Sivakumar, V. et al. (2013). Géotechnique 63, No. 8, 628–640 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geot.10.P.

103]

Effects of confining pressure and water content on performance of

unsaturated compacted clay under repeated loading
V. S I VA K U M A R  , J. KO D I K A R A † , R . O ’ H AG A N ‡ , D. H U G H E S  , P. C A I R N S § a n d J. D. M c K I N L E Y 

This paper examines the performance of unsaturated soils under repeated loading. As part of the
research, a triaxial system was developed that incorporates small-strain measurements using Hall
effect transducers, in addition to suction measurements taken using a psychrometer. Tests were
conducted on samples of kaolin under constant water mass conditions. The results address the effects
of compaction effort and water content at the time of compaction on the overall performance of
unsaturated soils, under different amplitudes of loading and different confining pressures. The results
show that suction in the sample reduced with increasing number of loading cycles of the same
magnitude. The resilient modulus initially increased with increasing water content up to approximately
optimum water content, and then reduced substantially with further increase in water content.

KEYWORDS: compaction; settlement; stiffness; suction; unsaturated soils

INTRODUCTION Khoury et al., 2009). In these, the focus of research is

Over the past 40 years, extensive research has been carried
out to examine the behaviour of soils under cyclic loading
(Larew & Leonard, 1962; Sauer & Monismith, 1968;
Lashine, 1971; Fredlund & Rahardjo, 1993; Li & Selig,
1994; O’Reilly & Brown, 1991). The resilient modulus gives
a measure of the elastic properties of a soil, particularly
when assessing the stiffness of the soil subjected to repeated
loading. This resilient modulus is not a unique property of
the soil, but depends on many factors: stress state, soil type
and structure or soil physical state. Recent studies have
shown a link between suction and the effect of net confining
pressure on the resilient modulus (Liang et al., 2008). Kim
(2004) reported a gradual decrease in the influence of
confining pressure on the resilient modulus with decreasing
soil moisture content (i.e. the soil became more unsatu-
rated).
Repeated or cyclic loading of unsaturated soils is encoun-
tered in many situations, including subsoils supporting a
road pavement and rail track structures (Pumphrey & Lentz,
1986), and fertile land used for agricultural purposes where
repeated loading is caused by passing farm machinery (Peth
& Horn, 2006). In situations such as road pavement or rail
track structures, the pavement during construction will ex-
perience construction traffic loading with very high stresses
at a very low frequency, whereas post-construction loading
is at a lower amplitude but higher frequency. Soil conditions
under a highway pavement are commonly unsaturated, parti-
cularly if the road pavements are supported over a con-
structed embankment, or with an active drainage system.
Relevant experimental studies have been conducted by
several researchers (e.g. Seed et al., 1962; Mortan & Edil,
1982; Drumm et al., 1997; Oloo et al., 1997; Ceratti et al.,
2004; Khoury & Zaman, 2004; Puppala et al., 2005; Ahmed
& Khalid, 2008; Liang et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008;
Manuscript received 16 September 2010; revised manuscript accepted
12 October 2012. Published online ahead of print 1 February 2013.
Discussion on this paper closes on 1 November 2013, for further
details see p. ii.
 Queen’s University Belfast, UK.
† Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
‡ Mouchel, London, UK.
§ Climate Northern Ireland, Belfast, UK.
related mainly to the resilient modulus of subgrade soils,
and the effects of post-compaction moisture content and
suction changes.
Drumm et al. (1997) carried out a series of resilient
modulus tests on 11 different soils with a range of plasticity
indices under unsaturated and saturated conditions. They
concluded that the resilient modulus decreased with increas-
ing saturation level and, remarkably, the decrease was sig-
nificant when the samples were initially compacted at
optimum conditions. Drumm et al. (1997) also proposed a
simple model for predicting resilient modulus under satu-
rated conditions, on the basis of evaluations at the optimum
water content.
Khoury & Zaman (2004) and Khoury et al. (2009) carried
out a series of tests on two types of soil, compacted at different
initial conditions, in order to examine the correlation between
resilient modulus, moisture variation (both wetting and drying)
and suction, in relation to the initial compaction process. The
suction was measured using the filter paper technique at the
end of the resilient modulus test. A standard procedure was
used for wetting the sample, and a unique procedure was used
to dry the samples without causing cracks. The findings from
the research include the effects of drying on the resilient
modulus, and its reliance on the plasticity of the soil exam-
ined, and the three-dimensional representation of suction-
water content and resilient modulus correlation. In a further
study, Khoury et al. (2009) carried out a series of tests to
examine the variation of resilient modulus subjected to post-
compaction moisture changes caused by drying and wetting.
This study also contained model predictions for the resilient
modulus normalised with respect to its value at the optimum
moisture content. It also complemented the study by Drumm
et al. (1997), where the findings are in general agreement.
Yang et al. (2004, 2008) carried out a series of tests to
examine the effects of matric suction on the resilient moduli
of two different soils. The suction was controlled or meas-
ured using the axis-translation technique. Unlike many other
similar studies, the number of loading cycles was of the
order of several thousands, and the results showed a gradual
reduction in suctions with cyclic loading; the magnitude of
the reduction was significant at a high degree of saturation.
Ceratti et al. (2004) carried out testing on samples of
compacted weathered shale at different moisture contents,

