers-herders conflicts in Nigeria distrupt and threaten the sustainability of pastoral
The conflicts reinforce cycles of extreme poverty and hunger, and destroy social status and food
security and affect mostly the already marginalized groups. The conflicts have created vicious
cycle of poverty in many West African countries, and affected the education of children, leading
The Nigerian Government Grazing Reserve Act of 1964, was a response to the problem of
alienation of grading lands increasingly being faces by the pastoral population at the time. In a
broader framework, the law was also taken as one of the policy measures to address the some of
the constraints confronting livestock development in Nigeria. Thus, grazing reserves were
established not only to protect grazing lands from farming and provide earlier access to them by
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pastoralists, but also to encourage the sedenterisation of nomadic/transhumant pastoralists
through legally secure tittles to grazing water and, in general, as one means of promoting
livestock development.
Understadably, the 1964 Grazing Reserve Act which was regarded as the grazing law of the
Northern Nigerian Legislative Assembly of 1964/1965, can be preserved, saved and protected in
the Northern states and Oyo state of the Southern Nigeria, and cannot be applicable in all states
of the federation, since it was made by only the Legislative Assembly of the Northern Nigeria.
Aside from having limited coverage area, the coming into effect of the Land Use Act, which by
virtue of Section 315(5)(d) is a constitutional enactment, the 1964 Grazing Land Reserve law
automatically becomes a back bencher, having been effectively consumed by the provision of the
Land Use Act which by its preamble vests all land comprised in each state of the federation
(except land vested in the Federal Government or its agencies) in the Governor of the State to
Recently, the Southern State Governors met in Lagos on July 5, 2021, and made a resolution
banning open grazing in the whole of the Southern Nigeria. The 17 Governors of the Southern
states urged the states in the region to ensure that the legislation against open grazing of cattle is
put in place on or before September 1, 2021. The decision came after individual attempts to
address the menace of farmers-herdsmen menace as a result of open grazing in the Southern
states had failed, as the governors, under the Forum of Southern Governors, in one voice,
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announced a ban on loose cattle in all the 17 Southern states. They recommended that the federal
government should support willing states to develop alternative and modern livestock
management systems.
So far, only six Southern states have been able to pass the bill on ban on open grazing into law.
The states include; Abia, Rivers, Bayelsa, Lagos, Ekiti and Oyo. This means that, by the time the
12 remaining Southern states pass the bill into law, the open grazing of cattle in the whole of
Southern Nigeria will be a thing of the past, and this will possibly put an end to the incessant
According to Salawu Aminu in his book titled "The Essence of Security" published in 2009, the
development. In addition to facilitating criminal and armed violence, SALW are used to facilitate
sexual and gender-based violence and to reinforce, violent social norms. The proliferation of
small arms and ammunition is of growing concern as these weapons are used to destroy life and
impede the socio-economic development of countries, particularly in West Africa and Sahel
regions, where there is exponential rose in the rate of insurgency and terrorism. There are
national security implications for member jurisdiction, of the illegal cross border movement of
small arms and ammunition goes unchecked(Samai, 2017). For the purpose of this study arm
proliferation is defined as sudden increase in the number of arms and weapons beyond those
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In Nigeria, the proliferation of arms fuels conflict and vice-versa. It is a dangerous trend that
jeopardizes stability, security, and investment in Africa's most populous and economically
powerful country. Former Nigerian head of state, Gen. Abdulsalami Abubarka stated that in a
recent speech that Nigeria had over 6 million small arms in circulation, backed by a "2020" SBM
Intelligence Report". With just over 10 million of these weapons in West Africa, this means that
Nigeria accounts for roughly 60% of the region's total. Increased demand for the weapons stems
from terrorism in the form of Book Haram, gang violence, armed robberies, ongoing
farmer/herder conflict, and both communities and individuals wanting to defend themselves.
Similarly, easy access to small arms enables crime and terrorism to spread faster than they would
otherwise.
