MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad,

Maisammaguda, Dhulapaly, (Post Via Kompally), Secunderabad,
Telangana State – 500100

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

LECTURE NOTES

Subject Utilization of Electrical Energy

Subject Code A0253

Year / Semester IV / I

Department EEE

Regulation MR 20

Prepared by

Dr. P.V.V. SAYANARAYANA

B.Tech, MBA, M.Tech, Ph.D

Professor
Department of EEE
 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE(AUTONOMOUS)
Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad,
Maisammaguda, Dhulapaly, (Post Via Kompally), Secunderabad,
Telangana State – 500100

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Sl. CONTENT
No.
1 Syllabus

2 Vision & Mission

3 Course Plan

4 Module – I : Electric Heating and Welding

5 Module – II : Illumination

6 Module – III : Electric Traction – I

7 Module – IV : Electric Traction – II

8 Module – V : Electric Drive Vehicles

9 Question Bank
Utilization of Electrical Energy
 2020-21 B.Tech.
MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Onwards
(Autonomous) VII Semester
(MR-20)

Code: A0243 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY L T P

(Professional Elective - V)
Credits: 3 3 - -

Prerequisites: Power Generation and Distribution System, DC Machines and

Transformers & AC Machines.
Course Objectives: This course deals with the fundamentals of illumination, electric heating and
welding. It also emphasis on different kinds of electric drives, electric drive vehicles and their
application to electrical traction systems.

MODULE I Electric Heating and Welding 10Periods

Advantages and methods of electric heating, resistance heating, induction heating and dielectric
heating. Electric welding, resistance and arc welding, electric welding equipment, comparison
between A.C. and D.C. Welding.

MODULE II Illumination 10 Periods

Introduction, terms used in illumination, laws of illumination, polar curves, photometry, integrating
sphere, sources of light. Discharge lamps, MV and SV lamps – Comparison between LED lamps and
fluorescent tubes. Basic principles of light control - Types anddesign of lighting and flood lighting.

MODULE III Electric Traction – I 10 Periods

A: System of electric traction and track electrification. Review of existing electric traction systems in
India. Special features of traction motor.
B: Methods of electric braking – Plugging, rheostatic braking and regenerative braking.

MODULE IV Electric Traction-II 9 Periods

Mechanics of train movement. Speed-time curves for different services – Trapezoidal and
quadrilateral speed time curves. Calculations of tractive effort, power, specific energy consumption
for given run. Effect of varying acceleration and braking retardation, adhesive weight and braking
retardation, adhesive weight and coefficient of adhesion.

MODULE V Electric Drive Vehicles 9 Periods

Concept of electric drive vehicles and types – Battery electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles and All-Electric vehicles. Benefits of electric drive vehicles.
Text Books
1. M.L. Soni, P.V. Gupta, V.S. Bhatnagar and A. Chakrabarti, “A Text Book on Power
System Engineering”, Dhanpat Rai & Co., 2nd Edition, 2014.
2. Partab, “Art & Science of Utilization of Electrical Energy”,Dhanpat Rai & Sons,
3rdEdition, 2006.
References
1. N.V.Suryanarayana, “Utilization of Electrical Power Including Electric Drives andElectric
Traction”, New Age International (P) Limited, 1996.
2. C.L.Wadhwa, “Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy”, New Age
International (P) Limited, 1997.
3. J.B.Gupta, “Utilisation Electric Power and Electric Traction”, S.K.Kataria and Sons,2000.
4. R.K.Rajput, “Utilisation of Electric Power”, Laxmi Publications Private Limited, 2007.
5. E. Openshaw Taylor, “Utilisation of Electric Energy”, Orient Longman, 1st Edition,2006.
E - Resources
1. http://www.intelligent-power-today.com/
2. http://www.electricity-today.com/
3. http://nptel.ac.in/syllabus/108103009/
Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will be able to

Illustrate different process of utilizing electric energy for heating

CO1 and welding process in industries for commercial purposes along Understand L2
with few house hold applications

Classify types of electric light sources based on nature of

CO2 Evaluate L5
operation and to determine its MHCP and MSCP.
Choose proper traction systems depending upon application
CO3 considering economic and technology up-gradation and calculate Apply L3
tractive effort, power, specific energy consumption for given run

Employ appropriate mathematical and graphical analysis

CO4 considering different practical issues in designing traction system; Analyze L4
analyze the performance parameter of the traction system.
Explain the basics of electric and hybrid electric vehicles, their
CO5 architecture, technologies, fundamentals and analyze various Understand L4
electric drives suitable for electric vehicles.
CO-PO MAPPING

(3/2/1 indicates strength of correlation)

3-Strong, 2-Medium, 1-Weak

Program Outcomes
COs PSOs
(POs)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3

1
3 1 1 2 3 2 2 - - - - 1 3 2 -
2
3 2 2 2 3 1 2 - - - - 1 3 2 -
3
3 2 2 2 3 1 2 - - - 2 1 3 2 1
4
3 2 2 3 3 - 2 2 - - 1 - 2 2 -
5
3 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 - - 1 1 2 1 1
MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

VISION & MISSION

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

To be a premier center of professional education and research, offering quality

programs in a socio-economic and ethical ambience.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

 To impart knowledge of advanced technologies using state-of-the-art

infrastructural facilities.
 To inculcate innovation and best practices in education, training and
research.
 To meet changing socio-economic needs in an ethical ambiance.

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To foster quality education, training and research in the field of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering and ethically committed engineers to meet the
technological needs of the society.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

 To impart quality education and research to undergraduate and postgraduate

students in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
 To produce professionally competent and ethically committed engineers to
meet changing socio-economic needs.
 To impart knowledge of advanced technologies for continual improvement in
teaching, learning and research.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Program Educational Objectives describe the career and professional

accomplishments that programs are preparing graduates to attain within a few
years of graduation.

Graduates will utilize analytical skills, problem solving skills and design skills
which are necessary for a successful career in the diverse fields of Electrical
PEO 1
and Electronics Engineering.

Graduates will be receptive to new technologies and attain professional

competence through lifelong learning such as post graduate programmes,
PEO 2
research, publications and other professional activities.

Graduates will possess excellent communication, team work skills,leadership

PEO 3 qualities, along with good professional and ethical attitude.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

Program Specific Outcomes are what the students should be able to do at the
time of graduation.

Apply fundamental knowledge to identify, formulate, design and

investigate various problems of electrical and electronic circuits,
PSO1
power electronics, power systems and renewable energy systems
for specific requirements.
Demonstrate proficiency in use of modern software tools &
PSO2 hardware to engage in life-long learning and to successfully adapt
in multi-disciplinary environments.
Solve ethically and professionally various Electrical Engineering
PSO3 problems in societal and environmental context and communicate
effectively.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.

Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature and analyze

PO 2
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

PO 3 problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.

PO 4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO 5
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
PO 6
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO 7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

PO 8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

PO 9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or

leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
PO 10
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
PO 11 the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
PO 12 engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
 MODULE I

ELECTRIC HEATING AND WELDING

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Heat plays a major role in everyday life. All heating requirements in domestic purposes such as
cooking, room heater, immersion water heaters, and electric toasters and also in industrial
purposes such as welding, melting of metals, tempering, hardening, and drying can be met
easily by electric heating, over the other forms of conventional heating. Heat and electricity are
interchangeable. Heat also can be produced by passing the current through material to be
heated. This is called electric heating; there are various methods of heating a material but
electric heating is considered far superior compared to the heat produced by coal, oil, and natural
gas.

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATING

The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:
(i) Economical
Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not require much skilled persons; therefore,
maintenance cost is less.
(ii) Cleanliness
Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the electric heating, it keeps surroundings
cleanly.
(iii) Pollution free
As there are no flue gases in the electric heating, atmosphere around is pollution free; no need
of providing space for their exit.
(iv) Ease of control
In this heating, temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately either manually or
automatically.
(v) Uniform heating
With electric heating, the substance can be heated uniformly, throughout whether it may be
conducting or non-conducting material.
(vi) High efficiency
In non-electric heating, only 40–60% of heat is utilized but in electric heating 75–100% of heat
can be successfully utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very high.
(vii) Automatic protection
Protection against over current and over heating can be provided by using fast control devices.
(viii) Heating of non-conducting materials
The heat developed in the non-conducting materials such as wood and porcelain is possible
only through the electric heating.
(ix) Better working conditions
No irritating noise is produced with electric heating and also radiating losses are low.
(x) Less floor area
Due to the compactness of electric furnace, floor area required is less.
(xi) High temperature
High temperature can be obtained by the electric heating except the ability of the material to
withstand the heat.
(xii) Safety
The electric heating is quite safe.

1.3 MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEAT

The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the temperature
gradient takes place by any of the following methods:
a) conduction,
b) convection, or
c) radiation.

Conduction
In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part without the
movement in the molecules of substance. The rate of the conduction of heat along the substance
depends upon the temperature gradient. The amount of heat passed through a cubic body with
two parallel faces with thickness ‘t’ meters, having the cross-sectional area of ‘A’ square meters
and the temperature of its two faces T1°C and T2°C, during ‘T’ hours is given by:

(1.1)
where k is the coefficient of the thermal conductivity for the material and it is measured in
MJ/m3/°C/hr.
Ex: Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.

Convection
In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of substance or fluid
due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of heat depends mainly on the
difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.
Ex: Immersion water heater.
The mount of heat absorbed by the water from heater through convection depends mainly upon
the temperature of heating element and also depends partly on the position of the heater. Heat
dissipation is given by the following expression.
H = a (T1 – T2)b W/m2, (1.2)
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the constants whose values are depend upon the heating surface and T1
and T2 are the temperatures of heating element and fluid in °C, respectively.

Radiation

In this mode, the heat transfers from source to the substance to be heated without heating the
medium in between. It is dependent on surface.
Ex: Solar heaters.
The rate of heat dissipation through radiation is given by Stefan's Law.

(1.3)

where T1 is the temperature of the source in kelvin, T2 is the temperature of the substance to be
heated in kelvin, and k is the radiant efficiency:
= 1, for single element
= 0.5–0.8, for several elements
e = emissivity = 1, for black body
= 0.9, for resistance heating element.
From the above equation (1.3), the radiant heat is proportional to the difference of fourth
power of the temperature, so it is very efficient heating at high temperature.
 1.4 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD HEATING ELEMENT
The materials used for heating element should have the following properties:

 High-specific resistance
Material should have high-specific resistance so that small length of wire may be required
to provide given amount of heat.
 High-melting point
It should have high-melting point so that it can withstand for high temperature, a small
increase in temperature will not destroy the element.
 Low temperature coefficient of resistance
From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to fourth powers of the temperatures, it
is very efficient heating at high temperature. For accurate temperature control, the
variation of resistance with the operating temperature should be very low. This can be
obtained only if the material has low temperature coefficient of resistance
 Free from oxidation
The element material should not be oxidized when it is subjected to high
temperatures; otherwise the formation of oxidized layers will shorten its life.
 High-mechanical strength
The material should have high-mechanical strength and should withstand for
mechanical vibrations.
 Non-corrosive
The element should not corrode when exposed to atmosphere or any other chemical
fumes.

 Economical
The cost of material should not be so high.

1.5 MATERIAL FOR HEATING ELEMENTS

The selection of a material for heating element is depending upon the service conditions such as
maximum operating temperature and the amount of charge to be heated, but no single element
will not satisfy all the requirements of the heating elements. The materials normally used as
heating elements are either alloys of nickel–chromium, nickel–chromium–iron, nickel–
chromium–aluminum, or nickel–copper. Nickel–chromium–iron alloy is cheaper when
compared to simple nickel–chromium alloy. The use of iron in the alloy reduces the cost of
final product but, reduces the life of the alloy, as it gets oxidized soon. We have different types
of alloys for heating elements. Table 1.1 gives the relevant properties of some of the
commercial heating elements.
Table 1.1 : Properties of some heating elements

The properties of some commercial heating element materials commonly employed for low and
medium temperatures up to 1,200°C are Ni–Cr and an alloy of Ni–Cr–Fe composition of these
alloys are given in Table 1.1. For operating temperatures above 1,200°C, the heating elements
are made up of silicon carbide, molebdenum, tungsten, and graphite. (Ni–Cu alloy is frequently
used for heating elements operating at low temperatures. Its most important property is that it
has virtually zero resistance and temperature coefficient.)

1.6 CAUSES OF FAILURE OF HEATING ELEMENTS

Heating element may fail due to any one of the following reasons.
a) Formation of hot spots.
b) Oxidation of the element and intermittency of operation.
c) Embrittlement caused by gain growth.
d) Contamination and corrosion.

a) Formation of hot spots.

Hot spots are the points on the heating element generally at a higher temperature than the main
body. The main reasons of the formation of hot spot in the heating element are the high rate of
the local oxidation causing reduction in the area of cross-section of the element leading to the
increase in the resistance at that spot. It gives rise to the damage of heating element due to the
generation of more heat at spot. Another reason is the shielding of element by supports, etc.,
which reduces the local heat loss by radiation and hence the temperature of the shielded
portion of the element will increase. So that the minimum number of supports should be used
without producing the distortion of the element. The sagging and wrapping of the material
arise due to the insufficient support for the element (or) selection of wrong fuse material may
lead to the uneven spacing of sections thereby developing the hotspots on the element.

b) Oxidation and intermittency of operation

A continuous oxide layer is formed on the surface of the element at very high temperatures
such layer is so strong that it prevents further oxidation of the inner metal of the element.
Ifthe element is used quite often, the oxide layer is subjected to thermal stresses; thus, the layer
cracks and flakes off, thereby exposing fresh metal to oxidation. Thus, the local oxidation of the
metal increases producing the hotspots.

c) Embrittlement causing grain growth

In general, most of the alloys containing iron tend to form large brittle grains at high
temperatures. When cold, the elements are very brittle and liable to rupture easily on the
slightest handling and jerks.

d) Contamination and corrosion

The heating elements may be subjected to dry corrosion produced by their contamination
withthe gases of the controlled atmosphere prevailing in annealing furnaces.

1.7 DESIGN OF HEATING ELEMENTS

By knowing the voltage and electrical energy input, the design of the heating element
for an electric furnace is required to determine the size and length of the heating element. The
wire employed may be circular or rectangular like a ribbon. The ribbon-type heating element
permitsthe use of higher wattage per unit area compared to the circular-type element.
(i) Circular-type heating element
Initially when the heating element is connected to the supply, the temperature goes on
increasing and finally reaches high temperature.

Let,

V = Supply voltage of the system and

R = Resistance of the element,

Then electric power input,

(1.4)

If ρ is the resistivity of the element, l is the length, ‘a’ is the area, and d is the
diameter of the element, then: ,

(1.5)
Therefore, power input

(1.6)

Where, P = Electrical power input per phase (watt),

V = Operating voltage per phase (volts),
R = Resistance of the element (Ω),
l = Length of the element (m),
a = Area ofcross-section (m2),
d = Diameter of the element (m), and
ρ = Specific resistance (Ω-m)

By rearranging the above equation, we get:

(1.7)

According to Stefan's law, heat dissipated per unit area is

(1.8)

where T1 = Absolute temperature of the element (K),

T2 =Absolute temperature of the charge (K),
e = Emissivity, and
k = Radiant efficiency.
The surface area of the circular heating element:
S = πdl.
Total heat dissipated = surface area × H = Hπdl.
 Under thermal equilibrium,

Power input = heat dissipated

P = H × πdl.
Substituting P from Equation (1.6) in above equation:

(1.9)

By solving Equations (1.7) and (1.9), the length and diameter of the wire can be determined.

(ii) Ribbon-type element

Let ‘w’ be the width and ‘t’ be the thickness of the ribbon-type heating element.

(1.10)

We know that, (for ribbon or rectangular element, a = w × t)

The surface area of the rectangular element (S) = 2 l × w.

(1.11)

Total heat dissipated = H × S = H × 2 lw.

Under thermal equilibrium,

Electrical power input = heat dissipated

P = H × 2 lw

lw = P / (2H) (1.12)

By solving Equations (1.11) and (1.12), the length and width of the heating
element canbe determined.
Example P1: A 4.5-kW, 200-V, and 1-φ resistance oven is to have nichrome wire heating
elements. If the wire temperature is to be 1,000°C and that of the charge 500°C. Estimate the
diameter and length of the wire. The resistivy of the nichrome alloy is 42.5 μΩ-m. Assume the
radiating efficiency and the emissivity of the element as 1.0 and 0.9, respectively.
Solution:
Given data
Power input (P) = 4.5 kW Supply voltage (V) = 200 V
Temperature of the source (T1) = 1,000 + 273 = 1,273
K.Temperature of the charge T2 = 500 + 273 = 773 K.
According to the Stefan's law,
The heat dissipation is given by:

By solving Equations (1) and (2):

d3 = 0.7466
d = 0.907 mm.
Substitute the value of ‘d’ in Equation (2):
l = 135.14 m.
 1.8 METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING
Heat can be generated by passing the current through a resistance or induced currents. The
initiation of an arc between two electrodes also develops heat. The bombardment by some
heat energy particles such as α, γ, β, and x-rays or accelerating ion can produce heat on a
surface.