628

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 EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE AND WATER CONTENT ON UNSATURATED COMPACTED CLAY
and concluded that there was an optimum resilient modulus
with respect to initial suction in the sample.
As described above, some valuable information is avail-
able in the literature in relation to the effects of compaction
water content and the post-compaction process on the resi-
lient modulus. The work reported in this paper builds on the
existing knowledge, and is based on recently completed
research that examined various aspects of unsaturated soil
behaviour in relation to resilient modulus and suction
changes during cyclic loading. Attention is also drawn to
Proctor compaction in order to assess how the level of
compaction effort can sustain permanent deformation under
repeated loading.
EQUIPMENT AND TESTING PROGRAMME
Frost et al. (2004) suggested that the resilient modulus of
saturated soil is not affected significantly by the rate of
loading at a large number of loading cycles, and this may
simplify specification of the equipment needed for achieving
dynamic loading. Furthermore, this implies that the informa-
tion required for the design of pavements or other geotechni-
cal structures that are subjected to loading other than static
can be obtained using systems that have the capability of
applying repeated loading, not necessarily dynamic loading.
Triaxial cell wall
Tie rod
High air entry filter disc
100 mm diameter sample
Psychrometer
cable to CR7
control system
Fig. 1. Experimental set-up
Downloaded by [ Indian Institute of Technology - Mandi] on [29/12/23]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
629
The system described in this paper was designed to enable
repeated loading to be carried out on unsaturated soil
samples using relatively simple equipment.
The system used in the present research consisted of a
modified triaxial cell capable of testing samples 100 mm in
diameter by 200 mm long. Suction in the sample and radial
and axial strains of the samples were measured using
thermocouple psychrometer and internal strain gauges re-
spectively (Fig. 1). The hydraulic loading unit located at the
top of the system was pressurised using a hydraulic pressure
controller (HPC, VJT2260). Newly developed WinClisp soft-
ware was used to control the HPC for applying repeated
loading on the sample at a preselected rate. An MXP3000-
type data logger was used to collect data at a preselected
time interval of 45 s. The system also included a facility for
suction measurement, using a thermocouple psychrometer
(Wescor PST-55), and on-sample strain measurement, using
radial and axial displacement gauges (Clayton & Khatrush,
1986).
The tests were performed on compacted kaolin. Although
kaolin is not a commonly occurring natural material, the
findings obtained using this material in general research have
been successfully applied to other materials, at least in a
qualitative manner. Two series of tests were performed: at
light compaction, referred to as ‘un-engineered fill’ (UEF);
Hydraulic loading chamber
Loading piston
Air drainage
Top cap
Psychrometer tip
Axial strain
gauge
Radial strain
gauge
Strain gauge cables to
MX3000 datalogger
Pedestal
 630
and at heavy compaction, referred to as ‘engineered fill’
(EF). EF samples were prepared at three different water
contents (22%, 25% and 28%). UEF samples were prepared
at four different water contents (22%, 25%, 28% and 31%).
The relevant initial conditions of the samples are plotted in
Fig. 2, together with the standard compaction curve based
on a standard Proctor compaction, which includes contours
of constant degree of saturation. The samples were com-
pacted one-dimensionally in nine layers into a 100 mm
diameter split compaction mould, 200 mm high. Each layer
was statically compressed to a vertical pressure of 400 kPa
for UEF, and 800 kPa for EF. For example, the dry density
achieved at 28% water content using light compaction was
1.27 Mg/m3 , and those for heavy compaction and standard
Proctor compaction were 1.37 Mg/m3 and 1.43 Mg/m3 re-
spectively. In general, the dry densities achieved through
these procedures were 7% less for UEF and 5% more for EF
than the dry density achieved through standard Proctor
compaction.
The initial suction and suction during testing were meas-
ured using a thermocouple psychrometer (Wescor PST-55),
which is influenced greatly by temperature variations. This
can be seen clearly in Fig. 3, where the temperature
variation (left y-axis) and the suction measured using the
psychrometer thermocouple (right y-axis) are plotted against
time. In this case the temperature variation in the room was
purposely allowed to fluctuate within the range 19  1.58C.
An important observation from the study is that the response
of the psychrometer to the temperature variation is almost
instantaneous. The psychrometer output voltage was cor-
1·50
1·45 EF (heavy compaction)
Sr ⫽ 70%
1·40
Dry density: Mg/m3
Sr ⫽ 60%
1·35
1·30
1·25
1·20
1·15 UEF (light compaction)
1·10
18 20 22
Fig. 2. Initial conditions of the samples
25
Temperature
20
Temperature variation: °C
15
Corrected suction measured using psychrometer
10
5 Uncorrected suction measured
using psychrometer
0 625
0 100
Fig. 3. Temperature correction for suction using psychrometer
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SIVAKUMAR, KODIKARA, O’HAGAN, HUGHES, CAIRNS AND McKINLEY
rected using the approach proposed by Comstock (2000) for
temperature variations, which significantly reduced the fluc-
tuations, and the relevant corrected suctions are also in-
cluded in Fig. 3. In the main testing programme the room
temperature was maintained at 20  0.58C.
Initial suction and soil-water characteristic curves are
shown in Fig. 4. The data points shown with closed circles
and triangles refer to initial suctions measured using the
psychrometer on samples prepared at various water contents
(22–31%). As shown, the variation in suction for a given
water content and compaction effort is not significant; for
instance, the initial suction of samples prepared at 31%
(400 kPa compaction pressure) ranges from 582 to 588 kPa,
and those for 28%, 25% and 22% are 716–732 kPa, 832–
837 kPa and 1100–1197 kPa respectively. The open data
points of the same style refer to the state of the samples
(prepared at 25% water content at different compaction
effort) when the suction was reduced from the initial value
to lower values through wetting. The closed square data
points refer to the initial suction measured using a suction
probe developed by Ridley (1995) on samples of kaolin
prepared at different initial water contents (unknown com-
paction effort), and the observed trend is consistent with the
information obtained throughout this research.
A series of tests was performed in order to examine the
effects of net confining pressure, loading amplitude and
initial water content on the performance of EF and UEF. In
each test, the sample was allowed to equilibrate under the
target net confining pressure (50 kPa, 100 kPa or 150 kPa),
and a small value of deviator stress (12 kPa), for 24 h before
the beginning of the repeated loading. The rate of loading
was 15 kPa/min; however, this rate is considerably smaller
Sr ⫽ 90% Sr ⫽ 100% than what may be found in in situ conditions. A higher
Sr ⫽ 80% loading rate than this value would have been beneficial (a
Standard Proctor
high loading rate is most likely to be the scenario in the
field); however, such higher rates were not permissible,
owing to the limitations of the pressure controllers. The tests
were conducted under constant water mass conditions, in
which water drainage was not allowed but air drainage was
permitted. Loading under an amplitude of 70 kPa (loading
amplitude refers to the maximum deviator stress) was
45
400 kPa initial compaction (suction after compaction)
800 kPa initial compaction (suction after compaction)
400 kPa initial compaction (wetting from initial state)
40 800 kPa initial compaction (wetting from initial state)
24 26 28 30 32 34
Data from Ridley (1995)
Moisture content: %
Gravimetric water content: %
35 Psychrometer measurements
Suction measured using psychrometer: kPa
1300
Data from Ridley (1995)
Axis-translation technique
30
1075
25
850
Wetting from initial state
20
200 300 400 500 0 500 1000 1500
Elapsed time: h Suction: kPa
Fig. 4. Soil-water characteristics
 EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE AND WATER CONTENT ON UNSATURATED COMPACTED CLAY 631
450
repeated 200 times, whereas two further amplitudes –
140 kPa and 200 kPa – were repeated 100 times. The 400
loading amplitude of 70 kPa refers to 20–25% of maximum Repeat test 2
failure deviator loading observed under monotonically load- 350
Repeat test 1
ing from the beginning (see later for details). Krarup (1990)