A 2016 report by Oxfam, estimated that Nigeria had 20 million small and light arms and
weaponry, meaning that the number has tripled in just four years. Many of these small arms are
hand-crafted or stolen caches from Nigerian armed forces. Smugglers also traffick small arms
across porous borders after Libya's fall, which increased small arms proliferation throughout
West Africa and fueled by the crisis in the Sahel. In Zamfara State in Northern Nigeria, a Boko
Haram hotspot, the artisanal gold trade fuels the illicit, informal arms market, according to Dr
Nuradden Isah, the Commissioner for Environment and Solid Minerals(Salawu, 2009).
Further South, automatic weapons and rocket-propelled grenades were used in a jailbreak in
early April, 2022, freeing over 1,800 prisoners in Owerri, Imo State. This stresses Nigeria's
inability to address its security issues adequately, and this contributes immensely to the security
challenges in West African region. Even with the recent shakeup of Nigeria's military leadership,
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2.4 Empirical Review
Popoola (2020) in the study titled "Effect of Communal Conflict on Economic Activities In Osun
State, Nigeria “ found out that commercial activities were totally shut down, such as the banks,
government offices, shops and private offices (entrepreneurial activities). The study revealed that
communal conflicts have negative effects on entrepreneurial activities. Ilo, 2016), in his study
the factors that usually led to crisis were limited or availability of sufficient resources like
access to farm or grazing fields and scarcity of fresh water. Olu-Adeyemi, Adelakun,
lists conflicts on Agricultural Extension Service Delivery in Oyo State , Nigeria. They found out
Ofuoku and Isife (2016) analyzed the causes , effects and resolution of farmers-nomadic cattle
herders conflict in Delta state , Nigeria. They concluded that there were secrets behind such
conflicts and gave ideas on the way to prevent and solve such in the future . According to Opoku
(2017), the causes of the farmers-herders conflict are , shooting of innocent citizens by
herdsmen, destruction of food crops, raping of women on their farms , herdsmen causing bush
fires , pollution of water bodies by herdsmen and cattle rustling. These correspond to the findings
of Ofoku & Isife (2016), from their study in Delta state, as they found out that: destruction of
crops, contamination of streams by cattle over-grazing of fallow land, disregard for traditional
authority, sexual harassment of women by nomads, harassment of nomads for host youths,
indiscriminate defecation by cattle, stray cattle, indiscriminate bush burning are the major causes
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Ayo (2017) observed that "population explosion" underlines the conflict, as he argues that,
Southern and Middle Belt regions were scarcely populated with Arable land. Rapid growth in
population due to high birth rate and immigration, has caused the farmers to scramble for
farmlands which is becoming scarce by the day. In effect, grazing areas that were hitherto
abundant, are being taken over by scattered small firms, making grazing in these areas difficult.
farming or grazing rights are other factors that cause land tenure disputes contestations between
the farming and herding communities. This argument is supported by Breusers (2016).
According to their study, competition over natural resources caused by human population of
herds and extension of cultivated areas, are the causes of the farmers-herders conflicts. This is
also captured by Okoro (2018), who argued that Fulani pastoralists and sedentary farmers are
fighting for pastures and farmlands which are decreasing as the populations of humans and cattle
increase.
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Adesanya, M. K(2021). Arms Deals in West Africa: Issues and Challenges to Democratic
Ayo, A.S. (2017). Causes and Resolution of Conflict between Cattle Herders and Crop Farmers
Hagmann, T. (2017). Mitigating Violent Resource Conflicts, In the Somali Region of Ethiopia.
Paper presented at the ZEF Research Meeting, Centre for Development Research, (ZEF).
Ilo, T. B. (2016). Urban Violence Dimension in Nigeria: Farmers and Herders Onslaught.
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Le Meir, P. & Hochet, Y., (2017). Property Relations by other means: Conflict between Herders
and Farmers in Africa: Claims and Evidence. Development Policy Review, Vol. 17 (4)
397-418.
McGregor, S.A (2017) Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, CT, US: Yale University Press.
OCLC 25 6003,
Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism, New York: Institute For Economics and
Peace. Pp 1-107.
Ofuoku, John Peter; & Isife, B.I. (2016). Causes, Effects and Resolutions of Farmers - nomadic
Cattle Herders Conflict in Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Sociology and
Herdsmen Terror in Nigeria. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, Vol.4 (15) 1-
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Personality: Classic Theories and Modern Research (Sed.) Boston: Pearson, Vol. 3 (4) 33-39.