Electric heating can be broadly classified as follows.

1.8.1 Electric Resistance Heating

(i) Direct resistance heating

In this method, the electric current is made to pass through the charge (or) substance to be
heated. This principle of heating is employed in electrode boiler.
(ii) Indirect resistance heating
In this method, the electric current is made to pass through a wire or high-resistance heating
element, the heat so developed is transferred to charge from the heating element by convection
or radiation. This method of heating is employed in immersion water heaters.
(iii)Infrared (or) radiant heating
In this method of heating, the heat energy is transferred from source (incandescent lamp) and
focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of electromagnetic radiations.

Normally, thismethod is used for drying clothes in the textile industry and to dry the

wet paints on an object.

1.8.2 Electric Arc Heating

(i) Direct arc heating

In this method, by striking the arc between the charge and the electrode or electrodes, the heat
so developed is directly conducted and taken by the charge. The furnace operating on this
principle is known as direct arc furnaces. The main application of this type of heating is
production of steel.
(ii) Indirect arc heating
In this method, arc is established between the two electrodes, the heat so developed is
transferred to the charge (or) substance by radiation. The furnaces operating on this principle are
known as indirect arc furnaces. This method is generally used in the melting of non-ferrous
metals.

1.8.3 Electric Induction Heating

(i) Direct induction heating

In this method of heating, the currents are induced by electromagnetic action in the charge to be
heated. These induced currents are used to melt the charge in induction furnace.
(ii) Indirect induction heating
In this method, eddy currents are induced in the heating element by electromagnetic action.
Thus, the developed heat in the heating element is transferred to the body (or) charge to be
heated by radiation (or) convection. This principle of heating is employed in induction furnaces
used for the heat treatment of metals.
(iii) Dielectric heating
In this method of electric heating, the heat developed in a non-metallic material due to
interatomic friction, known as dielectric loss. This principle of heating usually employed for
preheating of plastic performs, baking foundry cores, etc.

1.9 RESISTANCE HEATING

When the electric current is made to pass through a high-resistive body (or) substance, a power
loss takes place in it, which results in the form of heat energy, i.e., resistance heating is passed
upon the I2R effect. This method of heating has wide applications such as drying, baking of
potteries, commercial and domestic cooking, and the heat treatment of metals such as annealing
and hardening. In oven where wire resistances are employed for heating, temperature up to
 about 1,000°C can be obtained.

The resistance heating is further classified as:

1. direct resistance heating,
2. indirect resistance heating, and
3. infrared (or) radiant heating.

1.9.1 Direct resistance heating

In this method, electrodes are immersed in a material or charge to be heated. The charge may be
in the form of powder, pieces, or liquid. The electrodes are connected to AC or DC supply as
shown in Figure. 1.1(a). In case of DC or 1-φ AC, two electrodes are immersed and
three electrodes are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in case of availability of 3-
φsupply. When metal pieces are to be heated, the powder of lightly resistive is sprinkled over
the surface of the charge (or) pieces to avoid direct short circuit. The current flows through the
charge and heat is produced in the charge itself. So, this method has high efficiency. As the
current in this case is not variable, so that automatic temperature control is not possible. This
method of heating is employed in salt bath furnace and electrode boiler for heating water.

Figure.1.1 (a) Direct resistance heating

(i) Salt bath furnace
This type of furnace consists of a bath and containing some salt such as molten sodium chloride
and two electrodes immersed in it. Such salt have a fusing point of about 1,000–1,500°C
depending upon the type of salt used. When the current is passed between the electrodes
immersed in the salt, heat is developed and the temperature of the salt bath may be increased.
Such an arrangement is known as a salt bath furnace. In this bath, the material or job to be
heated is dipped. The electrodes should be carefully immersed in the bath in such a way that the
current flows through the salt and not through the job being heated. As DC will cause
electrolysis so, low-voltage AC up to 20 V and current up to 3,000 A is adopted depending
 upon the type of furnaces. The resistance of the salt decreases with increase in the
temperature of the salt, therefore, in order to maintain the constant power input, the
voltage can be controlled by providing a tap changing transformer. The control of power
input is also affected by varying the depth of immersion and the distance between the
electrodes.
(ii) Electrode boiler
It is used to heat the water by immersing three electrodes in a tank as shown in Figure.
1.2. Thisis based on the principle that when the electric current passed through the water
produces heat due to the resistance offered by it. For DC supply, it results in a lot of
evolution of H2 at negative electrode and O2 at positive electrode. Whereas AC supply
hardly results in any evolution of gas, but heats the water. Electrode boiler tank is
earthed solidly and connectedto the ground. A circuit breaker is usually incorporated to
make and break all poles simultaneously and an over current protective device is
provided in each conductor feeding an electrode.

Figure. 1.2 Electrode boiler

1.9.2 Indirect resistance heating
In the indirect resistance heating method, high current is passed through the heating
element. In case of industrial heating, some times the heating element is placed in a
cylinder which is surrounded by the charge placed in a jacket is known as heating
chamber is shown in Figure.
1.3. The heat is proportional to power loss produced in the heating element is
delivered to the charge by one or more of the modes of the transfer of heat viz.
conduction, convection, and radiation. This arrangement provides uniform temperature
and automatic temperature control. Generally, this method of heating is used in
immersion water heaters, room heaters, and the resistance ovens used in domestic and
commercial cooling and salt bath furnace.
 Figure. 1.3 Indirect resistance heating
(i) Resistance ovens
According to the operating temperatures, the resistance furnaces may be classified into various
types. Low-temperature heating chamber with the provision for ventilation is called as oven. For
drying varnish coating, the hardening of synthetic materials, and commercialand domestic
heating, etc., the resistance ovens are employed. The operating temperature of medium
temperature furnaces is between 300°C and 1,050°C. These are employed for the melting of
nonferrous metals, stove (annealing), etc. Furnaces operating at temperature between 1,050°C
and 1,350°C are known as high-temperature furnaces. These furnaces are employed for
hardening applications. A simple resistance oven is shown in Figure. 1.4.

Figure. 1.4 Resistance oven

Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating elements are placed as shown in
the Fig. 1.4. The inner surface of the heating chamber is made to suit the character of the charge
and the type of furnace or oven. The type of insulation used for heating chamber is determined by
the maximum temperature of the heating chamber.
 Efficiency and losses of resistance ovens
The heat produced in the heating elements, not only raises the temperature of the charge to desired value,
but also used to overcome the losses occurring due to:
a) Heat used in raising the temperature of oven (or) furnace.
b) Heat used in raising the temperature of containers (or) carriers,
c) Heat conducted through the walls.
d) Heat loss due to the opening of oven door.
The heat required to raise the temperature of oven to desired value can be calculated by
knowing the mass of refractory material (M), its specific heat (S), and raise of temperature (ΔT)
and is given by:

Hoven = MSΔTJ.

In case the oven is continuously used, this loss becomes negligible.

a) Heat used in rising the temperature of containers (or) carriers can be calculated exactly
the same way as for oven (or) furnaces.
b) Heat loss conducted through the walls of the container can be calculated by knowing the
area of the container (A) in square meters, the thickness of the walls (t) in meters, the
inside and out side temperatures of the container T1 and T2 in °C, respectively, and the
thermal conductivity of the container walls ‘k’ in m3/°C/hr and is given by: Heat loss by
conduction Actually, there is no specific formula for the determination of loss occurring
due to the opening of door for the periodic inspection of the charge so that this loss may
be approximately taken as 0.58–1.15 MJ/m2 of the door area, if the door is opened for a
period of 20–30 sec.

The efficiency of the oven is defined as the ratio of the heat required to raise the temperature of
he charge to the desired value to the heat required to raise the charge and losses. The efficiency
of the oven:

(1.12)

The efficiency of the resistance oven lies in between 60% and 80%.
1.9.3 Infrared or radiant heating
In this method of heating, the heat transfer takes place from the source to the body to be heated
through radiation, for low and medium temperature applications. Whereas in resistance ovens,
the heat transfers to the charge partly by convection and partly by radiation. In the radiant
heating, the heating element consists of tungsten filament lamps together with reflector and to
direct all the heat on the charge. Tungsten filament lamps are operating at 2,300°C instead of
3,000°C to give greater portion of infrared radiation and a longer life. The radiant heating is
mainly used for drying enamel or painted surfaces. The high concentration of the radiant energy
enables the heat to penetrate the coating of paint or enamel to a depth sufficient to dry it out
without wasting energy in the body of the workpiece. The main advantage of the radiant heating
is that the heat absorption remains approximately constant whatever the charge temperature,
whereas with the ordinary oven the heat absorption falls off very considerably as the
temperature of the charge raises. The lamp ratings used are usually between 250 and 1,000 W
and are operating at voltage of 115 V in order to ensure a robust filament.

1.10. TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF RESISTANCE HEATING

To control the temperature of a resistance heating at certain selected points in a furnace or oven,
as per certain limits, such control may be required in order to hold the temperature constant or
to vary it in accordance with a pre-determined cycle and it can be carried out by hand or
automatically. In resistance furnaces, the heat developed depends upon I2 R t (or) t. Therefore,
the temperature of the furnaces can be controlled either by:
1. Changing the resistance of elements.
2. Changing the applied voltage to the elements (or) current passing through the elements.
3. Changing the ratio of the on-and-off times of the supply.
Voltage across the furnace can be controlled by changing the transformer tapings. Auto
transformer or induction regulator can also be used for variable voltage supply. In addition to
the above, voltage can be controlled by using a series resistance so that some voltage
dropped across this series resistor. But this method is not economical as the power is
continuously wasted in controlling the resistance. Hence, this method is limited to small
furnaces. An on-off switch can be employed to control the temperature. The time for which the
oven is connected to the supply and the time for which it is disconnected from supply will
determine the temperature. Temperature can be controlled by providing various combinations
of groups of resistances used in the furnace and is given as follows:
(i) Variable number of elements
If ‘R’ be the resistance of one element and ‘n’ be the number of elements are connected in
parallel, so that the equivalent resistance is R/n. Heat developed in the furnace is: i.e., if the
number of elements connected in parallel increases, the heat developed in the furnace also
increased. This method does not provide uniform heating unless elements not in use are well
distributed.
(ii) Series parallel (or) star delta arrangement of elements
If the available supply is single phase, the heating elements can be connected in series for the
low temperatures and connected in parallel for the high temperature by means of a series—
parallel switch. In case, if the available supply is three phase, the heating elements can be
connected in star for the low temperature and in delta for the high temperatures by using star—
delta switch.

1.11 ARC HEATING

If the high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air in the gap gets ionized under the
influence of electrostatic forces and becomes conducting medium, current flows in the form of
a continuous spark, known as arc. A very high voltage is required to establish an arc but very
small voltage is sufficient to maintain it, across the air gap. The high voltage required for
striking an arc can be obtained by using a step-up transformer fed from a variable AC supply.
Another method of striking the arc by using low voltage is by short circuiting the two
electrodes momentarily and with drawing them back. Electrodes made up of carbon or
graphite and are used in the arc furnaces when the temperature obtained is in the range of
3,000–3,500°C. Electrodes used in the arc furnaces Normally used electrodes in the arc
furnaces are carbon electrodes, graphite electrodes, and self baking electrodes. Usually the
carbon and graphite electrodes are used and they can be selected based on their electrical
conductivity insolubility, chemical inertness, mechanical strength, resistance to thermal
shock, etc. The size of these electrodes may be 18–27 cm in diameter. The carbon
electrodes are used with small furnaces for manufacturing of ferro-alloys, aluminum
phosphorous, etc. The self-baking electrodes are employed in the electrochemical furnaces and
in the electrolytic production of aluminum.
The salient features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:

a) Resistivity: The graphite electrodes have low-specific resistance than the carbon
electrodes, so the graphite required half in size for the same current resulting in easy
replacement.
b) Oxidation: Graphite begins to oxides at 600°C where as carbon at 400°C.
c) Electrode consumption: For steel-melting furnaces, the consumption of the carbon
electrodes is about 4.5 kg of electrodes per tonne of steel and 2.3–to 6.8 kg electrodes per
tonne of steel for the graphite electrodes.
d) Cost: The graphite electrodes cost about twice as much per kg as the carbon electrodes.
The choice of electrodes depends chiefly on the question of the total cost. In general, if
the processes requiring large quantities of electrode, carbon is used but for other
processes, the choice depends on local conditions.
TYPES OF ARC FURNACES
There are two types of arc furnaces and they are:
a) Direct arc furnace and
b) Indirect arc furnace.

(i) Direct arc furnace

When supply is given to the electrodes, two arcs are established and current passes through the
charge, as shown in Figure. 1.5. As the arc is in direct contact with the charge and heat is
also produced by current flowing through the charge itself, it is known as direct arc furnace.

Figure 1.5. Direct arc furnace

If the available supply is DC or 1-φ, AC, two electrodes are sufficient, if the supply is 3-φ, AC,
three electrodes are placed at three vertices of an equilateral triangle. The most important
feature of the direct arc furnace is that the current flows through the charge, the stirring action is
inherent due to the electromagnetic force setup by the current, such furnace is used for
manufacturing alloy steel and gives purer product. It is very simple and easy to control the
composition of the final product during refining process operating the power factor of arc
furnace is 0.8 lagging. For 1-ton furnace, the power required is about 200 kW and the energy
consumed is 1.0 MWh/ton.
(ii) Indirect arc furnace
In indirect arc furnace, the arc strikes between two electrodes by bringing momentarily in
contact and then with drawing them heat so developed, due to the striking of arc across air
gap is transferred to charge is purely by radiation. A simple indirect arc furnace is shown in
Figure. 1.6.

Figure. 1.6 Indirect arc furnace

These furnaces are usually l-φ and hence their size is limited by the amount of one-phase load
which can be taken from one point. There is no inherent stirring action provided in this furnace,
as current does not flow through the charge and the furnace must be rocked mechanically. The
electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along the horizontal axis. This
furnace is also sometimes called as rocking arc furnace. The charge in this furnace is heated not
only by radiation from the arc between electrode tips but also by conduction from the heated
refractory during rocking action; so, the efficiency of such furnace is high. The arc is produced
by bringing electrodes into solid contact and then withdrawing them; power input to the furnace
is regulated by adjusting the arc length by moving the electrodes. Even though it can be
used in iron foundries where small quantities of iron are required frequently, the main
application of this furnace is the melting of non-ferrous metals.
1.12 HIGH-FREQUENCY HEATING
The main difference between the power-frequency and the high-frequency heating is that in the
conventional methods, the heat is transferred either by conduction convection or by radiation,
but in the high-frequency heating methods, the electromagnetic energy converted into the
heat energy in side the material. The high-frequency heating can be applied to two types of
materials. The heating of the conducting materials, such as ferro-magnetic and non-ferro-
magnetic, is known as induction heating. The process of heating of the insulating materials is
known as dielectric heating. The heat transfer by the conventional method is very low of the
order of 0.5–20 W/sq. cm. And, the heat transfer rate by the high-frequency heating either by
induction or by dielectric heating is as much as 10,000 W/sq. cm. Thus, the high-frequency
heating is most importance for tremendous speed of production.

1.13 INDUCTION HEATING

The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the electromagnetic action
in the material to be heated. To develop sufficient amount of heat, the resistance of the
material must be low , which is possible only with the metals, and the voltage must be higher,
which can be obtained by employing higher flux and higher frequency. Therefore, the
magnetic materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials due to their high
permeability. In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider a
circular disc to be heated carrying a current of ‘I’ amps at a frequency ‘f’ Hz. As shown in
Figure. 1.7.

Figure. 1.7 Induction heating

Heat developed in the disc is depending upon the following factors.

a) Primary coil current.

b) The number of the turns of the coil.
c) Supply frequency.
d) The magnetic coupling between the coil and the disc.
e ) The high electrical resistivity of the disc.

If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to eddy current loss,
whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis loss in addition to eddy current loss.
Both hysteresis and eddy current loss are depended upon frequency, but at high-frequency
hysteresis, loss is very small as compared to eddy currents. The depth of penetration of induced
currents into the disc is given by:

(1.13)

where ρ is the specific resistance in Ω-cm, f is the frequency in Hz, and μ is the permeability of
the charge. There are basically two types of induction furnaces and they are:
a) Core type or low-frequency induction furnace.
b) Coreless type or high-frequency induction furnace.

CORE TYPE FURNACE

The operating principle of the core type furnace is the electromagnetic induction. This furnace
is operating just like a transformer. It is further classified as:

i. Direct core type.

ii. Vertical core type.
iii. Indirect core type.
(i) Direct core type induction furnace

The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be heated forms
single turn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron core as
shown in Figure. 1.8.