Deviator stress: kPa

300
reported a contact pressure of 400 kPa just below the
asphalt, and around 150 kPa in the sub-base. However, the 250
pressure in the sub-base due to the traffic loading is also
200
dependent on the thickness of the asphalt, and in motorways
it may be of the order of 30 kPa. On this basis the loading 150
amplitudes considered are somewhat higher than those under
in situ conditions. A typical test lasted approximately 6 days. 100
Subsequent to the end of the third loading cycle, each
50
sample was taken to failure by monotonically loading at the
same rate. For comparison purposes, samples with identical 0
initial conditions were monotonically loaded from the begin- 0 2·0 4·0 6·0
ning, adopting the same loading rate as used in the cyclic Axial strain: %
(a)
loading tests. As shown in Fig. 3, the psychrometer response
900
to any change in the relative humidity is reasonably quick.
Repeat test 2
However, the authors acknowledge a possible shortcoming in 850
the present experimental set-up and procedure, as the psy-
chrometer probe was located at the top cap, and conse- 800
quently there may not have been sufficient time for it to Repeat test 1
respond to the changes in suction at mid height, where 750
intense shearing prevails. In the repeated loading tests, the Suction: kPa
problem is less serious, as the same loading amplitude 700
continued for days; however, in monotonic loading the dura-
650
tion was short. Installation of the psychrometer probe at mid
height might have mitigated this shortcoming.
600

RESULTS
Given the nature of suction measurements and the simpli-
city of the testing equipment itself, repeat tests were per-
formed to establish whether the data could be reproduced.
Fig. 5 shows typical stress–strain curves and the suction
measurements. The repeat tests produced consistent data in
terms of strains and suction measurements. Slight differences
in the suction measurements, consistent throughout the load-
ing cycles, can be attributed to marginal differences in the
initial water contents (0.3%).
Figure 6 presents the stress–strain results obtained from
the repeated and monotonic loading tests for UEF samples
prepared to a water content of 25% and tested under mean
net stresses of 50 kPa, 100 kPa and 150 kPa. The ultimate
deviator stresses for samples subjected to repeated loading at
mean net stresses of 50 kPa, 100 kPa and 150 kPa, were
270 kPa, 355 kPa and 395 kPa respectively. The correspond-
ing ultimate deviator stresses for samples loaded monoton-
ically were 265 kPa, 323 kPa and 385 kPa. The permanent
axial strain of the sample subjected to repeated loading at a
mean net stress of 50 kPa, following the first series of loading
cycles at a loading amplitude of 70 kPa, was 0.20%, and that
for a stress of 140 kPa was 0.37%. Following the third
loading amplitude of 200 kPa, the axial strain was 0.73%.
Finally, the axial strain at failure, after repeated loading, was
1.66%, and the corresponding axial strain at failure (defined
by the peak deviator stress) for a sample loaded monoton-
ically was 1.64%. The relevant permanent axial strains ob-
served in the samples subjected to mean net stresses of
100 kPa and 150 kPa after the first series of load cycles with
amplitudes of 70 kPa, 140 kPa and 210 kPa can be seen from
Fig. 6. The main observations from these tests are as follows.
(a) The initial net confining pressure has no significant
influence on the permanent strain at low stress level at
25% water content.
(b) The amplitude of loading has a significant influence on
the progression of permanent strain.
550
500
0 100 200 300 400
Number of cycles
(b)
Fig. 5. Repeat tests on samples on compacted kaolin (25% water
content): (a) stress–strain curve; (b) suction measurements
(c) Repeated loading leads to some increase in the failure
deviator stress.
Further information on these observations is discussed later
in this paper.
Figure 7 shows the stress–strain relationships obtained for
the repeated and monotonic load tests for samples prepared
at water contents of 22%, 25%, 28% and 31%, and tested
under a confining pressure of 100 kPa with reference to
UEF. The important observations for these tests are as
follows.
(a) The permanent strain with increasing number of loading
cycles is not significant at low water contents, although it
becomes significant when the water content is increased
to 31%.
(b) The amplitude of loading has a profound influence on the
permanent strain when the initial water content is high.
(c) Repeated loading has a complex influence on the failure
strength: an increase in the failure deviator stress upon
repeated loading under low compaction water content and
a reduction in the failure load at high compaction water
content.
Possible reasons for this behaviour will be discussed later.
Figure 8 shows the variation of suction with the number
of loading cycles during the repeated loading for the tests
with initial water content ranging from 22% to 31%, sub-
jected to a confining pressure of 100 kPa. As expected, the
initial suction reduced with compaction water content, and

