Chapter 1 Basic concepts of lasers

LASER is actually an acronym for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation”. In 1960, American physicist Theodore Harold Maiman made the first

Ruby laser in history, which was also the first laser in the world. Since then, lasers

have been combined with various sciences and technologies to form many important

disciplines, such as photonics, nonlinear optics, laser spectroscopy, laser chemistry,

laser holography, laser machining, laser biomedicine, and laser dosimetry, etc. But

what kind of light is a laser? What is the difference between laser and sunlight, candle

light and light bulb light? To put it simply, the phenomena of laser cause the light

intensity to increase suddenly after reaching the threshold condition, while the light

intensity of a general light increases linearly or quasi-linearly with the increase of the

injected current or energy. As shown in Figure 1.1, it can be clearly observed from the

spectra that when the injected current increases from 49 mA to 50 mA, the light

intensity with wavelength 980 nm abruptly increases and the width of the emission

becomes very narrow. Meanwhile, the an abrupt increase in light intensity can also be

observed in the plot of the output power versus the injected current. Whenever there is

a "sudden and significant increase in light intensity", it probably means that the

component in our hands is a laser.

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 Fig. 1.1 Observations of the laser phenomena

The types of lasers can be classified according to the type of medium: gas lasers,

solid state lasers, liquid lasers, semiconductor lasers, chemical lasers, free electron

lasers (FEL), X-ray lasers, fiber lasers and bosers (boson lasers), among others. Be

aware that the semiconductor lasers and solid-state lasers are different. According to

the laser operation modes, there are continuous-wave lasers and pulsed operation

lasers.

In this chapter, we will first introduce four basic characteristics of lasers,

including: coherence, monochromaticity, directionality and brightness. In addition, for

the convenience of explanation, we can also list the core elements that constitute a

laser, including laser media, resonant cavity or feedback, excitation or pumping,

population inversion, and threshold conditions. Finally, we try to provide three key

points for the study of laser physics.

1.1 Basic characteristics of lasers

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 In the introduction of laser properties, several separate properties are usually

listed, including coherence, monochromaticity, directionality and brightness.

However, it will be found that these properties are not independent of each other and

cannot be completed separately. As a matter of fact, they are established at the same

time. In Table 1.1, a list of several important features of lasers is given. These four

laser characteristics can certainly make the laser have the characteristics of short

pulses, i.e., Q-switched lasers and mode-locked lasers, which we will discuss in

Chapter 6.

Table 1.1 Basic characteristics of lasers

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation-LASER

Coherent Light
Highly Degenerate Photon Beam (Many Photons in Same Mode)
Coherence Brightness
Temporal Longitudinal Narrow
Monochromaticity
Coherence Coherence Bandwidth
Spatial Transverse Small Solid
Directionality
Coherence Coherence Angle
1.1.1 Coherence

Coherence is the ability to maintain a fixed relative phase at different times, i.e.,

temporal coherence, or in different spaces, i.e., spatial coherence. Temporal coherence

is the degree of correlation of light waves at the same point in space at different

moments. Spatial coherence is the degree of correlation of light waves emitted at

different points in space at the same moment. As shown in Figure 1.2, all the photons

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in the coherence volume , which is composed of the length of

temporal coherence and the area of spatial coherence , are coherent

photons. They are lasers.

Fig. 1.2 Coherence volume

1.1.2 Monochromaticity

The degree of monochromaticity of a light can be described as the linewidth of

the light, also known as longitudinal coherence or temporal coherence. Longitudinal

coherence, temporal coherence and monochromaticity of the beam are substantially

synonymous.

The relation between the coherence time and the frequency change or

spectral width of the light radiation is given by

. (1.1)

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Accordingly, the smaller the frequency change of light radiation, i.e., the longer

the coherence time , the higher the monochromaticity.

Furthermore, the relationship between the coherence length and the

wavelength of light radiation is given by

， (1.2)

where is the wavelength change of the light radiation. The smaller the wavelength

change of the light radiation, the higher the monochromaticity, the longer the

coherence length .

1.1.3 Directionality

Directionality refers to the parallelism of the light beam, also known as

transverse coherence or spatial coherence. Transverse coherence, spatial coherence

and directionality of the beam are substantially synonymous.

As usual, Young's interference experiment is usually employed to explain the

transverse coherence. As shown in Fig. 1.3, the optical interference condition for the

optical path difference is given by

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 ， (1.3)

where is the transverse coherence length, is the wavelength of the light

radiation; is the range where the optical interference occurs, is the distance

between the light source and the optical interference observed.

Thus ， (1.4)

and . (1.5)

The relationship between the transverse coherence length and the angle of

light radiation dispersion is thus obtained as

. (1.6)

Accordingly, the smaller the angle , i.e., the better the directionality, the longer the

transverse coherence length . That is, the diameter of the laser beam changes

very little after the light has propagated for a long distance. Of course, if the beam has

a solid angle, the transverse coherence length will expand to a spatial coherence area.

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 Figure 1.3 Transverse coherence

1.1.4 High brightness

Brightness is defined as the light intensity of the light source in the unit area and

unit angle. The monochromatic directional brightness equals the light radiation

power divided by the cross section area of the light source, spectral width

and the solid angle , i.e.,

. (1.7)

Apparently, the small spectral width and the solid angle lead to the high

monochromatic directional brightness .

The spectral width is related to the longitudinal coherence, while the solid angle

is related to the transverse coherence. As mentioned previously, the better the

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monochromaticity of light and the higher the longitudinal coherence, the smaller the

spectral width, while the better the directionality of light and the higher the transverse

coherence, the smaller the solid angle. That is, longitudinal and transverse coherences

result to high monochromatic brightness.