Western Nigeria. Business Ethics and Leadership Journal, Vol.2 (4) 83-88.
26
Salawu, L. Aminu (2009). Nigeria's Weapons Procurement Process: Its Implications for Her
Shakhnazarov, G. (2009). The Destiny of the World: The Socialist Shape of Things to come.
The Four Horse Men on Apocalypse: The Structural Cause of Violence in Africa, Vol. 2 (10) 13-
23.
Zilima, D. A (2019).
Zillman, Dolf (2019) Hostility and Aggression, Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence Eribaum Associates,
Pp 126-141.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses the design, features and procedures used in carrying out the research
In this study, the researcher adopted survey research method, with the use of structured
questionnaire for the collection of data. The choice of this research method was made based on
the fact that it is quantitative and produces objective data that can be clearly communicated
through statistics and numbers. Besides, survey method is more scientific, fast, objective,
27
Lagos State was chosen as the location where the research was carried out. The choice of Lagos
State was informed by its historical context. Besides, Lagos State has the largest concentration of
tertiary institutions, from where respondents were selected. It is the largest commercial city in
Nigeria and the hub of trade and commerce. Lagos is also the largest city in Nigeria with a
population of over twenty two million people. Lagos is located in the Southwest region of
Nigeria.
In this study, the researcher centred around academics and other persons who are knowledgeable
in security matters and international affairs from the University of Lagos. The study population
consists of persons who have cognitive knowledge of security and relative impact of ethnic
conflict and its dynamics. Population helps to understand the processes that influence the size,
In this work, the researcher selected a sample of 120 participants from among academics and
other persons who are knowledgeable in security matters and international affairs from the
University of Lagos. The researcher ensured that the sample size was representative of the
Under this, probability sampling technique was adopted, with the use of simple random sampling
method, where the subjects of the population were given an equal opportunity to be selected as a
representative sample. The choice of this sampling technique was based on the fact that it saves
28
time and resources. It is also a reliable method of obtaining information where every single
In this study, the researcher used a structured questionnaire for the collection of data. The
questionnaire contains close-ended questions where pre-coded answer choices were made
available for the respondents to choose from. The questionnaire was drafted in simple language
The questions in the questionnaire, in the view of the respondents, measured what they were
intended to measure. And in the view of experts, the survey contains questions which covered all
aspects of the construct being measured. The questionnaire asked series of related questions
The respondents responded to the survey questions the second time in the same way they
remembered responding the first time, and this gives good impression of reliability. On the other
hand, the measurement of knowledge of the respondents yielded similar results under varying
29
Under this, the researcher collected quantitative data through a survey method in which a
structured questionnaire was administered. At the end of the survey activities, the completed and
returned questionnaires were reviewed and vetted in order to check for internal consistency,
Under this, data were analyzed quantitatively based on research questions, using test statistics
and statistical tools which include: percentages and frequencies, t-test, regression analysis and
hypotheses testing.
REFERENCES
Asika, N. (2005). Research Methodology in the Behavioural Sciences. Lagos. Esto Printers.
Baily, K. J. (2016). Methods of Social Research, New York. The Free Press.
Monalisa, S. M. (2018). Understanding Reserach Methods and their Dynamics in the Face of
30
CHAPTER FOUR
Data analysis is a method of developing answers to questions through the evaluation and
interpretation of data. This chapter critically explains the technique used in the presentation and
analysis of data gathered in the course of this study. The required data collected through
distribution and sample percentages. The data of each research question was collated and
31
A total of 120 questionnaires were distributed to academics and other selected persons
knowledgeable in security matters and international affairs from the University of Lagos. Out of
which, 115 were filled and returned, as shown in the table below:
This implies that 115 respondents, which represent 95.8%, constituted the sample size, while 5
32
M.Sc 45 39.1
Ph.D 50 43.5
Total 115 100
Respondent’s Years of working experience 5 – 10 years 23 20.0
11 – 15 years 40 34.8
Above 15 years 52 45.2
Total 115 100
Source: Field Survey, 2023
Interpretation
The sample size of the respondents is made up of 60.9 male and 39.1% female, indicating that
the sample population of the respondents has more male than female respondents.