The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which contains the charge to be
melted in the form of an annular ring.
 Figure. 1.8 Direct core type furnace

This type of furnace has the following characteristics:

 This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically interlinked with
primary winding, which is energized from an AC source. The magnetic coupling
between primary and secondary is very weak; it results in high leakage reactance
and low pf. To overcome the increase in leakage reactance, the furnace should be
operated at low frequency of the order of 10 Hz.
 When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes open circuited
thereby cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace, the molten metal has to
be taken in the hearth to keep the secondary as short circuit.
 Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence and severe stirring
action in the molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is also necessary to operate the
furnace at low frequency.
 In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator set (or) frequency
changer is to be provided, which involves the extra cost.
 The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the
metallurgical viewpoint.
 If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-electromagnetic
forces in the molten metal and hence adjacent molecules repel each other, as they
are in the same direction. The repulsion may cause the interruption of secondary circuit
(formation of bubbles and voids); this effect is known as pinch effect.
 The pinch effect is also dependent on frequency; at low frequency, this effect is
negligible, and so it is necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.
(ii) Vertical core type induction furnace
It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of the disadvantages
mentioned above. This type of furnace consists of a vertical core instead of horizontal core as
shown in Figure. 1.9. It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

Figure. 1.9 Vertical core type furnace (Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace)

Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the main body of the
crucible. The leakage reactance is comparatively low and the power factor is high as the
magnetic coupling is high compared to direct core type. There is a tendency of molten metal to
accumulate at the bottom that keeps the secondary completed for a vertical core type furnace as
it consists of narrow V-shaped channel. The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the
type charge used. Clay lining is used for yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is
used for red brass. The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which can
be removed for admitting the charge. Necessary hydraulic arrangements are usually made for
tilting the furnace to take out the molten metal. Even though it is having complicated
construction, it is operating at power factor of the order of 0.8–0.83. This furnace is normally
used for the melting and refining of brass and non-ferrous metals.
Advantages

 Accurate temperature control and reduced metal losses.

 Absence of crucibles.
 Consistent performance and simple control.
 It is operating at high power factor.
 Pinch effect can be avoided.
(iii) Indirect core type furnace
This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple induction furnace
with the absence of core is shown in Figure. 1.10.

Figure. 1.10 Indirect core type furnace

The secondary winding itself forms the walls of the container or furnace and an iron core links
both primary and secondary windings. The heat produced in the secondary winding is
transmitted to the charge by radiation. An oven of this type is in direct competition with
ordinary resistance oven. It consists of a magnetic circuit AB is made up of a special alloy and
is kept inside the chamber of the furnace. This magnetic circuit loses its magnetic properties at
certain temperature and regains them again when it is cooled to the same temperature. When the
oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases many times
and the inductive effect decreases thereby cutting off the supply heat. Thus, the temperature of
the furnace can be effectively controlled. The magnetic circuit ‘AB’ is detachable type that can
be replaced by the other magnetic circuits having critical temperatures ranging between 400°C
and 1,000°C. The furnace operates at a pf of around 0.8. The main advantage of such furnace is
wide variation of temperature control is possible.

(iv) Coreless induction furnace

It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown inFigure 1.11. In this furnace, heat
developed in the charge due to eddy currents flowing through it.

The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed

within a coil that forms primary of the transformer. The furnace also contains a conducting or
nonconducting container that acts as secondary.
 Figure. 1.11 Coreless induction furnace

If the container is made up of conducting material, charge can be conducting or nonconducting;

whereas, if the container is made up of non-conducting material, charge taken should have
conducting properties. When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up
by these coils induce the eddy currents in the charge. The direction of the resultant eddy current
is in a direction opposite to the current in the primary coil. These currents heat the charge to
melting point and they also set up electromagnetic forces that produce a stirring action to the
charge.
∴ The eddy currents developed in any magnetic circuit are given as: We ∝ Bm2f ,
where Bm is the maximum flux density (tesla), f is the frequency in (Hz), and We is the eddy
current loss (watts). In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is no core. Hence,
the primary supply should have high frequency for compensating the low flux density. If it is
operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it results copper loss, thereby increasing the
temperature of the primary winding. This necessitates in artificial cooling. The coil, therefore, is
made of hollow copper tube through which cold water is circulated. Minimum stray magnetic field is
maintained when designing coreless furnace, otherwise there will be considerable eddy current loss.
The selection of a suitable frequency of the primary current can be given by penetration formula.
According to this:

(1.14)

where ‘t’ is the thickness up to which current in the metal has penetrated, ‘ρ’ is the resistivity in
Ω-cm,'μ’ is the permeability of the material, and ‘f’ is the frequency in Hz.
For the efficient operation, the ratio of the diameter of the charge (d) to the depth of the
penetration of currents should be more than ‘6’, therefore let us take: Substitute above in
Equation (1.14).
 Followingare the advantages of coreless furnace over the other furnaces:
 Ease of control.
 Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.

 The eddy currents in the charge itself results in automatic stirring.

 The cost is less for the erection and operation.
 It can be used for heating and melting.
 Any shape of crucible can be used.
 It is suitable for intermittent operation.

1.14 DIELECTRIC HEATING

When non-metallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, and china glass are
subjected to high-voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses, and due to
interatomic friction caused by the repeated deformation and the rotation of atomic structure
(polarization), heat is produced. This is known as dielectric loss. This dielectric loss in
insulators corresponds to hysteresis loss in ferro-magnetic materials. This loss is due to the
reversal of magnetism or magneto molecular friction. These losses developed in a material that
has to be heated. An atom of any material is neutral, since the central positive charge is equals
to the negative charge. So that, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide as long as
there is no external field is applied, as shown in Figure. (a). When this atom is subjected to
the influence of the electric field, the positive charge of the nucleus is acted upon by some
force in the direction of negative charges in the opposite direction. Therefore, the effective
centers of both positive and negative charges no longer coincident as shown in Figure. (b).
The electric charge of an atom equivalent to Figure. (b) is shown in Figure. (c).

This gives raise to an electric dipole moment equal to P = q d, where d is the distance between
the two centers and q is the charge on the nucleus. Now, the atom is said to be polarized atom.
If we apply alternating voltage across the capacitor plate, we will get alternating electric field.
Electric dipoles will also try to change their orientation according to the direction of the

impressed electric field. In doing so, some energy will be wasted as inter-atomic friction, which
is called dielectric loss. As there is no perfect conductor, so there is no perfect insulator. All the
dielectric materials can be represented by a parallel combination of a leakage resistor ‘R’ and a
capacitor ‘C’ as shown in Figure. 1.13 (a) and (b).
 Figure.1.12 Polarization

Figure.1.13 Dielectric heating

If an AC voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, an electric current flow; total current ‘I’
supposed to be made up of two components IC and IR, where IC is the capacitive current
leading the applied voltage by 90° and IR is in phase with applied voltage as shown inFigure.
1.13(c). where ‘V' is the applied voltage in volts, ‘f’ is the supply frequency in Hz,
ɛ0 is the absolute permittivity of the medium = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m, ɛr is the relative
permittivity of the medium = 1 for free space, A is the area of the plate or electrode (m2), d
is the thickness of the dielectric medium, and δ is the loss angle in radian. Normally
frequency used for dielectric heating is in the range of 1–40 MHz. The use of high voltage is
also limited due to the breakdown voltage of thin dielectric that is to be heated, under normal
conditions; the voltage gradient used is limited to 18 kV/cm.
 The advantages of the dielectric heating
 The heating of the non-conducting materials is very rapid.

 The uniform heating of material is possible.

 Heat is produced in the whole mass of the material.
The applications of the dielectric heating
 The drying of paper, wood, etc.

 The gluing of wood.

 The heat-sealing of plastic sheets.
 The heating for the general processing such as coffee roasting and chocolate industry.

 The heating for the dehydration such as milk, cream, and vegetables.
 The preparation of thermoplastic resins.
 The heating of bones and tissues.
 Diathermy, i.e., the heat treatment for certain body pains and diseases, etc.
 The sterilization of absorbent cotton, bandages, etc.
 The processing of rubber, synthetic materials, chemicals, etc.
1.15 ELECTRIC WELDING
Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal or non-metal together by heating them to
their melting point. Filler metal may or may not be used to join two pieces. The physical and
mechanical properties of a material to be welded such as melting temperature, density, thermal
conductivity, and tensile strength take an important role in welding. Depending upon how the
heat applied is created; we get different types of welding such as thermal welding, gas welding,
and electric welding. Here in this chapter, we will discuss only about the electric welding and
some introduction to other modern welding techniques. Welding is nowadays extensively used
in automobile industry, pipe-line fabrication in thermal power plants, machine repair
work, machine frames, etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Welding
Advantages
 Welding is the most economical method to permanently join two metal parts.

 It provides design flexibility.

 Welding equipment is not so costly.
 It joins all the commercial metals.
 Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined by welding. Portable welding equipment
are available.
Disadvantages
 Welding gives out harmful radiations and fumes.
 Welding needs internal inspection.
 If welding is not done carefully, it may result in the distortion of workpiece.
 Skilled welding is necessary to produce good welding.
CLASSIFICATION
It is defined as the process of joining two metal pieces, in which the electrical energy is used to
generate heat at the point of welding in order to melt the joint.
The classification
 Figure.1.14 Classification of electric welding
The selection of proper welding process depends on the following factors.

 The type of metal to be joined.

 The techniques of welding adopted.
 The cost of equipment used.
 The nature of products to be fabricated.
1.15.1 RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding is the process of joining two metals together by the heat produced due to the
resistance offered to the flow of electric current at the junctions of two metals. The heat
produced by the resistance to the flow of current is given by:
H = I2Rt,
Where, I = Current through the electrodes,
R = Contact resistance of the interface, and
t = Time for which current flows.
Here, the total resistance offered to the flow of current is made up of:
a) The resistance of current path in the work.
b) The resistance between the contact surfaces of the parts being welded.
c) The resistance between electrodes and the surface of parts being welded.
 In this process of welding, the heat developed at the contact area between the pieces to
be welded reduces the metal to plastic state or liquid state, then the pieces are pressed under
high mechanical pressure to complete the weld.

The electrical voltage input to the welding varies in between 4 and 12 V depending
upon area, thickness, composition, etc. and usually power ranges from about 60 to 180 W for
each sq. mm of area.

Any desired combination of voltage and current can be obtained by means of a suitable
transformer in AC; hence, AC is found to be most suitable for the resistance welding. The
magnitude of current is controlled by changing the primary voltage of the welding transformer,
which can be done by using an auto-transformer or a tap-changing transformer. Automatic
arrangements are provided to switch off the supply after a pre-determined time from applying
the pressure, why because the duration of the current flow through the work is very important
in the resistance welding. The electrical circuit diagram for the resistance welding is shown in
Figure. 1.15. This method of welding consists of a tap-changing transformer, a clamping
device for holding the metal pieces, and some sort of mechanical arrangement for forcing
the pieces to form a complete weld.

Figure.1.15 Electric circuit for resistance welding

Advantages
 Welding process is rapid and simple.
 Localized heating is possible, if required.

 No need of using filler metal.

 Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
 Comparatively lesser skill is required.
 Maintenance cost is less.
 It can be employed for mass production.
Disadvantages
 Initial cost is very high.
 High maintenance cost.
 The work piece with heavier thickness cannot be welded, since it requires high input current.
Applications
o It is used by many industries manufacturing products made up of thinner gauge metals.
o It is used for the manufacturing of tubes and smaller structural sections.
Types of resistance welding
Depending upon the method of weld obtained and the type of electrodes used, the resistance
welding is classified as:
a) Spot welding.
b) Seam welding.
c) Projection welding.
d) Butt welding.
(i) Spot welding
Spot welding means the joining of two metal sheets and fusing them together between copper
electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of heavy electric current passed through the
electrodes as shown in Figure. 1.16.

Figure. 1.16 Spot welding

 This type of joint formed by the spot welding provides mechanical strength and not air
or water tight, for such welding it is necessary to localize the welding current and to apply
sufficient pressure on the sheet to be welded. The electrodes are made up of copper or copper
alloy and are water cooled. The welding current varies widely depending upon the thickness
and composition of the plates. It varies from 1,000 to 10,000 A, and voltage between the
electrodes is usually less than 2 V. The period of the flow of current varies widely depending
upon the thickness of sheets to be joined. A step-down transformer is used to reduce a high-
voltage and low-current supply to low-voltage and high-current supply required. Since the heat
developed being proportional to the product of welding time and square of the current. Good
weld can be obtained by low currents for longer duration and high currents for shorter duration;
longer welding time usually produces stronger weld but it involves high energy expenditure,
electrode maintenance, and lot of distortion of workpiece. When voltage applied across the
electrode, the flow of current will generate heat at the three junctions, i.e., heat developed,
between the two electrode tips and workpiece, between the two workpieces to be joined as
shown in Fig. 1.16.
The generation of heat at junctions 1 and 3 will effect electrode sticking and melt through holes,
the prevention of electrode striking is achieved by:
a) Using water-cooled electrodes shown in Figure. 1.17. By avoiding the heating of junctions 1
and 3 electrodes in which cold water circulated continuously as shown in Fig. 5.3.
b) The material used for electrode should have high electrical and thermal conductivity. Spot
welding is widely used for automatic welding process, for joining automobile parts, joining
and fabricating sheet metal structure, etc.

Fig. 1.17 Water cooled electrode

(ii) Seam welding
Seam welding is nothing but the series of continuous spot welding. If number spots obtained by
spot welding are placed very closely that they can overlap, it gives rise to seam welding. In this
welding, continuous spot welds can be formed by using wheel type or roller electrodes instead
of tipped electrodes as shown in Figure. 1.18 .

Figure. 1.18 Seam welding

Seam welding is obtained by keeping the job under electrodes. When these wheel type
electrodes travel over the metal pieces which are under pressure, the current passing between
them heats the two metal pieces to the plastic state and results into continuous spot welds. In
this welding, the contact area of electrodes should be small, which will localize the current
pressure to the welding point. After forming weld at one point, the weld so obtained can be
cooled by splashing water over the job by using cooling jets. In general, it is not satisfactory to
make a continuous weld, for which the flow of continuous current build up high heat that
causes burning and wrapping of the metal piece. To avoid this difficulty, an interrupter is
provided on the circuit which turns on supply for a period sufficient to heat the welding point.
The series of weld spots depends upon the number of welding current pulses.
The two forms of welding currents are shown in Figure. 1.19(a) and (b).

Figure. 1.19 Welding current

Welding cannot be made satisfactorily by using uninterrupted or un-modulated current, which
builds up high heat as the welding progress; this will over heat the workpiece and cause
distortion. Seam welding is very important, as it provides leak proof joints. It is usually
employed in welding of pressure tanks, transformers, condensers, evaporators, air craft tanks,
refrigerators, varnish containers, etc.
(iii) Projection welding
It is a modified form of the spot welding. In the projection welding, both current and pressure
are localized to the welding points as in the spot welding. But the only difference in the
projection welding is the high mechanical pressure applied on the metal pieces to be welded,
after the formation of weld. The electrodes used for such welding are flat metal plates known as
platens. The two pieces of base metal to be weld are held together in between the two platens,
one is movable and the other is fixed, as shown in Figure. 1.20.

Figure. 1.20 Projection welding

One of the two pieces of metal is run through a machine that makes the bumps or projections of
required shape and size in the metal. As current flows through the two metal parts to be welded,
which heat up and melt.

These weld points soon reach the plastic state, and the projection touches the metal then
force applied by the two flat electrodes forms the complete weld. The projection welding
needs no protective atmosphere as in the spot welding to produce successful results. This
welding process reduces the amount of current and pressure in order to join two metal
surfaces, so that there is less chance of distortion of the surrounding areas of the weld zone.
Due to this reason, it has been incorporated into many manufacturing process. The
 Projection welding has the following advantages over the spot welding.
Simplicity in welding process.
a) It is easy to weld some of the parts where the spot welding is not possible.

b)It is possible to join several welding points.

c) Welds are located automatically by the position of projection.
As the electrodes used in the projection welding are flat type, the contact area over the
projection is sufficient. This type of welding is usually employed on punched, formed, or
stamped parts where the projection automatically exists. The projection welding is particularly
employed for mass production work, i.e., welding of refrigerators, condensers, crossed wire
welding, refrigerator racks, grills, etc.
(iv) Butt welding
Butt welding is similar to the spot welding; however, the only difference is, in butt welding,
instead of electrodes the metal parts that are to be joined or butted together are connected to the
supply.
The three basic types of the butt-welding process are:

 Upset butt welding.

 Flash butt welding.
 Percussion butt welding.
(a) Upset butt welding
In upset welding, the two metal parts to be welded are joined end to end and are connected
across the secondary of a welding transformer as shown in Figure. 1.21.

Figure. 1.21 Upset butt welding

Due to the contact resistance of the metals to be welded, heating effect is generated in this
welding. When current is made to flow through the two electrodes, heat will develop due to the
contact resistance of the two pieces and then melts. By applying high mechanical pressure
either manually or by toggle mechanism, the two metal pieces are pressed. When jaw-type
electrodes are used that introduce the high currents without treating any hot spot on the job.
This type of welding is usually employed for welding of rods, pipes, and wires and for joining
metal parts end to end.