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 632 SIVAKUMAR, KODIKARA, O’HAGAN, HUGHES, CAIRNS AND McKINLEY
450
loaded samples. However, the samples in both cases (i.e.
400 repeated and monotonic loadings) were loaded at a rate of
15 kPa/min. In this instance the monotonically loaded sam-
350 Monotonic loading
ples would reach a failure within about 30 min, but that for
the repeated loading was of the order of 4–6 days. This in
Deviator stress: kPa

300 Repeated loading

effect questions the validity of the above conclusion, for
250 100 the following reason. Suctions were measured using a
0 kPa, N ⫽
q amp ⫽ 20 psychrometer probe located at the top of the sample,
100
200 0 kPa, N ⫽
q amp ⫽ 14 whereas intense shearing takes place at the mid height of
150 0 the sample. The duration of testing was short for mono-
kPa, N ⫽
20
q amp ⫽ 70 tonically loaded samples, and therefore the observed suction
100 measurements at the top of the sample may not be the
50
actual representation of suction where the intense shearing
took place. However, it was not an issue for repeated
0 loading, as the testing durations were of the order of 4–6
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8 2·0 days. This could have been avoided by adopting a much
Axial strain: %
(a) reduced rate of loading for the monotonically loaded sam-
450 ple. However, this might have introduced a different issue
associated with strain-rate effects.
400 As part of the study, the effects of initial compaction
Repeated loading effort on the performance of unsaturated soils under repeated
350
Monotonic loading
loading were also examined. Fig. 10 shows the stress–strain
Deviator stress: kPa

300
00 relationship of samples of EF and UEF subjected to repeated
,N⫽1
200 kPa and monotonic loading at a net confining pressure of
250 q amp ⫽
100 kPa and an initial water content of 25%. As one would
N ⫽ 100
40 kPa, expect, the failure deviator load subsequent to repeated
200 q amp ⫽ 1
00 loading was significantly higher for EF. Similar observations
⫽2
150 0 kPa, N
q amp ⫽ 7 can also be made of samples with initial water contents of
100 22–28% at a confining pressure of 100 kPa. It appears that
the development of permanent strain is contained and re-
50 duced with increasing compactive effort, but continues to
0 increase at higher water contents, even for EF samples.
0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0
Axial strain: %
(b)
DISCUSSION
450 Figure 11 shows the development of permanent strain as
Repeated loading each sequence of loading cycles progressed at three confin-
400 Monotonic loading
ing pressures. Note that here, for ease of analysis, the
350 permanent strain was recorded after every 25 loading cycles.
The permanent strain under low-amplitude loading reduces
Deviator stress: kPa

300
250
200
150
100
50
0 come with increase of degree of saturation and dry density
0 1·0 2·0
Fig. 6. Stress–strain curves. Effects of confining pressure on
lightly compacted sample at water content of 25%: (a) confining
pressure 50 kPa (initial suction 850 kPa); (b) confining pressure
100 kPa (initial suction 850 kPa); (c) confining pressure 150 kPa
(initial suction 820 kPa)
repeated loading contributed to a further reduction in suc-
tion.
The samples subjected to repeated loading were subse-
quently loaded monotonically to failure. Fig. 9 shows the
relationship of the final suction values for samples initially
repeatedly loaded, and for the corresponding samples that
were monotonically loaded from the outset. The observa-
tions show that the suction in the samples subjected to
repeated loading was smaller than that of the monotonically
⫽ 100 after approximately 25 loading cycles in the UEF samples
kPa, N
q am ⫽ 200 prepared at water contents of 22%, 25%, 28% and 31% and
p
100
a, N ⫽ at a confining pressure of 50 kPa and 150 kPa. However, for
140 kP
q amp ⫽ samples subjected to a confining pressure of 100 kPa, the
00
,N⫽2 permanent strain continued to develop, and it was particu-
70 kPa
q amp ⫽
larly obvious at water contents of 22% and 25%. This
observation could have been due to the lower initial dry
density of the samples used at 100 kPa of confining pressure
than in other cases. However, the comparison of this out-
3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0 reduced from internal strain measurements, shown in Fig.
Axial strain: %
(c)
12, does not agree. In this case the initial dry density of the
sample subjected to 100 kPa was equal to or slightly higher
than those of the other samples at the same water content.
Figure 13 shows the permanent strain development against
the number of loading cycles for samples prepared at high
initial dry density (EF). There appears to be no significant
change in the permanent strain after 25 loading cycles at the
three different water contents considered (22%, 25% and
28%), and indeed, as expected, permanent strain increased
with water content and reduces with confining pressure. In
both cases (un-engineered and engineered), the permanent
strain continued to increase at high loading amplitude, and
this became more significant at higher water contents.
The resilient behaviour of the soil during a repeated-load
test is most commonly assessed using the resilient modulus.
Fig. 14 shows the resilient modulus of the samples plotted
against the number of cycles for UEF samples, prepared at
various water contents and tested at three different loading