The ages of the respondents indicate that 20.1% of them are within 25 – 35 years; 39.1% of them
are within 36 – 45 years; 26.1% of them are within 46 – 55 years; while 14.7% of them are above
55 years.
The marital status of the respondent indicates that 30.4% of them are single, 56.5% of them are
married. While 13.1% of them are separated, this implies that the sample population has more of
The educational qualifications of the respondents indicate that 17.4% of them possess B.Sc;
The years of working experience of the respondents indicate that 20.0% of them are within 5 –
10 years 34.2%% of them are within 11 – 15 years, while 45.2% of the are above 15 years.
Table 3: What is the effect of farmers – herders conflict on the socio-political stability in
West Africa?
33
SA A U D SD Total
a. There is a rising incidence of F 35 40 10 20 10 115
destruction of critical
% 30.4 34.8 8.7 17.4 8.7 100
infrastructure and displacement
of millions in the sub region.
b. National governments in the F 25 50 8 20 12 115
region now concentrate on
% 21.7 43.5 7.0 17.4 10.4 100
fighting insecurity resulting in
governance deficit.
Source: Field Survey, 2023
Data Analysis
From question item “a” above, 30.4% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question, 34.8% of them agreed; while 8.7% were undecided. Also 17.4% of them disagreed; and
8.7% of them strongly disagreed. This implies that, there is a rising incidence of destruction of
From question item “b” above 21.7% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question; 43.% of them agreed; while 7.0% of them were undecided. Again, 17.4% of the
disagreed and 10.4% of them strongly disagree. This implies that, national governments in the
Table 4: What are the factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers and
herders in Nigeria?
SA A U D SD Total
a. Herders encroach on farmlands F 30 45 10 18 12 115
with their cattle destroying
% 26.1 39.1 8.7 15.7 10.4 100
crops and other farm outputs.
b. Grazing routes have always F 25 45 8 20 17 115
been blocked by farmers to
% 21.7 39.1 7.0 17.4 14.8 100
safeguard their farms.
Source: Field Survey, 2023
34
Data Analysis
From question item “a” above, 26.1% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question, 39.1% of them agreed; while 8.7% of them were undecided. Besides, 5.7% of them
disagreed; and 10.4% of them strongly disagreed. This implies that, herders encroach on
farmlands with their cattle destroying crops and other farm outputs.
From question item “b” above, 21.7% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
questions 39.1% of them agreed; while 7.0% of them were undecided. Moreso, 17.4% of them
disagreed; and 14.8% of them strongly disagreed. This implies that, grazing routes have always
Table 5: What are the measures put in place by Nigerian government in resolving
farmers/herders conflicts?
SA A U D SD Total
a. The government has proposed F 25 50 10 20 10 115
establishing “cattle colonies”, in
% 21.7 43.5 8.7 17.4 8.7 100
order to set aside land for
herders across the country.
b. The government has deployed F 30 45 15 15 10 115
additional police and army
% 26.1 39.1 13.0 13.0 8.7 100
units, and launched two military
operations to curb the conflict
in six states.
Source: Field Survey, 2023
Data Analysis
From question item “a” above, 21.7 of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question; 43.5% of them agreed; while 8.7% of them were undecided. Moreso 17.4% of them
disagreed; and 8.7%% of them strongly disagreed. This implies that, the government has
proposed establishing “cattle colonies”, in order to set aside land for herders across the country.
35
From question item “b” above, 26.1% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question; 39.1% of them were undecided. Besides, 13.0% of them disagreed, and 8.7% of them
strongly disagreed. This implies that, the government has deployed additional police and army
units, and launched two military operations to curb the conflict in six states.
Table 6: Why does the farmer – herder’s conflict in Nigeria affect the security situation in
West Africa?
SA A U D SD Total
a. Nigeria has the largest F 35 40 10 20 10 115
agricultural output and the
% 30.4 34.8 8.7 17.4 8.7 100
largest number of cattle in the
sub – region, and plays a
significant role in the socio-
economic development of West
Africa.
b. Nigeria is the largest F 25 50 8 20 12 115
commercial hub in the sub-
% 21.7 43.5 7.0 17.4 10.4 100
region and serves as a facilitator
of trade and commerce to other
countries in the sub-region.