(b) Flash butt welding

Flash butt welding is a combination of resistance, arc, and pressure welding. This method of
welding is mainly used in the production welding. A simple flash butt welding arrangement is
shown in Figure. 1.21.

Figure. 1.22 Flash butt welding

In this method of welding, the two pieces to be welded are brought very nearer to each other
under light mechanical pressure. These two pieces are placed in a conducting movable clamps.
When high current is passed through the two metal pieces and they are separated by some
distance, then arc established between them. This arc or flashing is allowed till the ends of the
work pieces reach melting temperature, the supply will be switched off and the pieces are
rapidly brought together under light pressure. As the pieces are moved together, the fused metal
and slag come out of the joint making a good solid joint. Following are the advantages of the
flash butt welding over the upset welding.
 Less requirement of power.
 When the surfaces being joined, it requires only less attention.
 Weld obtained is so clean and pure; due to the foreign metals appearing on the surfaces will
burn due to flash or arc.
(c) Percussion welding
It is a form of the flash butt welding, where high current of short duration is employed using
stored energy principle. This is a self-timing spot welding method. Percussion
welding arrangement consists of one fixed holder and the other one is movable. The pieces to
be welded are held apart, with the help of two holders, when the movable clamp is
released, it moves rapidly carrying the piece to be welded. There is a sudden discharge of
electrical energy, which establishes an arc between the two surfaces and heating them to
their melting temperature, when the two pieces are separated by a distance of 1.5 mm apart.
As the pieces come in contact with each other under heavy pressure, the arc is extinguished
due to the percussion blow of the two parts and the force between them affects the weld. The
percussion welding can be obtained in two methods; one is capacitor energy storage
system and the other is magnetic energy storage system. The capacitor discharge circuit for
percussion welding is shown in Figure. 5.10.

Figure. 1.23 Capacitor discharge circuit for percussion welding

The capacitor ‘C’ is charged to about 3,000 V from a controlled rectifier. The capacitor is
connected to the primary of welding transformer through the switch and will discharge. This
discharge will produce high transient current in the secondary to join the two metal pieces.
Percussion welding is difficult to obtain uniform flashing of the metal part areas of the cross
section grater than 3 sq. cm. Advantage of this welding is so fast, extremely shallow of heating
is obtained with a span of about 0.1 sec. It can be used for welding a large number of
dissimilar metals.
Applications
 It is useful for welding satellite tips to tools, sliver contact tips to copper, cast iron to steel,
etc.
 Commonly used for electrical contacts.
 The metals such as copper alloys, aluminum alloys, and nickel alloys are percussion welded.

CHOICE OF WELDING TIME

The successful welding operation mainly depends upon three factors and they are:
1. Welding time.
2. Welding current.
3. Welding Pressure

Figure 1.23 shows how the energy input to the welding process, welding strength, and welding
current vary with welding time

.
Figure. 1.23 Performance characteristics of electric welding

The heat developed during welding process is given by H = I2Rt. Here both welding current
and welding time are critical variables. Greater the welding current, the shorter the welding
time required is; usually longer welding time produces stronger weld but there is lot of
distortion of workpiece and high energy expenditure. From Figure. 1.23, it is to be noted that,
from 0 to t1 sec, there is appreciable increase in welding strength, but after t2 sec, the increase
in the welding time does not appreciably result in the increase in strength; therefore, ‘t2’
is the optimum welding time. This optimum time varies with the thickness of the
material. The optimum times of material (sheet steel) with different thickness are given as:
1.15.2 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
Electric arc welding is the process of joining two metallic pieces or melting of metal is obtained
due to the heat developed by an arc struck between an electrode and the metal to be welded or
between the two electrodes as shown in Figure. 1.25 (a).

Figure.1.25 Arrangement of electric welding equipment

In this process, an electric arc is produced by bringing two conductors (electrode and metal
piece) connected to a suitable source of electric current, momentarily in contact and then
separated by a small gap, arc blows due to the ionization and give intense heat. The heat so
developed is utilized to melt the part of workpiece and filler metal and thus forms the weld. In
this method of welding, no mechanical pressure is employed; therefore, this type of welding is
also known as 'non-pressure welding’.
The length of the arc required for welding depends upon the following factors:
 The surface coating and the type of electrodes used.
 The position of welding.
 The amount of current used.
When the supply is given across the conductors separated by some distance apart, the air gap
present between the two conductors gets ionized, as the arc welding is in progress, the
ionization of the arc path and its surrounding area increases. This increase in ionization
decreases the resistance of the path. Thus, current increases with the decrease in voltage
of arc. This VI characteristic of an arc is shown in Fig. (b), it also known as negative
resistance characteristics of an arc. Thus, it will be seen that this decrease in resistance with
increase in current does not remain the arc steadily. This difficulty cab be avoided, with the
supply, it should fall rapidly with the increase in the current so that any further increase in
the current is restricted.
 For the arc welding, the temperature of the arc should be 3,500°C. At this temperature,
mechanical pressure for melting is not required. Both AC and DC can be used in the arc
welding. Usually 70–100 V on AC supply and 50–60 V on DC supply system is sufficient to
struck the arc in the air gap between the electrodes. Once the arc is struck, 20– 30 V is only
required to maintain it. However, in certain cases, there is any danger of electric shock to
the operator, low voltage should be used for the welding purpose. Thus, DC arc welding of
low voltage is generally preferred. Electric arc welding is extensively used for the joining of
metal parts, the repair of fractured casting, and the fillings by the deposition of new metal on
base metal, etc.
Various types of electric arc welding are:
a. Carbon arc welding.
b. Metal arc welding.
c. Atomic hydrogen arc welding.
d. Inert gas metal arc welding.
e. Submerged arc welding.
(a) Carbon arc welding
It is one of the processes of arc welding in which arc is struck between two carbon electrodes or
the carbon electrode and the base metal. The simple arrangement of the carbon arc welding is
shown in Figure. 1.26.

Figure. 1.26 Carbon arc welding

In this process of welding, the electrodes are placed in an electrode holder used as negative
electrode and the base metal being welded as positive. Unless, the electrode is negative relative
to the work, due to high temperature, there is a tendency of the particles of carbon will fuse and
mix up with the base metal, which causes brittleness; DC is preferred for carbon arc welding
since there is no fixed polarity maintained in case of AC.
 In the carbon arc welding, carbon or graphite rods are used as electrode. Due to longer
life and low resistance, graphite electrodes are used, and thus capable of conducting more
current. The arc produced between electrode and base metal; heat the metal to the melting
temperature, on the negative electrode is 3,200°C and on the positive electrode is 3,900°C. This
process of welding is normally employed where addition of filler metal is not required. The
carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of the arc can be easily varied. One major
problem with carbon arc is its instability which can be overcome by using an inductor in the
electrode of 2.5-cm diameter and with the current of about of 500–800 A employed to deposit
large amount of filler metal on the base metal. Filler metal and flux may not be used depending
upon the type of joint and material to be welded.
Advantages
 The heat developed during the welding can be easily controlled by adjusting the length of the
arc.
 It is quite clean, simple, and less expensive when compared to other welding process.
 Easily adoptable for automation.
 Both the ferrous and the non-ferrous metals can be welded.

Disadvantages

 Input current required in this welding, for the workpiece to rise its temperature
to melting/welding temperature, is approximately double the metal arc welding.

 In case of the ferrous metal, there is a chance of disintegrating the carbon at high
temperature and transfer to the weld, which causes harder weld deposit and brittlement.

 A separate filler rod has to be used if any filler metal is required.

Applications
 It can be employed for the welding of stainless steel with thinner gauges.
 Useful for the welding of thin high-grade nickel alloys and for galvanized sheets using
copper silicon manganese alloy filler metal.
(b)Metal arc welding
In metal arc welding, the electrodes used must be of the same metal as that of the work-
piece to be welded. The electrode itself forms the filler metal. An electric arc is stuck by
bringing the electrode connected to a suitable source of electric current, momentarily in
contract with the work pieces to be welded and withdrawn apart. The circuit diagram for
the metal arc welding is shown in Figure. 1.27.

Figure. 1.27 Metal arc welding

The arc produced between the work piece and the electrode results high temperature of the
order of about 2,400°C at negative metal electrode and 2,600°C at positive base metal or work
piece. This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as well as the tip of the electrode, then
the electrode melts and deposited over the surface of the workpiece, forms complete weld. Both
AC and DC can be used for the metal arc welding.

The voltage required for the DC metal arc welding is about 50–60 V and for the AC
metalarc welding is about 80–90 V In order to maintain the voltage drop across the arc less
than 13 V, the arc length should be kept as small as possible, otherwise the weld will be brittle.
The current required for the welding varies from 10 to 500 A depending upon the type of work
to be welded. The main disadvantage in the DC metal arc welding is the presence of arc blow,
i.e., distortion of arc stream from the intended path due to the magnetic forces of the non-
uniform magnetic field with AC arc blow is considerably reduced. For obtaining good
weld, the flux-coated electrodes must be used, so the metal which is melted is covered with
slag produces a non- oxidizing gas or a molten slag to cover the weld, and also stabilizes thearc.
(c) Atomic hydrogen arc welding
In atomic hydrogen arc welding, shown in Figure. 1.28, the heat for the welding process
is produced from an electric arc struck between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere
of hydrogen. Here, hydrogen serves mainly two functions; one acts as a protective screen for
the arc and the other acts as a cooling agent for the glowing tungsten electrode tips. As
the hydrogen gas passes through the arc, the hydrogen molecules are broken up into atoms,
absorbs heat from the glowing tungsten electrodes so that these are cooled.

Figure. 1.28 Atomic hydrogen arc welding

But, when the atoms of hydrogen recombine into molecules outside the arc, a large amount of
heat is liberated. This extra heat is added to the intense heat of arc, which produces a
temperature of about 4,000°C that is sufficient to melt the surfaces to be welded, together with
the filler rod if used. Moreover hydrogen includes oxygen and some other gases that might
combine with the molten metal and forms oxides and other impurities. Hydrogen also
removes oxides from the surface of work piece. Thus, this process is capable of producing
strong, uniform, smooth, and ductile welds.

In the atomic hydrogen arc welding, the arc is maintained between the two non-
consumable tungsten electrodes under a pressure of about 0.5 kg/cm2. In order to obtain
equal consumption of electrodes, AC supply is used. Arc currents up to 150 A can be used.
High voltage about 300 V is applied for this welding through a transformer. For striking the arc
between the electrodes the open circuit voltage required varies from 80 to 100 V. As the atomic
hydrogen welding is too expensive, it is usually employed for welding alloy steel, carbon steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, etc.
(d)Inert gas metal arc welding
It is a gas-shielded metal arc welding, in which an electric arc is stuck between tungsten
electrode and work piece to be welded. Filler metal may be introduced separately into the arc if
required. A welding gun, which carries a nozzle, through this nozzle, inert gas such as
beryllium or argon is blown around the arc and onto the weld, as shown in Figure. 5.17. As both
beryllium and argon are chemically inert, so the molten metal is protected from the action of
the atmosphere by an envelope of chemically reducing or inert gas.

Fig. 1.29 Inert gas metal are welding

As molten metal has an affinity for oxygen and nitrogen, if exposed to the atmosphere, thereby
forming their oxides and nitrides, which makes weld leaky and brittle Thus, several methods of
shielding have been employed. With the use of flux coating electrodes or by pumping, the inert
gases around the arc produces a slag that floats on the top of molten metal and produces an
envelope of inert gas around the arc and the weld.
Advantages
 Flux is not required since inert gas envelope protects the molten metal without forming
oxides and nitrates so the weld is smooth, uniform, and ductile.
 Distortion of the work is minimum because the concentration of heat is possible.
Applications

 The welding is employed for light alloys, stainless steel, etc.

 The welding of non-ferrous metal such as copper, aluminum, etc.
(e) Submerged Arc Welding
It is an arc welding process, in which the arc column is established between above metal
electrode and the workpiece. Electric arc and molten pool are shielded by blanket of granular
flux on the workpiece. Initially to start an arc, short circuit path is provided by introducing steel
wool between the welding electrode and the workpiece. This is due to the coated flux material,
when cold it is non-conductor of the electricity but in molten state, it is highly conductive.
Welding zone is shielded by a blanket of flux, so that the arc is not visible. Hence, it is known
as 'submerged arc welding’. The arc so produced, melts the electrode, parent the metal and the
coated flux, which forms a protective envelope around both the arc and the molten metal. As
the arc in progress, the melted electrode metal forms globules and mix up with the molten base
metal, so that the weld is completed. In this welding, the electrode is completely covered by
flux. The flux may be made of silica, metal oxides, and other compounds fused together and
then crushed to proper size. Therefore, the welding takes place without spark, smoke, ash, etc.
Thus, there is no need of providing protective shields, smoke collectors, and ventilating
systems. Figure 1.30 shows the filling of parent metal by the submerged arc welding.

Figure. 1.30 Submerged arc welding

Voltage required for the submerged arc welding varies from 25 to 40 V. Current employed for
welding depends upon the dimensions of the workpiece. Normally, if DC supply is used
employing current ranging from 600 to 1,000 A, the current for AC is usually 2,000 A.
Advantages
 Deep penetration with high-quality weld is possible.

 Job with heavy thickness can be welded.

 The weld so obtained has good ductility, impact strength, high corrosion resistance, etc.
 The submerged arc welding can be done manually or automatically.
 Applications
 The submerged arc welding is widely used in the heavy steel plant fabrication work.
 It can be employed for welding high strength steel, corrosion resistance steel, and low
carbon steel.
 It is also used in the ship-building industry for splicing and fabricating
subassemblies, manufacture of vessels, tanks, etc.

1.16 TYPES OF WELDING ELECTRODES

An electrode is a piece of metal in the form of wire or rod that is either bare or coated uniformly
with flux. Electrode carries current for the welding operation. One contact end of the electrode
must be clean and is inserted into the electrode holder, an arc is set up at the other end. The
electrodes used for the arc welding are classified as shown in Figure. 1.31.

Figure 1.31 Classification of electrodes

1.6.1 Non-consumable electrodes: Electrodes, which do not consume or fuse during the
welding process, are called non consumable electrodes.
Ex: Electrodes made up of carbon, graphite, or tungsten do not consume during welding.

1.6.2 Consumable electrodes: Electrodes, which are consumed during the welding
operation, are consumable electrodes. These are made up of various materials depending upon
their purpose and the chemical composition of metal to be welded. The consumable electrodes
are made in the form of rod having diameter of about 2–8 mm and length of about 200–500
mm. They act as filler rod and are consumed during welding operation.
 i. Bare electrodes
These are the consumable electrodes, which are not coated with any fluxing material. Bare
electrodes are in the form of wire. During welding operation, an arc is struck between the work
piece and the electrode wire, then the electrode is melted down into the weld. When the molten
metal electrode and the work piece are exposed to the atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen, they
form their oxides and nitrides and cause the formation of some non-metallic constituent, which
reduces the strength and ductility of the deposited weld. The bare electrodes are usually
employed in automatic and semiautomatic welding. With bare electrode, the welding can be
done satisfactorily with DC supply only if the electrode should be connected to the negative
terminal of the supply.
ii. Coated electrodes
Depending upon the thickness of flux coating, the coated electrode may classified into:
a. lightly coated electrodes and
b. heavily coated electrodes.
For obtaining good weld, the coated electrodes are always preferred.
Lightly coated electrodes
These electrodes are coated with thin layer of coating material up to less than 1 mm. This
coating is usually consists of lime mixed with soluble glass which serves as a binder. These
electrodes are considered as improvement over bare electrodes. The main purpose of
using the light coating layer on the electrode is to increase the arc stability, so they are also
called as stabilizing electrodes. The mechanical strength of the weld increased because slag
layer will not formed on the molten weld. For this reason, lightly coated electrodes may
only be used for welding non-essential work pieces.

(i) Heavily coated electrodes

These electrodes have coating layer with heavy thickness. The heavily coated electrodes
sometimes referred to as the shielded arc electrodes. The materials commonly used for coating
the electrodes are titanium oxide, ferromanganese, silica, flour, asbestos clay, calcium
carbonate, etc. This electrode coating helps in improving the quality of weld, as if the coating
layer of the electrodes burns in the heat of the arc provides gaseous shield around the arc, which
prevents the formation oxides and nitrites.
Advantages
 Arc is stabilized due to the flux compounds of sodium and potassium.
 The weld metal can be protected from the oxidizing action of oxygen and the nitrifying
action of nitrogen due to the gas shielded envelope.
 The impurities present on the surface being welded are fluxed away.
 The electrode coating increases deposition efficiency and weld metal deposition rate
through iron powder and ferro alloy addition.
 In case of AC supply arc cools at zero current and there is a tendency of deionizing the
arc path. Covering gases keep the arc space ionized.
 The welding operation becomes faster due to the increased melting rate.
 The coated electrodes help to deoxidize and refine the weld metal. The type of electrode
used for the welding process depends upon the following factors.
 The nature of the electric supply, either AC or
DC. The type of the metal to be welded.
 The welding position.
 The polarity of the welding machine.