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 EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE AND WATER CONTENT ON UNSATURATED COMPACTED CLAY 633
400 400
Repeated loading Repeated loading
350 Monotonic loading 350
Monotonic loading
300 300
100
a, N ⫽
Deviator stress: kPa

200 kP

Deviator stress: kPa

250 q amp ⫽ 250
100
a, N ⫽ kPa, N
⫽ 100
140 kP
q amp ⫽
200 200 ⫽ 200
q amp

00 ⫽ 100
150 ,N⫽2 kPa, N
70 kPa 150
⫽ 140
q amp ⫽ q am p

100 100 00
,N⫽2
70 kPa
q amp ⫽
50 50

0
0
0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0
0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0
Axial strain: %
Axial strain: %
(a)
(b)
400 400
Monotonic loading
350 350
Repeated loading Repeated loading
Monotonic loading
300 300
⫽ 100
kPa, N
Deviator stress: kPa
Deviator stress: kPa

⫽ 200 250
250 q am 100
a, N ⫽
p
200 kP
100 q amp ⫽
a, N ⫽
200 140 kP 200
,N⫽ 100
q amp ⫽ 140 kPa
q amp ⫽
200
a, N ⫽
150 150 200
70 kP Pa, N ⫽
q amp ⫽ q amp
⫽ 70 k
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0 0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0
Axial strain: % Axial strain: %
(c) (d)

Fig. 7. Stress–strain curves. Effects of water content on lightly compacted sample at confining pressure of 100 kPa: (a) w 22%
(initial suction 1200 kPa); (b) w 25% (initial suction 850 kPa); (c) w 28% (initial suction 720 kPa); (d) w 31% (initial
suction 600 kPa)

1400 1400

w ⫽ 22%
1200 1200
Suction at failure (monotonic loading): kPa

1000
w ⫽ 25% 1000
Suction: kPa

800
w ⫽ 28% 800
600
w ⫽ 31%
qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

600
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

400

400
200

0 200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Number of cycles
0
Fig. 8. Suction changes during repeated loading 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Suction at failure (repeated loading): kPa

amplitudes and confining pressures. It is evident that the Fig. 9. Suction at end of loading (monotonic and repeated
resilient modulus continued to increase after each loading loading)
cycle when the samples were prepared at moisture contents
of 22% and 25%. The apparent increase is relatively small significantly, and subsequently increased with further loading
for the samples prepared at the higher water contents of cycles. The amount of reduction was affected by the com-
28% and 31%. When the loading amplitude was increased paction water content, as the reduction in the resilient
from 70 kPa to 140 kPa, the resilient modulus reduced modulus was more significant when the samples were pre-

Downloaded by [ Indian Institute of Technology - Mandi] on [29/12/23]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 634 SIVAKUMAR, KODIKARA, O’HAGAN, HUGHES, CAIRNS AND McKINLEY
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 350

Deviator stress: kPa

Deviator stress: kPa

100
300 100 300 a, N ⫽
Pa, N ⫽ 200 kP
q am ⫽ 200 k q amp ⫽
250 p 250
⫽ 100
0 kPa, N
0 kPa, N ⫽
10
200 q amp ⫽ 14 200 q am p
⫽ 140
200
,N⫽
N ⫽ 200 70 kPa
q amp ⫽
150 150
q amp ⫽ 70 kPa,
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0 0 1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0 5·0 6·0 7·0 8·0
Axial strain: % Axial strain: %
(a) (b)

Fig. 10. Stress–strain curves. Effects of initial compaction effort at water content of 25%: (a) UEF (light compaction, initial
suction 750 kPa); (b) EF (heavy compaction, initial suction 750 kPa)
qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

1·6 1·6

qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

1·4 1·4

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

Permanent axial strain: %

Permanent axial strain: %

1·2 1·2
a
100 kP
1·0 σ3 ⫽ kPa
1·0
150
σ3 ⫽
0·8 0·8
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

qamp ⫽ 70 kPa kPa

100
0·6 0 kPa 0·6 σ3 ⫽ kPa
⫽5 150
σ3 σ3 ⫽
0·4 0·4

0·2 0·2
σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Number of cycles Number of cycles
(a) (b)
1·6 3·0
qamp ⫽ 210 kPa
qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

1·4
2·5
qamp ⫽ 140 kPa
Permanent axial strain: %

Permanent axial strain: %

1·2
qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

Pa Pa
0k 2·0 50 k
1·0 ⫽5 σ3 ⫽ kPa
σ3 kPa 100
⫽ 10
0 ⫽
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