Source: Field Survey, 2023
Data Analysis
From question item “a” above, 30.4% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question; 34.8% of them agreed; while 8.7% of them were undecided. Also 17.4% of them
disagreed; and 8.7% of them strongly disagreed. This implies that, Nigeria has the largest
36
agricultural output and the largest number of cattle in the sub – region, and plays a significant
From question item “b” above, 21.7% of the respondents strongly agreed with the research
question, 43.5% of the agreed; while 7.0% of them were undecided. Furthermore, 17.4% of them
disagreed; and 10.4% of them strongly disagreed. This implies that, Nigeria is the largest
commercial hub in the sub-region and serves as a facilitator of trade and commerce to other
Hypothesis One
West Africa.
West Africa.
N Correlation Sig.
Farmers-herders conflict
115 0.650 0.000
Pair I and
Socio-political stability in West Africa
37
Decision Rule
Reject the null hypothesis when significant value is (0.01) less than p-value of a = 0.01, and
accept the alternative hypothesis. However, if the p-value is less than 0.01 sig level, then the null
Decision
The table relatively shows that the correlation value is 0.650, give a significant value sig (2 –
tailer of 0.000.). Thus, using an alpha value of a = 0.01, result shows that the p-value is less than
the significant value, i.e. (0.00 < 0.01) which gives much evidence for the rejection of the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion
According to the result obtained above, the alternative hypothesis which states that, there is a
accepted.
Hypothesis Two
Ho: There are no significant factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers
Ho1: There are significant factors responsible for the continues hostility between farmers and
herders in Nigeria.
N Correlation Sig.
Factors responsible for continued hostility
38
Pair II and 115 0.750 0.000
Farmers and herders in Nigeria.
Decision Rule
Reject the null hypothesis when significant value is (0.01) less than p-value of a = 0.01, and
accept the alternative hypothesis. However, if the p-value is less than 0.01 sig level, then the null
Decision
The table relatively shows that the correlation value is 0.750, given a significant value0.000.
Thus, using an alpha value of a = 0.01, result shows that the p-value is less than the significant
value, i.e. (0.00 < 0.01) which gives much evidence for the rejection of the null hypothesis.
Conclusion
According to the result obtained above, the alternative hypothesis which states that, there are
significant factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers and herders in Nigeria
is accepted.
Hypothesis Three
Ho: There are no significant measures put in place by Nigerian government in resolving the
H1: There are significant measures put in place by Nigerian government in resolving the
39
Table 9: Correlation Test
N Correlation Sig.
Measures put in place by Nigerian government
115 0.750 0.000
Pair III and
Resolving farmers – herders conflict
Decision Rule
Reject the null hypothesis when significant value is (0.01) less than p-value of a = 0.01, and
accept the alternative hypothesis. However, if the p-value is less than 0.01 sig level, then the null
Decision
The table relatively shows that the correlation value is 0.750, given a significant value sig (2-
tailed) of 0.000. Thus, using an alpha value of a = 0.01, result shows that the p-value is less than
the significant value, i.e. (0.00 < 0.01) which gives much evidence for the rejection of the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion
According to the result obtained above, the alternative hypothesis which states that, there is a
significant measures put in place by Nigerian government in resolving farmers – herders conflict
is accepted.
Hypothesis Four
40
Ho: There is no significant reason why farmers - herders conflict in Nigeria affects the
H1: There is a significant reason why farmers - herders conflict in Nigeria affects the security
N Correlation Sig.
Farmers – herders conflict in Nigeria
115 0.650 0.000
Pair IV and
Security situations in West Africa
Decision Rule
Reject the null hypothesis when significant value is (0.01) less than p-value of a = 0.01, and
accept the alternative hypothesis. However, if the p-value is less than 0.01 sig level, then the null
Decision
The table relatively shows that the correlation value is 0.650, given a significant value sig (2-
tailed) of 0.000. Thus, using an alpha value of a = 0.01, result shows that the p-value is less than
41
the significant value, i.e. (0.00 < 0.01) which gives much evidence for the rejection of the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion
According to the result obtained above, the alternative hypothesis which states that, there is a
significant reason why farmers – herders conflict in Nigeria affect the security situations in West
Africa is accepted.