1.17 ELECTRIC WELDING EEQUIPMENT

Electric welding accessories required to carry out proper welding operation are:
1. Electric welding power sets.
2. Electrode holder to hold the electrodes.
3. Welding cable for connecting electrode and workpiece to the supply.
4. Face screen with colored glass.
5. Chipping hammers to remove slag from molten weld.
6. Wire brush to clean the weld.
7. Earth clamp and protective clothing.
1.18 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC WELDING
AC welding DC welding
 Motor generator set or rectifier is required in case of the availability of AC supply.
 Only transformer is required.
 The cost of the equipment is high. The cost of the equipment is
cheap. Arc stability is more. Arc stability is less.
 The heat produced is uniform. The heat produced is not uniform.
 Both bare and coated electrodes can be used. Only coated electrodes should be used.
 The operating power factor is high. The power factor is low. So, the capacitors are
necessary to improve the power factor.
 It is safer since no load voltage is low. It is dangerous since no load voltage is high.
 The electric energy consumption is 5–10 kWh/kg of deposited metal. The electrical
energy consumption is 3–4 kWh/kg of deposited metal
 Arc blow occurs due to the presence of non-uniform magnetic field. Arc blow will not
occur due to the uniform magnetic field.
 The efficiency is low due to the rotating parts. The efficiency is high due to the absence of
rotating parts.
 MODULE II
ILLUMINATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the principles of light
control as applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting but also to
understand outdoor applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting. Now a day, the
electrically produced light is preferred to the other source of illumination because of an account
of its cleanliness, ease of control, steady light output, low cost, and reliability. The best
illumination is that it produces no strain on the eyes. Apart from its esthetic and decorative
aspects, good lighting has a strictly utilitarian value in reducing the fatigue of the workers,
protecting their health, increasing production, etc. The science of illumination engineering is
therefore becoming of major importance.
2.2 NATURE OF LIGHT

Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human eye is
capable of receiving it. Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human being
ultimately depend upon the light.
Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by
such bodies depends upon their temperature. A hot body about 500–800°C becomes a red hot
and about 2,500–3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While the body is red hot, the
wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the energy available in the form
of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from red-hot to white-hot state,
the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range of the
wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075 mm,
i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10–10 mm). The eye discriminates between different
wavelengths in this range by the sensation of color.
The whole of the energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose. Radiations
of very short wavelength varying from 0.0000156 × 10–6m to 0.001 × 10–6 m are not in the
visible range are called as rontgen or x-rays, which are having the property of penetrating
through opaque bodies.
2.3 TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

The following terms are generally used in illumination.

Color: The energy radiation of the heated body is monochromatic, i.e. the radiation of only one
wavelength emits specific color. The wavelength of visible light lies between 4,000 and 7,500
Å. The color of the radiation corresponding to the wavelength is shown
in Figure. 2.1.

Figure. 2.1..Wavelength

Relative sensitivity: The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different
wavelengths varies from person to person, and also varies with age. The average relative
sensitivity is shown in Fig. 2.2. The eye is most sensitive for a wavelength of 5,500 Å. So that,
the relative sensitivity according to this wavelength is taken as unity. Referred from Fig. 2.1,
blue and violet corresponding to the short wavelengths and red to the long wavelengths, orange,
yellow, and green being in the middle of the visible region of wavelength. The color
corresponding to 5,500 Å is not suitable for most of the applications since yellowish green. The
relative sensitivity at any particular wavelength (λ) is known as relative luminous factor (Kλ).

Figure. 2.1.The average relative sensitivity

Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation
upon the human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to watthours,which
denoted by the symbol ‘Q’.
Luminous flux: It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from
a luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in lumens.
Ex: Suppose the luminous body is an incandescent lamp. The total electrical power input to the
lamp is not converted to luminous flux, some of the power lost through conduction, convection,
and radiation, etc. A fraction of the remaining radiant flux is in the form of light waves lies in
between the visual range of wavelength, i.e. between 4,000 and 7,000 Å, as shown in Figure..
2.3.

Figure. 2.3 Flux diagram

Radiant efficiency: When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is
produced to I2R loss, which increases its temperature of the conductor. At low temperature,
conductor radiates energy in the form of heat waves, but at very high temperatures, radiated
energy will be in the form of light as well as heat waves. ‘Radiant efficiency is defined as the
ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces sensation of vision to the total energy
radiated out by the luminous body’.

Plane angle
A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines (Figure..2.4).
It is denoted by the Greek letter ‘θ’ (theta) and is usually measured in degrees or radians. One
radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length by an arc of a circle
whose length is equals to the radius of the circle.
 Figure.. 2.4 Plane angle

(2.1)

Solid angle: Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the point
(Fig. 2.5). It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in steradian.

Figure. 2.5 Solid angle

(2.2)

The largest solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere:

Relationship between plane angle and solid angle

Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height ‘h’ and radius of the
sphere ‘r’ as shown in Figure. 2.6. The surface area of the curved surface of the spherical
segment ABC = 2πrh. From the Figure. 2.6:
 Figure.2.6 Sectional view for solid angle

BD = OB – OD From

(2.3)

From the Equation (2.3), the curve shows the variation of solid angle with plane angle is
shown in Figure. 2.7.
 Figure.2.7 Relation between solid angle and plane angle

Luminous intensity
Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the luminous flux emitted by the
source per unit solid angle (Figure. 2.8).

Figure. 2.8 Luminous flux emitting from the source

It is denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is usually measured in ‘candela’. Let ‘F’ be the luminous

flux crossing a spherical segment of solid angle ‘ω’. Then luminous intensity
lumen/steradian or candela.
Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of
one candle power per unit solid angle in all directions.
Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.
Lumen = CP × ω
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.
Candle power (CP)
The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines emitted by that source in a unit
solid angle.
Illumination
Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.It is usually
denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m2 or meter

Lux or meter candle

It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m and a source of 1
CP is fitted at the center of sphere.

Foot candle
It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere
of radius 1 foot, and a source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of it.
We know that 1 lux = 1 foot candle = 1 lumen/(ft)2

Brightness
Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity pen unit surface area of
the projected surface in the given direction. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘L’.If the luminous
intensity of source be ‘I’ candela on an area A, then the projected area is Acos θ.
The unit of brightness is candela/m2 or candela/cm2 or candela/(ft)2.

Relation between I, E, and L

Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters, at the center a source of 1
CP, and luminous intensity I candela.
 (2.4)

Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP)

MHCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in horizontal
plane.

Mean spherical candle power (MSCP)

MSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in all planes.
Mean hemispherical candle power (MHSCP)
MHSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions above or below
the horizontal plane.

Reduction factor
Reduction factor of the source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean spherical candle power
to its mean horizontal candle power.

Lamp efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the source to its
electrical power input in watts. It is expressed in lumen/W.

Specific consumption
It is defined as the ratio of electric power input to its average candle power.
Space to height ratio
It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the height of their
Mountings.

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor

It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens reaching the working plane to the
Total number of lumens emitting from source.

Maintenance factor
It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination
when everything is clean. Its value is always less than 1, and it will be around 0.8. This is due to
the accumulation of dust, dirt, and smoke on the lamps that emit less light than that they emit
when they are so clean. Frequent cleaning of lamp will improve the maintenance factor.

Depreciation factor
It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained illumination on the
working plane.Its values is always more than 1.

Waste light factor

When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the sources of light, there is certain
amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves; the wastage of light is taken into account
depending upon the type of area to be illuminated. Its value for rectangular area is 1.2 and for
irregular area is 1.5 and objects such as statues, monuments, etc.

Absorption factor
Normally, when the atmosphere is full of smoke and fumes, there is a possibility of absorption
of light. Hence, the total lumens available after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the
lamp are known as absorption factor.
Reflection factor or coefficient of reflection
When light rays impinge on a surface, it is reflected from the surface at an angle of incidence
shown in Figure. 2.9. A portion of incident light is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of
luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on it is known as reflection
factor. Its value will be always less than 1.

Figure.2.9 Reflected ray

Beam factor
It is defined as the ratio of ‘lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by
lamps’. Its value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into account for the
absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp.
Example 2.1: A 200-V lamp takes a current of 1.2 A, it produces a total flux of 2,860
lumens. Calculate: 1. the MSCP of the lamp and 2. the efficiency of the lamp.
Solution:
Given V = 200 V
I = 1.2 A, flux = 2,860 lumens.

Example 2.2: A room with an area of 6 × 9 m is illustrated by ten 80-W lamps. The luminous
efficiency of the lamp is 80 lumens/W and the coefficient of utilization is 0.65.Find the average
illumination.
Solution:
Room area = 6 × 9 = 54 m2.
Total wattage = 80 × 10 = 800 W.
Total flux emitted by ten lamps = 80 × 800 = 64,000 lumens.
Flux reaching the working plane = 64,000 × 0.65 = 41,600 lumens

Example 2.3: The luminous intensity of a lamp is 600 CP. Find the flux given out. Also find
the flux in the hemisphere containing the source of light and zero above the horizontal.
Solution:
Flux emitted by source (lumen)
= Intensity (I) × solid angle (ω)
= 600 × 2 π = 3,769.911 lumens
□ Flux emitted in the lower hemisphere = 3,769.911 lumens.
Example 2.4: The flux emitted by 100-W lamp is 1,400 lumens placed in a frosted globe of 40
cm diameter and gives uniform brightness of 250 milli-lumens/m2 in all directions. Calculate
the candel power of the globe and the percentage of light absorbed by the globe.
Solution:
Flux emitted by the globe
= brightness × globe area

= 1,256.63 lumens
Flux absorbed by the globe
= flux emitted by source – flux emitted by globe
= 1,400 – 1,256.63
= 143.36 lumens.

Example 2.5: A surface inclined at an angle 40° to the rays is kept 6 m away from 150 candle
power lamp. Find the average intensity of illumination on the surface.
Solution:
From the Fig. P.1:
θ = (90° – 40°) = 50°.
□ Average illumination:

Figure. P.1
2.4 LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.1. Inverse square law. 2. Lambert's cosine law.
A) Inverse square law
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and a point source’.
Proof:
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux emitting from
source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2, and A3 square meters, which are
separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as shown in
Figure. 2.10.
 Figure. 2.10 Inverse square law

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity × solid angle

□ Illumination 'E1' on the surface area 'A1' is:

(2.5)

Similarly, illumination 'E2' on the surface area A2 is:

(2.6)

and illumination ‘E3’ on the surface area A3 is:

(2.7)

From Equations (2.5), (2.6), and (2.7)

(2.8)

Hence, from Equation (2.8), illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the square
of distance between the surface and the source.
B) Lambert’s cosine law

This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle
‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown in Figure. 2.11.

Figure. 2.11 Lambert's cosine law

Let
PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source ‘O’.
Therefore, from Fig. 1.11:

(2.9)

(2.10)

From Figure. 2.11(b):

 Substituting ‘d' from the above equation in Equation (2.10):
Where,

(2.11)

(2.12)

where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of source from
the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela. Hence, Equation (2.11) is also
known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the ‘illumination at any point on a surface is
dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle between line of flux and normal at that point’.
Note:
*From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only applicable
for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's cosine law is
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the line of flux.
Example 2.6: The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is to be
60 lumens/m2. The lamp gives 130 CP uniformly below the horizontal plane.
Determine: 1. The height at which lamp is suspended. 2. The illumination at a point on the
working plane 2.8 m away from the vertical axis of the lamp.
Solution:
Given data:
Candle power of the lamp = 130 CP.
The illumination just below the lamp, E = 60 lumen/m2.
1. From the Fig. P.1.2, the illumination just below the lamp, i.e., at point A:
2. The illumination at point ‘B':

Figure. P.1.2

2.5 POLAR CURVES

The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined using the intensity distribution curve.
Till now we assumed that the luminous intensity or the candle power from a source is
distributed uniformly over the surrounding surface. But due to its s not uniform in all directions.
The luminous intensity or the distribution of the light can be represented with the help of the
polar curves. The polar curves are drawn by taking luminous intensities in various directions at
an equal angular displacement in the sphere. A radial ordinate pointing in any particular
direction on a polar curve represents the luminous intensity of the source when it is viewed
from that direction. Accordingly, there are two different types of polar curves and they are:
1. A curve is plotted between the candle power and the angular position, if the luminous
intensity, i.e., candle power is measured in the horizontal plane about the vertical axis, called
'horizontal polar curve’.
2. curve is plotted between the candle power, if it is measured in the vertical plane and the
angular position is known as 'verticalpolar curve’. Figure 2.12 shows the typical polar curves
for an ordinary lamp.

Figure 2.12 Polar Curve

Depression at 180° in the vertical polar curve is due to the lamp holder. Slight depression at 0°
in horizontal polar curve is because of coiled coil filament. Polar curves are used to determine
the actual illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in that particular direction
as read from the vertical polar curve. These are also used to determine mean horizontal candle
power (MHCP) and mean spherical candle power (MSCP). The mean horizontal candle power
of a lamp can be determined from the horizontal polar curve by considering the mean value of
all the candle powers in a horizontal direction. The mean spherical candle power of a
symmetrical source of a light can be found out from the polar curve by means of a Rousseau's
construction.
Rousseau's construction
Let us consider a vertical polar curve is in the form of two lobes symmetrical
about XOX1 axis. A simple Rousseau's curve is shown in Fig. 2.13.

Figure. 2.13 Rousseau's curve

Rules for constructing the Rousseau's curve are as follows:
a. Draw a circle with any convenient radius and with ‘O’ as center.
b. Draw a line 'AF’ parallel to the axis XOX1 and is equal to the diameter of the circle.
c. Draw any line ‘OPQ' in such a way that the line meeting the circle at point ‘Q’. Now let
the projection be ‘R’ onto the parallel line 'AF’.
d. Erect an ordinate at ‘R’ as, RB = OP.
e. Now from this line 'AF' ordinate equals to the corresponding radius on the polar curve
are setup such as SC = OM, TD = ON, and so on.
The curve ABC DEFA so obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau's curve.
The mean ordinate of this curve gives the mean spherical candle power (MSCP) of the lamp
having polar curve given in Figure. 2.13. The mean ordinate of the curve:

The area under the Rousseau's curve can be determined by Simpson's rule.
2.6 PHOTOMETRY
Photometry involves the measurement of candle power or luminous intensity of a given source.
Now, we shall discuss the comparison and measurement of the candle powers. The candle
power of a given source in a particular direction can be measured by the comparison with a
standard or substandard source. In order to eliminate the errors due to the reflected light, the
experiment is conducted in a dark room with dead black walls and ceiling. The comparison of
the test lamp with the standard lamp can be done by employing a photometer bench and some
form of photometer.
Principle of simple photometer
The photometer bench essentially consists of two steel rods with 2- to 3-m long. This bench
carries stands or saddles for holding two sources (test and standard lamps), the carriage for the
photometer head and any other apparatus employed in making measurements. Graduated scale
in centimeters or millimeters in one of the bar strips. The circular table is provided with a large
graduated scale in degrees round its edge so that the angle of the rotation of lamp from the axis
of bench can be measured. The photometer bench should be rigid so that the source being
compared may be free from vibration. The photometer head should be capable of moving
smoothly and the photometer head acts as screen for the comparison of the illumination of the
standard lamp and the test lamp. The principle methods of measurement are based upon the
inverse square law. The photometer bench consists of two sources, the standard source ‘S’
whose candle power is known and the other source ‘T’ whose candle power is to be determined.
The photometer head acts as screen is moved in between the two fixed sources until the
illumination on both the sides of screen is same. A simple arrangement for the measurement of
the candle power of the test source is shown in Figure. 2.14.

Figure.2.14 Measurement of candle power

If the distances of the standard source ‘S’ and the test source ‘T’ from the photometer head are
L1 and L2, respectively, then, according to the inverse square law, if the illumination on both
the sides of screen are equal then the candle power of the source is proportional to the square of
the distance between the source and the photometer head.
The CP of standard source ∝ L1
.
The CP of test source ∝ L2

. In order to obtain the accurate candle power of test source, the distance of the sources
from the photometer head should be measured accurately.
Photometer heads
The photometer heads that are most common in use are:
1. Bunsen grease spot photometer.
2. Lumer–Brodhun photometer.
3. Flicker photometer.
The first two are best suited for use, if the two sources to be compared give the light of same or
approximately similar colors. Increase the light from the two sources to be compared differ in
color, a flicker photometer is best suited.
(i) Bunsen grease spot photometer
Bunsen photometer consists of a tissue paper, with a spot of grease or wax at its center. It held
vertically in a carrier between the two light sources to be compared. The central spot will
appear dark on the side, having illumination in excess when seen from the other side. Then, the
observer will adjust the position of photometer head in such a way that until the semitransparent
spot and the opaque parts of the paper are equally bright then the grease spot is invisible, i.e.,
same contrast in brightness is got between the spot and the disc when seen from each sides as
shown in Figure. 2.15. The distance of the photometer from the two sources is measured.
Hence, the candle power of test source is then determined by using relation:

Figure.2.15 Bunsen grease spot photometer

The use of two reflecting mirrors above the photometer head makes it perhaps the accurate
method, since the two sides of spot and position of the head can be viewed simultaneously.
(ii) Lumer-Brodhun photometer
There are two types of Lumen–Brodhun photometer heads.
1. Equality of brightness type.
2. Contrast type.
The Contrast type is more accurate and therefore, extensively used in the photometric
measurements.
(a) Equality of brightness type photometer head
The photometer head essentially consists of screen made of plaster of Paris, two mirrorsM1and
M2, glass cube or compound prism, and a telescope. The compound prism made up of two
right-angled glass prisms held together, one of which has sand blasted pattern on its face, i.e.,
principal surface as spherical with small flat portion at the center and the other is perfectly
plain. A typical Lumer–Brodhun photometer head is shown in Figure. 1.16.