σ3 σ3
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

0·8 1·5
Pa
0k
15 a
0·6 ⫽ kP
σ3 0
1·0 15
0·4 ⫽
σ3

0·2 0·5

0
0
0 100 200 300 400
0 100 200 300 400
Number of cycles
Number of cycles
(c)
(d)

Fig. 11. Permanent strain against number of loading cycles at various loading amplitudes (lightly compacted): (a) w 22%;
(b) w 25%; (c) w 28%; (d) w 31%

pared at lower water contents. This reduction in the resilient resilient modulus. Reduction in suction is generally asso-
modulus diminished when the compaction water content ciated with a reduction in shear strength and reduced
increased to 31%. Observations for EF samples are similar stiffness. On the other hand, an increase in strength and
to those of UEF. stiffness may be expected with increasing dry density caused
The above observations and the subsequent interpretations by permanent deformation. Both an increase in dry density
have shown that the samples under repeated loading (a) and degree of saturation and a reduction in suction can be
gained strength, and experienced (b) a reduction in suction, seen from Figs 12 and 8 respectively. The overall perform-
(c) increased permanent deformation, and (d) increased ance is controlled by the competing effects of increasing

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 EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE AND WATER CONTENT ON UNSATURATED COMPACTED CLAY 635
1·36
1·22 1·27 1·30
w ⫽ 31%
w ⫽ 22% w ⫽ 25% w ⫽ 28%
1·29
1·26 1·35 σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
1·21
1·28
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
Dry density: g/cm3

1·25 1·27
1·34
1·20
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa 1·26
1·24

1·25 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
1·19 1·33
1·23 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa 1·24
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
1·18 1·22 1·23 1·32
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles
(a)

50·5 62 69·0 99

w ⫽ 22% w ⫽ 25% w ⫽ 28% w ⫽ 31%

50·0
61 68·5
94
Degree of saturation: %

49·5
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
60 68·0
49·0
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa
90 σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
48·5 67·5 σ3⫽ 150 kPa
59

48·0 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa

86 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
58 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa 67·0
47·5
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa

47·0 57 66·5 82
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles Number of cycles
(b)

Fig. 12. Degree of saturation and dry density evolution during repeated loading (first 200 cycles), UEF samples, water contents
from 22% to 31%: (a) dry density against number of loading cycles; (b) degree of saturation density against number of loading
cycles

density and reducing suction. With reference to Figs 8 and saturation and compactive effort on the inter- and intra-
12, the reduction in suction caused by repeated loading aggregate voids.
becomes significant only at higher water content, but an Figure 15 shows the mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)
increase in dry density becomes significant at low water results for kaolin samples prepared using two different meth-
contents, leading to a significant increase in the failure load ods of compression: isotropic compression (IS) and one-
in comparison with the monotonically loaded sample. How- dimensional compression (ID). The samples were prepared
ever, at high water contents such differences were not sig- at two different initial densities, low and high for both
nificant, and to some extent a reduced failure load was sampling methods. The samples were slowly wetted to
observed in samples subjected to repeated loading. In this saturation, and MIP analyses were carried out on the speci-
case the reduction in suction (Fig. 8) may have been the mens at the end of the test. The sampling methods were
major contributing factor to the overall performance of the described fully in Sivakumar et al. (2010a).
sample. The samples prepared using one-dimensional compression
An additional contributing factor to the observed per- exhibited a more ‘open’ macrostructure at both levels of
formance lies in the structure of unsaturated compacted initial compression effort. Fig. 15 also shows the pore size
soils. A bimodal pore size distribution is known to have distributions of samples of IS(A), ID(A), IS(B) and ID(B)
a significant effect on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of following the saturation process (A and B refer to low and
unsaturated soils. Such a structure is even related to heavy compaction respectively). Sample IS(A) shows a sig-
‘effective stress’ in unsaturated soils (Alonso et al., nificant reduction in the inter-aggregate voids compared with
2010). Since this is relevant within the context of this the more compact sample IS(B). This observation differs
paper, some findings reported in Sivakumar et al. (2010a) from the response of the one-dimensionally compressed
and Thom et al. (2007) are discussed here, which essen- samples, ID(A) and ID(B), where the reductions in the inter-
tially deal with the effects of compaction water content, aggregate pore spaces are more significant in both cases. For

Downloaded by [ Indian Institute of Technology - Mandi] on [29/12/23]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 636 SIVAKUMAR, KODIKARA, O’HAGAN, HUGHES, CAIRNS AND McKINLEY

qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

to degradation upon saturation, since the initial water content
0·40 at the time of preparation was at least 9% less than the PL
(¼ 34%) of kaolin. The response reported above was also
Permanent axial strain: %

reflected under shear loading at constant water mass condi-

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

0·30 tions, under net mean pressures of 50, 100, 200, 300 and
500 kPa (reported in Sivakumar et al., 2010b). Despite
samples being prepared at identical water contents and initial
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

0·20 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
dry density, the failure loads for samples prepared using
one-dimensional compression were significantly lower than
those of the samples prepared using isotropic compression.
0·10 Complementary evidence for the above interpretation of
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa bimodal pore size distribution is presented in Fig. 16, which
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa examines the pore size distributions for samples prepared at
three different water contents and two different compactive
0 100 200 300 400 efforts using static compaction. Lightly compacted samples
Number of cycles (static compression pressure of 400 kPa) have larger inter-
(a) aggregate pore spaces than those of heavily compacted soils
0·6
(static compression pressure of 800 kPa), and the magnitude
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
of inter-aggregate void space reduces with compaction water
0·5 content. The presence of inter-aggregate pore space is not
significant for heavily compacted samples at high water con-
Permanent axial strain: %