The findings as to the effect of farmers – herders conflict on the socio-political stability in West
millions in the sub-region; and national governments in the region now concentrate on fighting
Regarding the factors responsible for the continued hostility between farmers and herders in
Nigeria herders encroach on farm lands, with their cattle destroying crops and other farm outputs
and grazing routes have always been blocked by farmers to safeguard their farms.
In respect of the measures put in place by Nigerian government in resolving farmers – herders
conflict, the government has proposed establishing “cattle colonies”, in order to set aside land for
herders across the country and government has deployed additional police and army units, and
42
As regards why the farmers – herders conflict in Nigeria affects the security situation in West
Africa, Nigeria has the largest agricultural output and the largest number of cattle in the sub-
region, and plays a significant role in the socio-economic development of West Africa; and
Nigeria is the largest commercial hub in the sub-region and serves as a facilitator of trade and
The major findings indicate that water scarcity, which technically has been responsible for
insufficient grazing of land has led to violent conflict among farmers and herders, since both of
them always need water for sustaining their vocations (Ahmed, 2020). The continuous conflicts
between farmers and herders are mostly as a result of the destruction of farmland by the cattle.
And the contamination of water by the cattle, and indiscriminate defecation by the cattle have not
in any way helped to resolve the problem. On the part of the herdsmen, then have disregard for
the traditional authority of their host communities. On the part of host community, then usually
harass the herders. The loss of cattle and crops as well as increase in transportation, cost in post
conflict area has increased poverty and food insecurity both in Nigeria and in West African sub-
region (Imo, 2020). The farmers – herders conflict has also led to unemployment and distrust
among ethnic nationalities in Nigeria. Besides, as the number of homes of farmers attacked by
herdsmen increases, food security decreases. Farmers are the primary victims in farmers –
herders conflicts and attacks. These conflicts affect the socio-economic life of the farmers and
their agricultural production activities (Idowu, 2021). The findings equally reveal that the
farmers – herders conflict in Nigeria has also affected security architecture and defence
modalities in the sub – region, as governments of various countries in West Africa now battle
with insecurity as a result of incessant farmers – herders conflicts (Ameh, 2021). These findings
are in line Folami (2019), who in his study opined that the activities of the herdsmen are a threat
43
to the economic, political and social security of a nation and a major factor associated with
under-development, because of discourages both local and foreign investments, reduces the
quality of life, destroys human and social capital, damages relationship between citizens of
various ethnic nationalities. The findings also agree with Eze (2021) who argued that farmers –
herders conflict has further threatened the development of the agricultural sector as most
Northern farmers have been killed, displaced from their native lands and their farmland
destroyed. The findings also agree with Gbaka (2019), who established that, farmers – herders
44
REFERENCES
Ahmed, S. A. (2020). “The Dynamics of the farmers –herders conflict: Issues and Challenges”.
Ameh, S. (2021). Cattle rearing and its contribution to the Nigerian Economic Analysis. Triple. A
Research Journal of Social Science and Humanity (JSSH), Vol. (1): 006 – 051.
Eniola, F. (2020). Key issues in livelihoods security of migrant Fulanis pastoralist: Empirical
Evidence from South West Nigeria AEGIS European Conference on African Studies –
African Alternatives: Initiatives and creativity beyond Current Constraints. Leiden, the
Netherlands.
Eze, B. A. (2021). Natural resources conflict in North central Nigeria: A handbook and case
Folami, A. T. (2019). “Terror, territoriality and teh struggle for indigeneity and citizenship in
Gbaka, E. (2019). Managing conflict between farmers and pastoralists in Benue State, Nigeria.
Pease trends: Centre for Sustainable Development and Education in Africa, vol. 2 (3): 3 –
9.