Figure. 2.16 Lumer–Brodhun photometer (equality of brightness)

The two sides of the screen are illuminated by two sources such as the standard and test lamps
as shown in Fig. 6.16. The luminous flux lines emitting from the two sources are falling on the
screen directly and reflected by it onto the mirrors M1 and M2, which in turn reflects the same
onto the compound prism. The light ray reflected by M1 is passing through the plain prism and
the light ray reflected byM2 is falling on the spherical surface of the other prism and is reflected
again which pass through the telescope. Thus, observer view the center portion of the circular
area illuminated by the test lamp and the outer ring is illuminated by the standard lamp. The
positioning of the photometer head is adjusted in such away that the dividing line between the
center portion and the surrounding disappears. The disappearance of dividing line indicates the
same type of color of the test lamp and the standard lamp. Now, the distance of photometer
head from the two sources are measured and the candle power or luminous intensity of test
lamp can be calculated by using inverse square law.
(b) Contrast type photometer head
Similar to the equal brightness type photometer, it consists of a compound prism, which is
made up of two right-angled glass prism. The joining surfaces of the two right-angled glass
prisms are flat, but one of the prism has its hypotenuses surface etched away at A,B, and C to
get pattern of the type shown in Figure. 2.17.

Figure. 2.17 Lumen–Brodhun photometer head (Contrast type)

As in case of equal brightness type, the light falling on the both sides of the screen passes
through the unetched portion of the joining surface and gets reflected at the etched surfaces (A,
B, and C). P and Q are the sheets of glass that give little reflected light to maintain the
difference between the illuminations of both the etched and the unetched portions. If the
illumination of the surfaces of the prism is different, then the etched portion will have
difference in illumination as compared to unetched portion. If the balance is got, the difference
in illuminations of both etched and unetched portions are same and equal to half of the circular
area; then, the photometer head is said to be in a balance position. When the balance position is
altered, the difference or the contrast in the illumination of area ‘C’ and its surrounding area
decreases. In addition, the contrast illumination area AB and the inner trapezium will increase.
Generally, in balanced position, the contrast is about 8%. The position of photometer head is
adjusted in such a way that the equal contrast is obtained between the etched and the unetched
portions. This contrast type of the head gives accuracy within 1%.
(iii) Flicker photometer
The flicker photometers are employed when two sources giving light of different colors to be
compared. The color contrast between two lights do not affect their working is the unit feature
of the flicker photometer. This is because the color contrast between the two alternating fields
of the light disappears at a lower speed of alternation than does a contrast of brightness. A
typically used flicker photometer is a Simmance–Abady flicker photometer, where used
rotating disc made up of plaster of Paris. The dick is in the form of a doubletruncated cone as
shown in Figure. 2.18. The truncated portions of cone are fitted together to form the disc. The
disc is continuously rotated at the required minimum speed by small motor in between the
two sources to be compared. Each half of the disc is illuminated from one source and the
eye is presented with the two fields of the light to be compared alternately. When the two
halves are having unequal illuminations a flicker appears. Now, the disc is rotated to that
position where the flicker disappears. When the two halves of the disc are illuminated
equally and then the candle power of the test source can be calculated by measuring the
distances of the disc from the two sources in the usual manner.

Figure. 2.18 Flicker photometer

2.7 VARIOUS ILLUMINATION METHODS

Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in a day,
it is very difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is necessary to have
substitute for natural light. Light from incandescent bodies produced electrically, which playing
important role in everyday life due to its controlled output, reliability, and cleanliness
nowadays; various sources are producing artificial light. Each source has its own characteristics
and specific importance.
2.7.1 TYPES OF SOURCES OF ILLUMINATION
Usually in a broad sense, based upon the way of producing the light by electricity, the sources
of light are classified into following four types.
(a) Electric arc lamps
The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and provides intense
light.
(b) Incandescent lamps
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light that falls in
the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating on this principle.
Gaseous

(c) Discharge lamps

When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it produces visible
radiation by discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and mercury vapor lamps operate
on this principle.

(d) Fluorescent lamps

Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the absorbed energy
into visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This principle is employed in
fluorescent lamps.

2.7.1.1 DISCHARGE LAMPS

In this lamp, the application of suitable voltage, known as ignition voltage, across the two
electrodes results in a discharge through the gas, this is accompanied by electromagnetic
radiation. Here, candle power, i.e., the color intensity of the light emitted depends upon the
nature of the gas. These sources do not depend on the temperature for higher efficiencies. Ex:
Neon lamp, sodium vapor lamp, mercury vapor lamp, and florescent lamp.
Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the incandescent lamp.
The main principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge lamp is illustrated as below.
In all discharge lamps, an electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor, which
produces its illuminance. Normally, at high pressures and atmospheric conditions, all the gases
are poor conductors of electricity. But on application of sufficient voltage across the two
electrodes, these ionized gases produce electromagnetic radiation. In the process of producing
light by gaseous conduction, the most commonly used elements are neon, sodium, and mercury.
The wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation depends upon the nature of gas and the
gaseous pressure used inside the lamp. A simple discharge lamp is shown in Figure. 2.19.
 Figure.2.19 Discharge lamps
The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of
excitation and ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a
discharge tube. When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential,
gas or metal vapor starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two electrodes. Volt–
ampere characteristics of the arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp possess a negative
resistance characteristics. A choke or ballast is provided to limit high currents to a safe value.
Here, the choke serves two functions.
 It provides ignition voltage initially.
 Limits high currents.
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all the
discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The nature
of the gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.

Types of discharge lamps

Generally used discharge lamps are of two types. They are:
1. The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place through the gas or
vapor present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas, sodium vapor lamp, and mercury vapor lamp.
2. The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated inside
the walls of the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the vapor produces
UV radiation, then the invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and radiates light energy
falls in the visible region. This UV light causes fluorescence in certain phosphor materials, such
lamps are known as fluorescent lamps.
Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.
In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.
 Drawbacks

The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.

1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers; therefore, the
lamp circuitry is complex.
2. High initial cost.
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have
negative resistance characteristics.

(A) SODIUM VAPOR LAMP

A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge lamp
consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask, to keep the temperature
of the tube within the working region. The inner U-tube consists of two oxide-coated
electrodes, which are sealed with the ends. These electrodes are connected to a pin type base
construction of sodium vapor lamp is shown in Figure.2.20.
This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so that the length of the lamp should be more.
In order to get the desired length, it is made in the form of a U-shaped tube. This long U
tube consists of a small amount of neon gas and metallic sodium. At the time of start, the
neon gas vaporizes and develops sufficient heat to vaporize metallic sodium in the U-
shaped tube. Working Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls
of inner tube. When sufficient voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge starts
in the inert gas, i.e., neon; it operates as a low-pressure neon lamp with pink color. The
temperature of the lamp increases gradually and the metallic sodium vaporizes and then
ionizes thereby producing the monochromatic yellow light. This lamp takes 10–15 min to
give its full light output. The yellowish output of the lamp makes the object appears gray.
 Figure. 2.20 Sodium vapor lamp
In order to start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-
W lamps. These voltages can be obtained from a high reactance transformer or an auto
transformer.

The operating power factor of the lamp is very poor, so that a capacitor is placed to
improve the power factor to above 0.8. More care should be taken while replacing the
inner tube, ifit is broken, then sodium comes in contact with the moisture; therefore, fire will
result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly so, to spread out the sodium well along
the tube. The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W. Normally,
these lamps are manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The normal operating
temperatures of these lamps are 300°C. In general, the average life of the sodium vapor
lamp is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are not affected by voltage variations.
 Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:
 The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
 The filament breaks or burns out.
 All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.

 The life of the lamp increases due to aging.

The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are mainly
used for highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.

(B) HIGH-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP

The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the pressure, voltage,
temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral quality and the efficiency of
the
lamp. Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
a. MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
b. MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
c. MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high
pressures.

MA type lamp
It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the construction of
sodium vapor lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in Figure. 2.21.MA type lamp
consists of a long discharge tube in ‘U’ shape and is made up of hard glass or quartz. This
discharge tube is enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass. To prevent the heat loss from the
inner bulb, by convection, the gap between the two tubes is completely evacuated.The inner tube
contains two main electrodes and an auxiliary starting electrode, which is connected through a
high resistance of about 50 kΩ. It also contains a small quantity of argon gas and mercury. The
two main electrodes are tungsten coils coated with electron emitting material (such as thorium
metal)
 Figure.2.21 MA type lamp
.
Working
Initially, the tube is cold and hence the mercury is in condensed form. Initially, when supply is
given to the lamp, argon gas present between the main and the auxiliary electrodes gets ionized,

and an arc is established, and then discharge takes place through argon for few minutes between
the main and the auxiliary electrodes. As a result, discharge takes place through argon for few
minutes in between the main and the auxiliary electrodes. The discharge can be controlled by
using high resistance that is inserted in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After few minutes,
the argon gas, as a whole, gets ionized between the two main electrodes. Hence, the discharge
shifts from the auxiliary electrode to the two main electrodes. During the discharge process,
heat is produced and this heat is sufficient to vaporize the mercury. As a result, the pressure
inside the discharge tube becomes high and the voltage drop across the two main electrodes will
increases from 20 to 150 V. After 5–7 min, the lamp starts and gives its full output. Initially, the
discharge through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through the mercury vapors is
greenish blue light; here, choke is provided to limit high currents and capacitor is to improve
the power factor of the lamp. If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the
vapor pressure be reduced before it will start. It takes approximately 3 – 4 min. The operating
temperature of the inner discharge tube is about 600°C. The efficiency of this type of lamp is
30–40 lumens/W. These lamps are manufactured in 250 and 400 W ratings for use on 200–250
V on AC supply. Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports,
shopping centers, railway yards, etc.

MAT type lamp

This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for
use on AC as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type lamp is similar to the MA
type lamp except the outer tube being empty; it consists of tungsten filament so that at the
time of starting, it works as a tungsten filament lamp. Here, the filament itself acts as a choke
or ballast to limit the high currents to safer value. When the supply is switched on, it works as
a tungsten filament lamp, its full output is given by the outer tube. At this time, the
temperature of the inner discharge tube increases gradually, the argon gas present in it
starts ionizing in the discharge tube at any particular temperature is attained then thermal
switch gets opened, and the part of the filament is detached and voltage across the discharge
tube increases. Now, the discharge takes place through the mercury vapor. Useful color
effect can be obtained by this lamp. This is because of the combination of light emitted form
the filament and blue radiations from the discharge tube. In this type of lamp, capacitor is not
required since the overall power factor of the lamp is 0.95; this is because the filament itself
acts as resistance. Fig. 2.22 showsthe construction of MAT type lamp.

Figure. 2.22 MAT type lamp MB type lamp

Schematic representation of MB type lamp is shown in Figure.2.23

Figure. 2.23 MB type lamp

The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for the MB
type lamp is about 5 -cm long and is made up of quartz material. It has three electrodes; two
main and one auxiliary electrodes. There are three electrodes present in the MB type lamp,
namely two main electrodes and one auxiliary electrode. Relatively, very high pressure is
maintained inside the discharge tube and it is about 5–10 times greater than atmospheric
pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl glass material so as to withstand high temperatures.
We can use these tubes in any position, because they are made up of special glass material. The
working principle of the MB type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp. These lamps are
manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use in AC as well as DC supplies. An MB type lamp
consists a bayonet cap with three pins, so it may not be used in an ordinary sense. A choke coil
and a capacitor are necessary for working with these types of lamps.
( C ) FLUORESCENT LAMP (LOW-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP)
Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the construction
andworking of the fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.
Construction
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; The
tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with electron emmissive material and
are placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and
certain amount of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The construction of
fluorescent lamp is shown in Figure. 2.24.
 Normally, low- pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they
produce an objectionable colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the
tube with fluorescent powders. They are in the form of solids, which are usually knows as
phosphors.

Figure. 2.24 Fluorescent lamp

A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp
with bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the electrodes
directly across the supply at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series that acts as
ballast when the lamp is running, and it provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor of
4μF is connected across the starter in order to improve the power factor.
Working
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in the
form of globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open circuited and
full supply voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of electrodes and
choke coil. The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a
starting glow. This glow warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited.
Hence, the two electrodes come in series and are connected across the supply voltage. Now, the
two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of current through them.

These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube discharge that takes place
through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts conduction with argon gas as the
temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form and takes over the conduction of
current. In the mean time, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets
cooling down. As a result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the series
circuit.
 A very high voltage around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter
terminals in the series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced
voltage is quite sufficient to break down the long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide
with argon and mercury vapor atoms. The excited atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which
will not fall in the visible region. Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor
material; it causes the re-emission of light of different wavelengths producing illumination. The
phenomenon of the emission is called as luminescence.

This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:

a. Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
b. Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the excitation
will present. In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is
known as fluorescent lamp. Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light
of different colors as given in Table. 2.1

Table 2.1: Phosphor material Color effect

1. Zinc silicate Green
2. Calcium tungstate Green
3. Magnesium tungstate Bluish while
4 4Cadmium silicate Yellowish pink
5 Zinc beryllium silicate Yellowish while
6 Cadmium borate Pink

Advantages of fluorescent lamp:

 High efficiency.
 The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
 Less chances of glare.
 These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be
unsatisfactory.
Disadvantages:
 The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
 The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low ambient
temperature.
 Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
 The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.
Stroboscopic effect
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a
cycle’. For 50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be
extinguished twice in a cycle and 100 times per second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye
cannot identify this extinguish phenomenon, because of the persistence of vision. If this light
falls upon a moving object, the object appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in
reverse direction, sometimes stationary. This effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the
light of the lamp. This effect is called as ‘stroboscopic effect’.This effect can be avoided by
employing any of the two techniques listed below.
1. If we have three-phase supply, then the fluorescent lamps that are adjacent should be fed
from different phases. Then, no two lamps will not be in same phase at zero instant of AC
supply, so light is present at any instant.
2. If the available supply is single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in Fig. 2.25, we can
eliminate stroboscopic effect.

Figure.2.25 Lead–lag circuit

Twin tube circuit is also known as lead–lag circuit. Here two tubes are connected in parallel.
One of the two tubes provided with a capacitor in series with the choke coil. The current
through the lamps is almost 90° out of phase and under these conditions, the light output of
one of the lamps is at maximum. Moreover, the overall power factor of lamps is unity. In
this lead–lag arrangement, one of the lamps is operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided
with capacitor, is operating at 0.5 leading. In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about
7,500 hr. Based on the operating conditions, the lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000
to 10,000 hr. It is recommended to replace a lamp after 4,000–5,000 of its working hours.

( D ) LED Lamps
• LED lighting are viable in any lighting applications and has proven to have a better
energy efficiency than other lamps.
• Costly, but worth for a once life time project.
• Newest addition to the list of energy efficient light sources.
• It emits visible light in a very narrow spectral band, they can produce “white light”.
• LED lamps last 40,000 to 100,000 hours depending on color.
• Numerous lighting applications including exit signs, traffic signals, under-cabinet lights,
and various decorative applications.
• Basic components for LED lighting are:
• LEDs
• Driver (power conversion device)
• Control devices (dimming controls, color mixing controls)
• Optics
• Fixture (housing, including heat sink devices, to contain all components)
Luminaries Comparison
Necessity of LED Lighting

Comparison between LED lamps and fluorescent tubes

2.8 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT CONTROL
When light strikes the surface of an object, based on the properties of that surface, some portion
of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the surface, and the
remaining is absorbed. The method of light control is used to change the direction of light
through large angle. There are four light control methods. They are:
1. reflection,
2. refraction,
3. diffusion, and
4. absorption.
2.8.1 REFLECTION
The light falling on the surface, whole of the light will not absorbed or transmitted through the
surface, but some of the light is reflected back, at an angle equals to the angle of incidence. The
ratio of reflected light energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor. The two
basic types of reflection are:
1. mirror or specular reflection and
2. diffuse reflection.
Specular reflection
When whole of the light falling on a smooth surfaces will be reflected back at an angle equal to
he angle of incidence. Such a reflection is known as specular reflection. With such reflection,
observer will be able to see the light source but not the illuminated surface. Most of the surfaces
causing the specular reflection are silvered mirrors, highly polished metal surfaces. Specular
reflection is shown in Figure. 1.26.