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

0·4 tent. The most significant observation is that a reduction in

compaction water content leads to a significant increase in
σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
intra-aggregate pore space. This is contradictory to a logical
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

0·3
argument: if it is assumed that the aggregates are saturated,
and all the water is contained within the aggregates, then
qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

0·2 reducing water content may lead to a reduction in intra-aggre-

gate pore space. The plausible explanation for this observation
0·1 kPa lies in the fact that the aggregates become heavily fissured as
50 the compaction water content is reduced, and this conforms
⫽1
σ3
with the general observations reported in Fig. 15, suggesting
0 that samples prepared at low water content may possess an
0 100 200 300 400
Number of cycles unstable structure, due largely to fissured aggregates.
(b) The application of repeated loading might have assisted in
2·0 the development of a more stable structure with each loading
1·8 σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa cycle, as opposed to the sample that was monotonically
loaded. Similar conclusions have also been reached by Peth
1·6 & Horn (2006). However, when the samples are prepared at
Permanent axial strain: %

higher water contents, the aggregates are initially more

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

1·4
qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

stable, and possibly not as heavily fissured, as the compac-

1·2
tion water content was approaching the plastic limit. It can
1·0 therefore be seen that repeated loading does stabilise the soil
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
0·8
0·6
0·4
0·2
0 the research agree with the information in the existing
0 100
Number of cycles
Fig. 13. Permanent strain against number of loading cycles at
various loading amplitudes (heavily compacted): (a) 22%;
(b) 25%; (c) 28%
sample ID(B), the saturation process (i.e. reduction in suc-
tion) has nearly eradicated the existence of bimodal distribu-
tions. These observations are in agreement with independent
measurements of sample volume, in that the ID samples
underwent a significant amount of overall volume reduction
(Sivakumar et al., 2010a), possibly caused by breakdown of
the aggregates. If the aggregates are visualised as ‘spherical’
prior to the sampling process, one-dimensional static com-
pression will result in their undergoing shear deformation,
leading to a more lenticular aggregate appearance. The
process may have inflicted a degree of fissuring or fracturing
of the aggregates, causing them to become more susceptible
structure further, particularly at low water contents, but
presents the problem of significant progressive straining.
The findings from the research are summarised in Figs
17–19, which highlight the influence of deviator stress,
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa
initial suction and initial compaction effort on resilient
modulus and permanent strain. The general findings from
200 300 400 literature (e.g. Drumm et al., 1997; Ceratti et al., 2004;
Yang et al., 2008). Fig. 17 shows the resilient modulus
(c)
plotted against deviator stress for samples compacted to two
different initial dry densities. As expected, an increase in the
deviator stress resulted in a significant reduction in the
resilient modulus for UEF (low initial dry density). Such
reduction is more significant for EF, although the relevant
values of resilient modulus of these samples are higher than
those for samples of UEF. The confining pressure also has a
significant role, generally resulting in an increase in the
resilient modulus.
Figure 18(a) shows the relationship between the resilient
modulus and initial suction for samples subjected to three
different confining pressures and deviator stresses for sam-
ples of UEF. At low loading amplitude (70 kPa) the resilient
modulus increased with increasing initial suction (reducing
compaction water content). However, under 50 kPa confining
pressure, it appears that the resilient modulus reached a
maximum value at an initial suction of around 1200 kPa.
This suction corresponds to a compaction water content of

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 EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE AND WATER CONTENT ON UNSATURATED COMPACTED CLAY 637
200
300
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa

σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa

qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

250
160

Resilient modulus: MPa

Resilient modulus: MPa

200 σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa

120

qamp ⫽ 70 kPa
150
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

100 80

50 σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
40

0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Number of cycles Number of cycles
(a) (b)

160 100
σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa σ3 ⫽ 150 kPa

140
σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa 80 σ3 ⫽ 100 kPa
120

Resilient modulus: MPa

Resilient modulus: MPa

σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
σ3 ⫽ 50 kPa
100 60
qamp ⫽ 210 kPa
qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

qamp ⫽ 210 kPa

qamp ⫽ 70 kPa

qamp ⫽ 140 kPa

80
40
60

40
20
20

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Number of cycles Number of cycles
(c) (d)

Fig. 14. Resilient modulus against number of loading cycles on UEF, effect of water content: (a) w 22%; (b) w 25%;
(c) w 28%; (d) w 31%

0·10 0·10
IS(A)
IS(B)
ID(A)
ID(B)
0·08 0·08
Incremental pore volume: cm3/g

Incremental pore volume: cm3/g

After sampling

0·06 0·06 After saturation

After sampling

After saturation
0·04 0·04

⬍2 μm
0·02 0·02 ⬍2 μm

0 0
0·1 1 10 100 0·1 1 10 100
Pore diameter: μm Pore diameter: μm
(a) (b)

Fig. 15. Effects of stress-induced anisotropy on pore size distribution (Sivakumar et al., 2010a): (a) lightly compressed;
(b) heavily compressed

approximately 22%. The pattern gradually changed when the respectively (note that data corresponding to 50 kPa confin-
loading amplitude was increased from 70 kPa to 140 kPa ing pressure at 210 kPa loading amplitude are not available).
and finally to 210 kPa. In these cases, the maximum resilient Fig. 18(b) shows similar information for samples with high
moduli were observed at suction values of approximately initial dry density (samples of EF). Since the tests were not
840 kPa and 725 kPa respectively, and these suctions values conducted at a full range of water contents (below 22% and
correspond to compaction water contents of 25% and 28% above 28%), the full extent of the resilient modulus evolu-