Idowu, B. (2021). Conflict and Cooperation: Fulani Relations with the Samba and Mambila
Imo, S. M. (2020). The transformation of pastoralists and cultivators in Nigeria. Paper in press
45
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Summary
Several studies have been conducted to examine the implication of farmers-herders conflict in
Nigeria on regional security in West Africa. Unfortunately, theoretical and empirical literature
has produced conflicting conclusions that need more investigation. This study sheds greater
Africa. Against this background, chapter one expounded the bases of the research questions,
which have been tested. Chapter two was to critically examine the implication of farmers-herders
conflict in Nigeria on regional security in West Africa, through extensive review of several
literature that had explained the existing relationship between farmers-herders conflict in Nigeria
and regional security in West Africa. In this chapter, the various theories linked to the purpose of
this study were critically examined. The theories found in the literature were presented and
compared to each other. Chapter three gives an objective insight into the way and manner in
which the research was carried out. The research study made use of survey method, as the
research design, while random sampling was used as the sampling technique. Questionnaire was
the major research instrument used for the collection of data from the sample , while the data
obtained were analyzed using frequency and the simple percentage as well as research Pearson
Chapter four dealt with data presentation and analysis. This chapter analyzed each of the research
questions quantitatively. And it was concluded, after the analysis, that water scarcity, which
technically has been responsible for insufficient grazing of land has led to violent conflicts
46
among farmers amd herders, since both of them always need water for sustaining their vocations
(Ahmed, 2020). The continuous conflicts between farrmers and herders are mostly as a result of
the destruction of farmlands by cattle. And the contamination of water by the cattle, and
indiscriminate defecation by the cattle have not in any way helped to resolve the problem. The
findings also reveal that farmers-herders conflicts have led to loss in production by both the
farmers and the herders. The loss of cattle and crops as well as increase in transportation cost in
post conflict area has increased poverty and food insecurity both in Nigeria and in West sub-
region (Imo, 2020). The farmers-herders conflict has also led to unemployment and distrust
among ethnic nationalities in Nigeria. Besides, as the number of homes of farmers attacked by
herdersmen increases, food security decrease. Farmers are the primary victims in farmers-herders
conflicts and attacks. These conflicts affect the socio-economic life of the farmers and their
5.2 Conclusion
Farmers-herders conflicts in Nigeria are a series of disputes over arable land resources across
Nigeria between the mostly-Muslim Fulani herders and the mostly-Christian non-Fulani farmers.
The conflicts have been especially prominent in the Middle Belt (North Central) since the return
of democracy in 1999. Farmers-herders conflicts have led to loss in production by both the
farmers and the herders. The loss of cattle and crops, as well as increase in transportation cost in
post conflict area has increased poverty and food insecurity both in Nigeria and in West African
sub-region. The farmers-herders conflict has also led to unemployment and distrust among ethnic
47
nationalities in Nigeria. The farmers-herders conflict in Nigeria has also affected security
West Africa now battle with insecurity as a result of incessant farmers-herders conflicts. The
activities of the herdsmen are a threat to the economic, political, and social security of a nation
and a major factor associated with underdevelopment, because it discourages both local and
foreign investments, reduces the quality of life, destroys human and social capital, damages
relationship between citizens of various ethnic nationalities. The farmers-herders conflict has
further threatened the development of the agricultural sector as most Northern farmers have been
killed, displaced from their native lands and their farmlands destroyed. Farmers-herders conflict
has adversely impacted political stability in the sub-region. There is a strong need for the Federal
5.3 Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of this study, the following have been recommended:-
i) Herders should be encouraged to adopt the use of animal trackers. There are different types of
animal trackers that herdsmen can use for effective monitoring of their animals during grazing.
Since farmers complain about animals grazing on their crops, with these trackers, herders can
ii) Government of various states in Nigeria, particularly in the North should establish grazing
reserves.
48
iii) Federal Government should put adequate measures in place to reduce vulnerability of
affected persons through community-based strategies that enhance the ability of communities to
iv) Government of states should put effective modalities in place to prevent violent conflicts and
build peace through committees that foster dialogue, reconciliation and social cohesion.
v) The government should develop a database containing the boimetrics of farmers and cattle
owners in Nigeria. Farmers and herders should have a unique identification number for proper
referencing and data-driven policies. The data can be generated using mobile phones or through
the use of a register at the local government authority. Whenever a herder enters a community, he
should document his presence at the local government authority and also sign out when leaving.
49