Figure. 1.26 Specular reflection

A surface that is almost free from reflection is called a matt surface.
Diffuse reflection
When the light ray falling on any surface, it is scattered in all directions irrespective of the
angle of incidence. Such type of reflector is known as diffuse reflection and is shown in
Figure. 2.27. Most of the surfaces causing the diffuse reflection are rough or matt surfaces
such as blotting paper, frosted glass, plaster, etc.

Figure. 2.27 Diffuse reflection

In this reflection, observer will be able to see the illuminated surface but not the light source.
2.8.2 Refraction

When a beam of light passes through two different mediums having differentdensities, the light
ray will be reflected. This phenomenon is known as refraction. Figure 2.28 shows the refraction
of light ray from dense medium to rare medium where μ1 andμ2 are the refractive indices of
two medium, θ is the angle of incidence, and α is the angle of reflection.

Figure. 2.28 Refraction

The angle of light ray with normal is comparatively less in dense medium than in rare medium.
2.8.3 Diffusion
When a ray of light falling on a surface is reflected in all possible directions, so that such
surface appears luminous from all possible directions. This can be achieved with a diffusing
glass screen introduced between the observer and the light source. The normally employed
diffusing glasses are opal glass and frosted glass. Both are ordinary glasses, but frosted glass is
an ordinary glass coated with crystalline substance. Although frosted glass is cheaper than opal
glass, the disadvantage of frosted glass is, it collects more dust particles and it is difficult to
clean.
2.8.4 Absorption
In some of the cases, whole of the light emitted by tungsten filament lamp will be excessive, so
that it is necessary to avoid that the amount of unwanted wavelengths without interference. This
can be achieved by using a special bluish colored glass for the filament lamp to absorb the
unwanted radiation.

2.9 TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

Usually, with the reflector and some special diffusing screens, it is possible to control the
distribution of light emitted from lamps up to some extent. A good lighting scheme results in an
attractive and commanding presence of objects and enhances the architectural style of the
interior of a building. Depending upon the requirements and the way of light reaching the
surface, lighting schemes are classified as follows:
a. Direct lighting,
b. Semi-direct lighting,
c. Indirect lighting,
d. Semi-indirect lighting, and
e. General lighting.

Direct lighting schemes

Direct lighting scheme is most widely used for interior lighting scheme. In this scheme, by
using deep reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This scheme
is more efficient but it suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence, while designing such
schemes, all the possibilities that will cause glare on the eye have to be eliminated. It is mainly
used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.
Semi-direct lighting schemes
In semidirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of lamps luminous flux is made to fall
downward directly by using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to illuminate the
walls and ceiling. This type of light scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling. Glare can
be avoided by employing diffusing globes. This scheme will improve not only the
brightness but also the efficiency.
Indirect lighting schemes
In this lighting scheme, 90% of total light is thrown upwards to the ceiling. In such
scheme, the ceiling acts as the lighting source and glare is reduced to minimum. This
system provides shadow less illumination, which is very useful for drawing offices and in
workshops where large machines and other difficulties would cause trouble some shadows
if direct lighting schemes were used.
Semi-indirect lighting schemes
In semi-indirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of light from the lamp is thrown upwards to
the ceiling and the remaining luminous flux reaches the working surface. Glare will be
completely eliminated with such type of lighting scheme. This scheme is widely preferred
for indoor lighting decoration purpose.
General lighting scheme
This scheme of lighting use diffusing glasses to produce the equal illumination in all
directions. Mounting height of the source should be much above eye level to avoid glare. Lamp
fittings of various lighting schemes are shown in Figure. 2.29

Figure. 2.29 Lighting schemes

2.10 DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
The lighting scheme should be such that:
 It should be able to provide sufficient illumination.
 It should be able to provide the uniform distribution of light throughout the working
plane.

 It should be able to produce the light of suitable color.

 It should be able to avoid glare and hard shadows as much as possible.
While designing a lighting scheme, the following factors should be taken into consideration.
a. Illumination level.
b. The size of the room.
c. The mounting height and the space of fitting.

2.10.1 STREET LIGHTING

Street lighting not only requires for shopping centers, promenades, etc. but also necessary for
the following. In order to make the street more attractive, so that obstructions on the road
clearly visible to the drivers of vehicles.
 To increase the community value of the street.
 To clear the traffic easily in order to promote safety and convenience.

The basic principles employed for the street lighting are given below.
a. Diffusion principle.
b. The specular reflection principle.

Diffusion principle
In this method, light is directed downwards from the lamp by the suitably designed reflectors.
The design of these reflectors are in such a way that they may reflect total light over the road
surface uniformly as much as possible. The reflectors are made to have a cutoff between 30°
and 45°, so that the filament of the lamp is not visible expect just below the source, which
results in eliminating glare. Illumination at any point on the road surface is calculated by
applying inverse square low or point-by-point method.
 Figure. 2.30 Diffusion Lighting

Specular reflection principle

The specular reflection principle enables a motorist to see an object about 30 m ahead. In this
case, the reflectors are curved upwards, so that the light is thrown on the road at a very large
angle of incidence. This can be explained with the help of Figure. 2.31. An object resides over
the road at ‘P’ in between the lamps S1, S2, and S3 and the observer at ‘Q’.

Figure. 2.31 Specular reflection for street lighting

Thus, the object will appear immediately against the bright road surface due to the lamps at a
longer distance.
Much of the light from the lamp S3 is not reflected towards the observer, whereas most of the
light from lamps S1 and S2 is reflected towards him. Thus, the object will appear silhouetted
against the bright road surface due to lamps at a longer distance.
• The requirement of a pedestrian, who requires to see objects in his immediate neighborhood,
is also fulfilled in this method as some light from the lamps falls directly downwards.
• This method of street lighting is only suitable for straight sections of the road.
• This method is more economical also as compared to the diffusion method of lighting but it
suffers from the disadvantage that it produces glare for the motorists.

Figure. 2.32 Specular reflection

This method of lighting is only suitable for straight sections along the road.
1. Road junctions and important shopping centers.
2. Poorly lighted sub-urban streets.
3. Average well-lighted street.
Mercury vapor and sodium vapor discharge lamps are preferable for street lighting since the
overall cost of the installation of discharge lamps are less than the filament lamps and also the
less power consumption for a given amount of power output. Normal spacing for the standard
lamps is 50 m with a mounting height of 8 m. Lamp posts should be fixed at the junctions of
roads.
2.10.2 FLOODLIGHTING

Floodlighting means flooding of large surface areas with light from powerful projectors. A
special reflector and housing is employed in floodlighting in order to concentrate the light
emitted from the lamp into a relatively narrow beam, which is known as floodlight projector.
This projector consists of a reflecting surface that may be a silvered glass or chromium plate or
stainless steel. The efficiency of silvered glass and polished metal are 85–90% and 70%,
respectively. Usually metal reflectors are robust; therefore, they can be preferred. An important
application of illumination engineering is the floodlighting of large and open areas.
 Figure. 2.33 Flood Lighting

Purpose of Flood Lighting

• For aesthetic purposes as for enhancing the beauty of a building by night i.e. flood
lighting of ancient monuments, religious buildings on important festive occasions etc.

• For advertising purposes i.e. flood lighting, huge hoardings and commercial buildings.

• For industrial and commercial purposes as in the case of railway yards, sports stadiums
and quarries etc.

Photometric Characteristics of Food Light

a. Peak intensity

b. Beam spread

c. Beam efficiency

d. Luminous intensity

e. Half plane divergence

Peak intensity is the maximum intensity of the flood light in the direction of the intensity axis.
It is generally specified in candela per 1000 lumens of the lamp Lux.

Beam spread is defined as the angle over which the luminous intensity drops to a stated
percentage (usually 50 to 100 %) of its peak value.
 o
Here the beam spread is 0 to β1 or 00 to β2.
Figure. 2.34 Intensity distribution diagram

Beam efficiency is known as light output ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the beam flux to the
lamp flux. Light output ratio for the beam is calculated at 10% and 50% of the peak intensity.
Beam flux is related to the luminaire output flux whereas lamp flux means the luminous flux
produced by the lamp in this luminaire.

Half Plane Divergence is the angular extension in all directions of a beam at both sides of the
intensity axis.

Figure. 2.35 Asymmetric intensity distribution diagram

As per the asymmetric intensity distribution diagram of luminaire, the half peak divergence is
β1 + β2.
 MODULE-III

ELECTRIC TRACTION-I

3.0 INTRODUCTION

The system that causes the propulsion of a vehicle in which that driving force or tractive force
is obtained from various devices such as electric motors, steam engine drives, diesel engine
dives, etc. is known as traction system. Traction system may be broadly classified into two
types. They are electric traction systems, which use electrical energy, and non-electric traction
system, which does not use electrical energy for the propulsion of vehicle. Requirements of
ideal traction system Normally, no single traction system fulfills the requirements of ideal
traction system, why because each traction system has its merits and suffers from its own
demerits, in the fields of applications.
The requirements of ideal traction systems are:
 Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive effort in order
to have rapid acceleration.
 The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
 Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.
 Equipment required for traction system should be minimum with high
efficiency. o It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.
 Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should be in such a way to
cause minimum wear on the break shoe.
 Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable of withstanding overloads.
 Interference to the communication lines should be eliminated while the locomotive
running along the track.
3.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION
Electric traction system has many advantages compared to non-electric traction systems. The
following are the advantages of electric traction:
 Electric traction system is more clean and easy to handle.
 No need of storage of coal and water that in turn reduces the maintenance cost as well as
the saving of high-grade coal.
  Electric energy drawn from the supply distribution system is sufficient to maintain
the common necessities of locomotives such as fans and lights; therefore, there is
no need of providing additional generators.
 The maintenance and running costs are comparatively low.
 The speed control of the electric motor is easy.
 Regenerative braking is possible so that the energy can be fed back to the supply
system during the braking period.
 In electric traction system, in addition to the mechanical braking, electrical braking can
also be used that reduces the wear on the brake shoes, wheels, etc.
 Electrically operated vehicles can withstand for overloads, as the system is capable
of drawing more energy from the system.
 In addition to the above advantages, the electric traction system suffers from the
following drawbacks:
 Electric traction system involves high erection cost of power system.
 Interference causes to the communication lines due to the overhead
distribution networks.
 The failure of power supply brings whole traction system to stand still.
 In an electric traction system, the electrically operated vehicles have to move only on
the electrified routes.
 Additional equipment should be needed for the provision of regenerative braking, it
will increase the overall cost of installation.

3.2 REVIEW OF EXISTING ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEM IN INDIA

In olden days, first traction system was introduced by Britain in 1890 (600-V DC track).
Electrification system was employed for the first traction vehicle. This traction system was
introduced in India in the year 1925 and the first traction system employed in India was from
Bombay VT to Igatpuri and Pune, with 1,500- V DC supply. This DC supply can be obtained
for traction from substations equipped with rotary converters. Development in the rectifiers
leads to the replacement of rotary converters by mercury arc rectifiers. But nowadays further
development in the technology of semiconductors, these mercury arc valves are replaced by
solid-state semiconductors devices due to fast traction system was introduced on 3,000-V DC.
Further development in research on traction system by French international railways was
suggested that, based on relative merits and demerits, it is advantageous to prefer to AC rather
than DC both financially and operationally. Thus, Indian railways was introduced on 52-kV,
50-Hz single-phase AC system in 1957; this system of track electrification leads to the
reduction of the cost of overhead, locomotive equipment, etc.
3.3 SYSTEM OF TRACTION
Traction system is normally classified into two types based on the type of energy given as input
to drive the system and they are:
a) Non-electric traction system
Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which do not involve the use of
electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle known as electric traction system.
Ex: Direct steam engine drive and direct internal combustion engine drive.
b) Electric traction system
Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which involves the use of electrical
energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle, known as electric traction system. Based upon
the type of sources used to feed electric supply for traction system, electric traction may be
classified into two groups:
 Self-contained locomotives.
 Electric vehicle fed from the distribution networks.
Self-contained locomotives
In this type, the locomotives or vehicles themselves have a capability of generating electrical
energy for traction purpose. Examples for such type of locomotives are:
a) Steam electric drive
In steam electric locomotives, the steam turbine is employed for driving a generator used to
feed the electric motors. Such types of locomotives are not generally used for traction because
of some mechanical difficulties and maintenance problems.
b )Diesel electric trains
A few locomotives employing diesel engine coupled to DC generator used to feed the electric
motors producing necessary propelling torque. Diesel engine is a variable high-speed type that
feeds the self- or separately excited DC generator. The excitation for generator can be supplied
from any auxiliary devices and battery. Generally, this type of traction system is suggested in
the areas where coal and steam tractions are not available.
The advantages and disadvantages of the diesel engine drive are given below:
Advantages
 As these are no overhead distribution system, initial cost is
low. o Easy speed control is possible.
 Power loss in speed control is very low
 Time taken to bring the locomotive into service is less.
 In this system, high acceleration and braking retardation can be obtained compared to
steam locomotives.
 The overall efficiency is high compared to steam locomotives.
Disadvantages
 The overloading capability of the diesel engine is less.

 The running and maintenance costs are high.

 The regenerative braking cannot be employed for the diesel engine drives.
c) Petrol electric traction
This system of traction is used in road vehicles such as heavy lorries and buses These vehicles
are capable of handling overloads. At the same time, this system provides fine and smooth
control so that they can run along roads without any jerking. It consists of Battery drives.
In this drive, the locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power to DC motors
employed for driving the vehicle. This type of drives can be preferred for frequently
operated services such as local delivery goods traction in industrial works and mines, etc.
This is due to the unreliability of supply source to feed the electric motors. Electric
vehicles fed from distribution network Vehicles in electrical traction system that receives
power from over head distribution network fed or substations with suitable spacing. Based on
the available supply, these groups of vehicles are further subdivided into:
i. System operating with DC supply. Ex: tramways, trolley buses, and railways.
ii. System operating with AC supply. Ex: railways.
Systems operating with DC supply
In case if the available supply is DC, then the necessary propelling power can be obtained for
the vehicles from DC system such as tram ways, trolley buses, and railways.
Tramways:
Tramways are similar to the ordinary buses and cars but only the difference is they are able to
run only along the track. Operating power supply for the tramways is 500-V DC tramways
are fed from single overhead conductor acts as positive polarity that is fed at suitable points
from either power station or substations and the track rail acts as return conductor. The
equipment used in tramways is similar to that used in railways but with small output not more
than 40–50 kW. Usually, the tramways are provided with two driving axels to control the speed
of the vehicles from either ends. The main drawback of tramways is they have to run along the
guided routes only. Rheostatic and mechanical brakings can be applied to tramways.
Mechanical brakes can be applied at low speeds for providing better saturation where electric
braking is ineffective, during the normal service. The erection and maintenance costs of
tramways are high since the cost of overhead distribution structure is costlier and sometimes, it
may cause a source of danger to other road users.

Figure 3.1 Tramway Vehicles

Trolley buses:
The main drawback of tramways is, running along the track is avoided in case of trolley buses.
These are electrically operated vehicles, and are fed usually 600-V DC from two overhead
conductors, by means of two collectors. Even though overhead distribution structure is
costlier, the trolley buses are advantageous because, they eliminate the necessity of track in the
roadways. In case of trolley buses, rehostatic braking is employed, due to high adhesion
between roads and rubber types. A DC compound motor is employed in trolley buses.
 Figure 3.2 Tramway Vehicles

3.4 SYSTEM OF TRACK ELECTRIFICATION

Now a day, based on the available supply, the track electrification system are categorized into.
a) DC system.
b) Single-phase AC system.
c) Three-phase AC system.
d) Composite system.
DC system
In this system of traction, the electric motors employed for getting necessary propelling torque
should be selected in such a way that they should be able to operate on DC supply. Examples
for such vehicles operating based on DC system are tramways and trolley buses. Usually, DC
series motors are preferred for tramways and trolley buses even though DC compound motors
are available where regenerative braking is desired. The operating voltages of vehicles for DC
track electrification system are 600, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 V. Direct current at 600–750 V is
universally employed for tramways in the urban areas and for many suburban and main line
railways, 1,500–3,000 V is used. In some cases, DC supply for traction motor can be obtained
from substations equipped with rotary converters to convert AC power to DC. These
substations receive AC power from 3-φ high voltage line or single-phase overhead distribution
network. The operating voltage for traction purpose can be justified by the spacing between
stations and the type of traction motors available. Theses substations are usually automatic and
remote controlled and they are so costlier since they involve rotary converting equipment. The
DC system is preferred for suburban services and road transport where stops are frequent and
distance between the stops is small.