1.2 Core elements for constituting a laser

For those who are new to laser physics or related technology, they may be keen

to know what constitutes a laser? In other words, how to make a laser? In fact, the

answer is very simple: to find ways to increase the degeneracy of photons.

The main goal of all the core elements that constitute a laser is to increase the

degeneracy of photons, i.e., high photon degeneracy. However, what are "high photon

degeneracy"? Simply put, it means that there are many completely identical photons.

The so-called "completely identical" means that the wavelength, frequency, direction,

velocity, phase, and polarization are all the same. If a pair of twins are "completely

identical" in body, mind and spirit, then the degree of degeneracy is 2; if triplets are

"completely identical" in body, mind and spirit, then the degree of degeneracy is 3; if

quadruplets are "completely identical" in body, mind and spirit, then the degree of

degeneracy is 4; and so on. Similarly, as we will see in Chapter 3, the degeneracy of

laser photons is hundreds of thousands of times greater than that of photons produced

by ordinary tungsten filaments!

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 Figure 1.4 Five core elements for the formation of a laser

In the following, we list the five core elements that constitute a laser, as

schematically shown in Figure 1.4.

[1] Laser media or active media or gain media: Laser working materials include glass,

ceramics, optical fibers, crystals, semiconductors, solids, liquids, gases, atoms and

free electrons, and even bosons. There are hundreds of different types of laser media.

[2] Feedback or resonant cavity: There should be a "container" to confine the beam to

provide feedback.

[3] Excitation or pumping: The laser can be excited by light, discharge, electric,

thermal, chemical and nuclear excitation, and so on.

[4] Population inversion or gain, i.e., the so-called negative temperature: This core

element or phenomenon is the only result from modern physics for these five lasing

conditions. That is, the population inversion does not occur in classical physics.

[5] Threshold condition: Basically, the gain has to overcome the loss before the laser

can start.

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 There are five seemingly different core elements, each of them has its own

critical role to play in lasing processes, as mentioned above. However, as we will find

in the later chapter, these five core elements are in fact only for increasing the

degeneracy of photons.

If anyone asks us, why choose a special laser medium, what's your short answer?

We can answer with confidence that it can increase the degeneracy of photons!

If anyone asks us, why a resonant cavity, what's your short answer? We can

answer with confidence that it can increase the degeneracy of photons!

If anyone asks us, why excitation, what's your short answer? We can answer with

confidence that it can increase the degeneracy of photons!

If anyone asks us, why do we need to achieve population inversion, what's your

short answer? We can answer with confidence that it can increase the degeneracy of

photons!

If anyone asks us, why do we need to achieve the threshold condition, what's

your short answer? We can answer with confidence that it can increase the degeneracy

of photons!

In addition, it should be noted that some scholars familiar with laser physics may

not concur with such a classification for lasing conditions. However, for beginners of

laser physics, it is an easy way to get started. We thus will build the foundation of

laser physics in this way.

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1.3 Learning of laser physics

Laser science has advanced into an interdisciplinary science. In addition to the

four fundamental physics, i.e., classical mechanics, electrodynamics, quantum

mechanics, and statistical mechanics, laser physics is also directly related to a wide

range of science and technology such as atomic-molecular physics, gas dynamics,

solid state physics, semiconductor physics, optics, materials science, vacuum

technology and ultrafast technology, etc. Therefore, if we have a clearer approach to

study, it will be easier to learn laser physics without losing track of our studies.

Otherwise, we will either pay attention to microscopic processes but not be able to

connect with macroscopic phenomena, or we just only know the operation techniques

but not the theoretical details.

Accordingly, in order to avoid "seeing the trees but not the forest" or "seeing the

forest but not the trees", we have boldly summarized three points of attention in the

processes of learning laser physics. The details of which will be introduced in the

relevant chapters later in the book.

1.3.1 The essence of lasers

Always keep in mind that "a laser is the light with a high degree of degeneracy

of photons". In the process of learning basic laser physics or developing new laser

technologies, we may encounter various questions such as "Why is this happening?

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and "What can we do to achieve it? To make things simpler, we can answer these

questions with almost the same answer, as mentioned above, “to increase the

degeneracy of photons!”.

1.3.2 Time and space

In general, for those who want to thoroughly understand laser physics, they must

try to analyze the properties of lasers in terms of time and space aspects, i.e., temporal

and spatial aspects or spectral and spatial aspects. In this book, we will introduce the

temporal and spatial coherence, or the longitudinal and transverse coherence. More

specially, the hole burning phenomena are also classified into spectral hole burning

and spatial hole burning.

1.3.3 Homogeneous and inhomogeneous broadening

Although the broadening or linewidth of radiation is generally in the form of

Voigt or Voight function, for the convenience of discussion, we divide the radiation

linewidth into two extreme cases, i.e., homogeneous and inhomogeneous broadenings.

Furthermore, lifetime broadening is a form of homogeneous mechanisms and has a

Lorentzian lineshapes. Doppler broadening is a form of inhomogeneous mechanisms

and has a Gaussian lineshape.

Accordingly, the optical gain profiles have homogeneous broadening of

Lorentzian shape or inhomogeneous broadening of Gaussian shape. Moreover, the

gain saturation of the homogeneous broadening and the gain saturation of the

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inhomogeneous broadening are also different. The conditions of the optimal coupling

of the resonant cavity are different for these two different broadenings. The gain of

homogeneous broadening and the gain of inhomogeneous broadening have different

effects on the refractive index of the media, which leads to different frequency drag.

In addition, the Rigrod theory for analyzing the laser outputs is different for the lasers

with homogeneous and inhomogeneous gain media as well.

If we can grasp these three points in always, we can understand the processes

and phenomena of laser physics in a more systematic way.

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