Downloaded by [ Indian Institute of Technology - Mandi] on [29/12/23]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 638 SIVAKUMAR, KODIKARA, O’HAGAN, HUGHES, CAIRNS AND McKINLEY
0·12 260
400 kPa initial compaction
800 kPa initial compaction
240
Confining pressure 150 kPa
Incremental pore volume: cm3/g

Confining pressure 100 kPa

220 Confining pressure 50 kPa
0·08

Resilient modulus: MPa

w ⫽ 25%
200
w ⫽ 22·5%
w ⫽ 27·5%

180
0·04
160

140

0
0·1 1 10 100 120
Pore diameter: μm
(a)
0·12 100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Deviator stress: kPa

Fig. 17. Resilient modulus plotted against loading amplitude

Incremental pore volume: cm3/g

(25% water content)

0·08 w ⫽ 22·5%

tion could not be established. Nevertheless, similar to the

w ⫽ 27·5%

observations made for UEF samples, the maximum resilient

modulus under a loading amplitude of 70 kPa appears to be
at an initial suction value of approximately 1050 kPa. The
0·04
w ⫽ 25% initial suction had no significant effect on the resilient
modulus under loading amplitudes of 140 kPa and 210 kPa.
It may therefore be suggested that an optimum resilient
modulus appears to exist around initial suction values be-
0
tween 700 kPa and 800 kPa. These suction values correspond
0·1 1 10 100 to compaction water contents of approximately 25% and
Pore diameter: μm 28% respectively. These results suggest that the optimum
(b) resilient modulus occurs close to the optimum water content
identified using the standard Proctor compaction.
Fig. 16. Effects of water content and compaction effort on Complementary information to the above is presented in
bimodal pore size distribution: (a) compression pressure Fig. 19, where permanent strain is plotted against initial
400 kPa; (b) compression pressure 800 kPa suction for samples of EF and UEF. For example, when the

300 300

Loading amplitude 70 kPa

Loading amplitude 140 kPa

250 250
Loading amplitude 210 kPa

200 200
Resilient modulus: MPa
Resilient modulus: MPa

150 150

100 100 Loading amplitude 70 kPa

Loading amplitude 140 kPa
Loading amplitude 210 kPa
50 50 Confining pressure 50 kPa
Confining pressure 50 kPa
Confining pressure 100 kPa Confining pressure 100 kPa
Confining pressure 150 kPa
Confining pressure 150 kPa
0 0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Suction: kPa Suction: kPa
(a) (b)
Fig. 18. Resilient modulus against initial suction (effects of loading amplitudes and confining pressures): (a) UEF samples;
(b) EF samples

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 EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE AND WATER CONTENT ON UNSATURATED COMPACTED CLAY 639
3·0
water content, or at low amplitudes of loading. It became
Deviator stress 210 kPa
significant when the water content was increased to 31%
2·5 Deviator stress 140 kPa under higher loading amplitude.
(b) The repeated loading of samples prepared at all four
Deviator stress 70 kPa
different water contents resulted in a significant reduction
in suction. The suctions at failure of a sample loaded
Permanent strain: %

2·0 Confining pressure 50 kPa

Confining pressure 100 kPa

monotonically were significantly higher than those of
repeatedly loaded samples. However, the monotonically
1·5 Confining pressure 150 kPa loaded samples were tested for short duration, unlike the
repeatedly loaded samples, and therefore direct compari-
son of suctions at failure may not be totally justified.
1·0 (c) The increase in compaction effort or initial packing
density significantly reduced the development of per-
manent strain. However, the development of permanent
0·5
strain with the number of loading cycles is a pressing
problem even for EF samples, particularly at high
0
compaction water contents.
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Suction: kPa
(a)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3·0 The authors would like to thank Mr Vimalan Nathan (V J
Tech, Reading, UK) for providing the technical support for
Deviator stress 210 kPa
the research. They would also like to thank Mr K. V.
2·5 Senthilkumaran and P. J. Carey (P J Carey Contractors, UK)
Deviator stress 140 kPa for unconditional financial support to geotechnical research
Deviator stress 70 kPa at Queen’s University Belfast.
Permanent strain: %

2·0
Confining pressure 50 kPa

1·5
Confining pressure 100 kPa NOTATION
N number of loading
Confining pressure 150 kPa
qamp amplitude of deviator stress
1·0 s suction
Sr degree of saturation
w water content
ó3 confining pressure
0·5

0 REFERENCES
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Suction: kPa
(b)
Fig. 19. Variations of permanent strain with initial suction
(effects of loading amplitudes and confining pressures): (a) UEF
samples; (b) EF samples
threshold value of permanent strain is set as 0.5%; the
loading amplitudes of 140 kPa and 210 kPa result in signifi-
cant permanent strain, particularly at low initial suction
(high compaction water content) for samples with low initial
dry density (UEF). However, the permanent strain reduced
for the samples compacted to high initial dry density (EF),
where significant strain was observed only when the loading
amplitude was 210 kPa. The earlier part of this paper
demonstrated some marginal differences in the permanent
strains with respect to initial compaction water content and
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shown in Fig. 19, it appears that the permanent strain is not
significantly affected by the initial suction between 700 kPa
and 1200 kPa (compaction water contents of 22% and 28%)
for a given loading amplitude and confining pressure.
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