AC Power
SS

DC
DC Supply

Figure 3.3 DC Track Electrification

Single-phase AC system
In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors are used for getting the
necessary propelling power. The distribution network employed for such traction systems is
normally 15–25 kV at reduced frequency of 163∴ Hz or 25 Hz. The main reason of operating at
reduced frequencies is AC series motors that are more efficient and show better performance at
low frequency. These high voltages are stepped down to suitable low voltage of 300–400 V by
means of step-down transformer. Low frequency can be obtained from normal supply
frequency with the help of frequency converter. Low-frequency operation of overhead
transmission line reduces the line reactance and hence the voltage drops directly and single-
phase AC system is mainly preferred for main line services where the cost of overhead structure
is not much importance moreover rapid acceleration and retardation is not required for
suburban services.
 Figure 3.4 Single Phase AC Track Electrification

Three-phase AC system
In this system of track electrification, 3-φ induction motors are employed for getting the
necessary propelling power. The operating voltage of induction motors is normally 3,000–
3,600-V AC at either normal supply frequency or 16∴-Hz frequency. Usually 3-φ induction
motors are preferable because they have simple and robust construction, high operating
efficiency, provision of regenerative braking without placing any additional equipment, and
better performance at both normal and seduced frequencies. In addition to the above
advantages, the induction motors suffer from some drawbacks; they are low-starting torque,
high-starting current, and the absence of speed control. The main disadvantage of such track
electrification system is high cost of overhead distribution structure. This distribution system
consists of two overhead wires and track rail for the third phase and receives power either
directly from the generating station or through transformer substation. Three-phase AC
system is mainly adopted for the services where the output power required is high and
regeneration of electrical energy is possible.
 Figure 3.5 Three Phase AC Track Electrification

Composite system

As the above track electrification system have their own merits and demerits, 1- φ AC system is
preferable in the view of distribution cost and distribution voltage can be stepped up to high
voltage with the use of transformers, which reduces the transmission losses. Whereas in DC
system, DC series motors have most desirable features and for 3-φ system, 3-φ induction motor
has the advantage of automatic regenerative braking. So, it is necessary to combine the
advantages of the DC/AC and 3-φ/1-φ systems. The above cause leads to the evolution of
composite system.
Composite systems are of two types.
1. Single-phase to DC system.
2. Single-phase to three-phase system or kando system.
Single-phase to DC system

In this system, the advantages of both 1-φ and DC systems are combined to get high voltage for
distribution in order to reduce the losses that can be achieved with 1-φ distribution networks,
and DC series motor is employed for producing the necessary propelling torque. Finally, 1-φ
AC distribution network results minimum cost with high transmission efficiency and DC series
motor is ideally suited for traction purpose. Normal operating voltage employed of distribution
is 25 kV at normal frequency of 50 Hz. This track electrification is employed in India.
Single- phase to 3-φ system or kando system

In this system, 1-φ AC system is preferred for distribution network. Since single phase
overhead distribution system is cheap and 3-φ induction motors are employed as traction motor
because of their simple, robust construction, and the provision of automatic regenerative
braking. The voltage used for the distribution network is about 15–25 kV at 50 Hz. This 1-
φ supply is converted to 3-φ supply through the help of the phase converters and high
voltage is stepped down transformers to feed the 3-φ induction motors. Frequency converters
are also employed to get high-starting torque and to achieve better speed control with the
variable supply frequency.

Figure 3.6 Kando system

3.5 SPECIAL FEATURES OF TRACTION MOTORS

The general features of the electric motors used for traction purpose are:
a) Mechanical features.
b) Electrical features.
 Mechanical features

i. A traction motor must be mechanically strong and robust and it should be capable
of withstanding severe mechanical vibrations.
ii. The traction motor should be completely enclosed type when placed beneath the
locomotive to protect against dirt, dust, mud, etc.
iii. In overall dimensions, the traction motor must have small diameter, to arrange easily
beneath the motor coach.
iv. A traction motor must have minimum weight so the weight of locomotive will
decrease. Hence, the load carrying capability of the motor will increase.

Electrical features
i. High-starting torque
A traction motor must have high-starting torque, which is required to start the motor on
load during the starting conditions in urban and suburban services.
ii. Speed control
The speed control of the traction motor must be simple and easy. This is necessary for
the frequent starting and stopping of the motor in traction purpose.
iii. Dynamic and regenerative braking
Traction motors should be able to provide easy simple rehostatic and regenerative
braking subjected to higher voltages so that system must have the capability of
withstanding voltage fluctuations.
iv. Temperature
The traction motor should have the capability of withstanding high temperatures
during transient conditions.
v. Overload capacity
The traction motor should have the capability of handling excessive overloads.
vi. Parallel running
In traction work, more number of motors need to run in parallel to carry more load.
Therefore, the traction motor should have such speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics and those motors may share the total load almost equally.
vii. Commutation
Traction motor should have the feature of better commutation, to avoid the sparking at
the brushes and commutator segments.
3.5.1 TRACTION MOTORS
No single motor can have all the electrical operating features required for traction. In earlier
days, DC motor is suited for traction because of the high-starting torque and having the
capability of handling overloads. In addition to the above characteristics, the speed control of
the DC motor is very complicated through semiconductor switches. So that, the motor must be
designed for high base speed initially by reducing the number of turns in the field winding. But
this will decrease the torque developed per ampere at the time of staring. And regenerative
braking is also complicated in DC series motor; so that, the separately excited motors can be
preferred over the series motor because their speed control is possible through semi-controlled
converters. And also, dynamic and regenerative braking in separately excited DC motor is
simple and efficient. DC compound motors are also preferred for traction applications since it is
having advantageous features than series and separately excited motors. But nowadays squirrel
cage induction and synchronous motors are widely used for traction because of the availability
of reliable variable frequency semiconductor inverters. The squirrel cage induction motor has
several advantages over the DC motors.
They are:
i. Robust construction.
ii. Highly reliable.
iii. Low maintenance and low cost.
iv. High efficiency.
Synchronous motor features lie in between the squirrel cage induction motor and the DC motor.
The main advantages of the synchronous motor over the squirrel cage induction motor are:
i. The synchronous motors can be operated at leading power by varying the field excitation.
ii. Load commutated thyristor inverter is used in synchronous motors as compared to
forced commutation thyristor inverter in squirrel cage induction motors. Even though
such forced commutation reduces the weight and volume of induction motor, the
synchronous motor is less expensive.

a. DC series motor
From the construction and operating characteristics of the DC series motor, it is widely suitable
for traction purpose. Following features of series motor make it suitable for traction.
(i) DC series motor is having high-starting torque and having the capability of handling
overloads that is essential for traction drives.
(ii) These motors are having simple and robust construction.
(iii)The speed control of the series motor is easy by series parallel control.
(iv)Sparkless commutation is possible, because the increase in armature current increases the
load torque and decreases the speed so that the emf induced in the coils undergoing
commutation.
(v) Series motor flux is proportional to armature current and torque. But armature current is
independent of voltage fluctuations. Hence, the motor is unaffected by the variations in
supply voltage.
We know that:

But the power output of the motor is proportional to the product of torque and speed.

 Motor output
That is motor input drawn from the source is proportional to the square root of the
torque. Hence, the series motor is having self-retaining property.
(vi)If more than one motor are to be run in parallel, their speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics must not have wide variation, which may result in the unequal wear of
driving wheels.
b.DC shunt motor
From the characteristics of DC shunt motor, it is not suitable for traction purpose, due to the
following reasons:

(i) DC shunt motor is a constant speed motor but for traction purpose, the speed of the motor
should vary with service conditions.
(ii)In case of DC shunt motor, the power output is independent of speed and is proportional to
torque. In case of DC series motor, the power output is proportional to So that, for a given
load torque, the shunt motor has to draw more power from the supply than series motor. 3.
For shunt motor, the torque developed is proportional to armature current (T ∝ Ia). So for
a given load torque motor has to draw more current from the supply.
 (iii)The flux developed by shunt motor is proportional to shunt field current and hence supply
voltage. But the torque developed is proportional to φsh and Ia.

(iv)Hence, the torque developed by the shunt motor is affected by small

variations in supply voltage.
(v) If two shunt motors are running in parallel, their speed–torque and speed–current
characteristics must be flat and same. Otherwise, the currents drawn by the motor from
the supply mains will be different and cause to unequal sharing of load.

c. AC series motor

Practically, AC series motor is best suited for the traction purpose due to high starting torque
(Fig. 3.7). When DC series motor is fed from AC supply, it works but not satisfactorily due to
some of the following reasons:
i. If DC series motor is fed from AC supply, both the field and the armature currents reverse
for every half cycle. Hence, unidirectional torque is developed at double frequency.
ii. Alternating flux developed by the field winding causes excessive eddy current loss,
which will cause the heating of the motor. Hence, the operating efficiency of the motor
will decrease.
iii. Field winding inductance will result abnormal voltage drop and low power factor that
leads to the poor performance of the motor.
iv. Induced emf and currents flowing through the armature coils undergoing commutation
will cause sparking at the brushes and commutator segments.

Figure. 3.7 AC series motor

 Hence, some modifications are necessary for the satisfactory operation of the DC series motor
on the AC supply and they are as follows:
i. In order to reduce the inductive reactance of the series field, the field winding of AC
series motor must be designed for few turns.
ii. The decrease in the number of turns of the field winding reduces the load torque, i.e., if
field turns decrease, its mmf decrease and then flux, which will increase the speed,
and hence the torque will decrease. But in order to maintain constant load torque, it is
necessary to increase the armature turns proportionately.
iii. If the armature turns increase, the inductive reactance of the armature would increase,
which can be neutralized by providing the compensating winding.
iv. Magnetic circuit of an AC series motor should be laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
v. Series motor should be operating at low voltage because high voltage low current
supply would require large number of turns to produce given flux.
vi. Motor should be operating at low frequency, because inductive reactance is proportional
to the frequency. So, at low frequency, the inductive reactance of the field winding
decreases. The operating characteristics of the AC series motor are similar to the DC
series motor. Weight of an AC series motor is one and a half to two times that of a
DC series motor. And operating voltage is limited to 300 V. They can be built up to the
size of several hundred kW for traction work. At the time of starting operation, the
power factor is low; so that, for a given current, the torque developed by the AC motor
is less compared to the DC motor. Thus, the AC series motor is not suitable for
suburban services with frequent stops and preferred for main line service where high
acceleration is not required.

d. Three-phase induction motor

The three-phase induction motors are generally preferred for traction purpose due to the
following advantages.
i. Simple and robust construction.
ii. Trouble-free operation.
iii. The absence of commutator.
iv. Less maintenance.
v. Simple and automatic regeneration.
vi. High efficiency.
 Three-phase induction motor also suffer from the following drawbacks.
i. Low-starting torque.
ii. High-starting current and complicated speed control system.
iii. It is difficult to employ three-phase induction motor for a multiple-unit system used for
propelling a heavy train. Three-phase induction motor draws less current when the
motor is started at low frequencies. When a three-phase induction motor is used, the
cost of overhead distribution system increases and it consists of two overhead
conductors and track rail for the third phase to feed power to locomotive, which is a
complicated overhead structure and if any person comes in contact with the third rail, it
may cause danger to him or her. This drawback can be overcome by employing kando
system. In this system, 1- φ supply from the overhead distribution structure is
converted to 3-φ supply by using phase converters and is fed to 3- φ induction
motor. The speed controller of induction motor becomes smooth and easy with the use
of thyristorized inverter circuits to get variable frequency supply that can be used to
control the speed of three-phase induction motor. Nowadays, by overcoming the
drawbacks of three- phase induction motor, it can be used for traction purpose.
e. Linear induction motor
It is a special type of induction motor that gives linear motion instead of rotational motion, as
in the case of a conventional motor. In case of linear induction motor, both the movement of
field and the movement of the conductors are linear. A linear induction motor consists of 3-
φ distributed field winding placed in slots, and secondary is nothing but a conducting plate
made up of either copper or aluminum as shown in Fig. The field system may be either single
primary or double primary system. In single primary system, a ferro magnetic plate is placed
on the other side of the copper plate; it is necessary to provide low reluctance path for the
magnetic flux. When primary is excited by 3-φ AC supply, according to mutual induction, the
induced currents are flowing through secondary and ferro magnetic plate. Now, the ferro
magnetic plate energized and attracted toward the primary causes to unequal air gap
between primary and secondary as shown in Fig. 3.8 (a). This drawback can be overcome by
double primary system as shown in Fig. 3.8(b).
.

Figure 3.8 Linear induction motor

In this system, two primaries are placed on both the sides of secondary, which
will be shorter in length compared to the other depending upon the use of the
motor. When the operating distance islarge, the length of the primary is made shorter
than the secondary because it is not economical to place very large 3-φ primary.
Generally, the short secondary form of system is preferred for limited operating
distance.

When 3-φ primary winding is excited by giving 3-φ AC supply, magnetic field is
developed rotating at linear synchronous speed, Vs.
The linear synchronous speed is given by:
Vs = 2τ f m/s,
where τ is the pole pitch in m and f is the supply frequency in hertzs. Note: here, the
synchronous speed does not depend upon the number of poles but depends upon the pole
pitch and the supply frequency.
 Short single primary.
 Short double primary.
 Short secondary.
 The flux developed by the field winding pulls the rotor same as to the direction of the
magnetic field linearly, which will reduce relative speed between field and rotor plate. If
the speed of the rotor plate is equal to the magnetic field, then the field would be
stationary when viewed from the rotor plate. If rotor plate is rotating at a speed more
than linear synchronous, the direction of a force would be reversed, which causes
regenerative braking. The slip of the linear induction motor is given by:

where ‘V ’ is the actual speed of the rotor plate.

The speed–torque (tractive effort) characteristics is shown in Figure. 3.9.

Figure. 3.9 Torque–speed characteristics

Therefore, force or tractive effort is given by: where ‘P2’ is the actual power supply
to the rotor.
Advantages
i. Simple in construction.
ii. Low initial cost.
iii. Maintenance cost is low.
iv. Maximum speed is not limited due centrifugal forces.
v. Better power to weight ratio.
Disadvantages
i. High cost of providing collector system.
ii. Poor efficiency and low power factor, due to high currents drawn by the motor
because of large air gap.
 Applications
Linear induction motor are generally used in:

 High-speed rail traction.

 Trolley cars and metallic belt conveyors.
 Electromagnetic pumps.
f. Synchronous motor
The synchronous motor is one type of AC motor working based upon the principle of
magnetic lacking. It is a constant speed motor running from no-load to full load. The
construction of the synchronous motor is similar to the AC generator; armature winding
is excited by giving three- phase AC supply and field winding is excited by giving DC
supply. The synchronous motor can
be operated at leading and lagging power factors by varying field excitation. The
synchronous motor can be widely used various applications because of constant speed
from no-load to full load.
 High efficiency. Low-initial cost.
 Power factor improvement of three-phase AC industrial circuits.

3.6 BRAKING
If at any time, it is required to stop an electric motor, then the electric supply must
be disconnected from its terminals to bring the motor to rest. In this method, even though
supply is cut off, the motor continue to rotate for long time due to inertia. In some cases,
there is delay in bringing the other equipment. So that, it is necessary to bring the
motor to rest quickly. The process of bringing the motor to rest within the pre-
determined time is known as braking.
A good braking system must have the following
features:
 Braking should be fast and reliable.
 The equipment to stop the motor should be in such a way that the kinetic energy
of the rotating parts of the motor should be dissipated as soon as the brakes are
applied.
 Braking applied to bring the motor to rest position is of two types and they are:
a) Electric braking.
b) Mechanical braking.
Electric braking
In this process of braking, the kinetic energy of the rotating parts of the motor is
converted into electrical energy which in turn is dissipated as heat energy in a
resistance or in sometimes, electrical energy is returned to the supply. Here, no energy
is dissipated in brake shoes.
Mechanical braking
In this process of braking, the kinetic energy of the rotating parts is dissipated in the
form of heat by the brake shoes of the brake lining that rubs on a wheel of vehicle or
brake drum.
The advantages of the electric braking over the mechanical braking
 The electric braking is smooth, fast, and reliable.
 Higher speeds can be maintained; this is because the electric braking is quite fast. This
leads to the higher capacity of the system.
 The electric braking is more economical; this is due to excessive wear on brake blocks or
brake lining that results frequent and costly replacement in mechanical braking.
 Heat produced in the electric braking is less and not harmful but heat produced
in the mechanical braking will cause the failure of brakes.
 In the electric braking, sometimes, it is possible to fed back electric energy during
braking period to the supply system. This results in saving in the operating cost. This
is not possible in case of mechanical braking.

Disadvantages
In addition to the above advantages, the electric braking suffers from the following
disadvantages.
 During the braking period, the traction motor acts generator and electric brakes can
almost stop the motor but it cannot hold stationary. Hence, it is necessary to
employ mechanical braking in addition to electric braking.
 Traction motor has to work as a generator during braking period. So that, motor has to
select in such a way that it should have suitable braking characteristics.
 The initial cost of the electric braking equipment is costlier.
3.6.1 TYPES OF ELECTRIC BRAKING
Electric braking can be applied to the traction vehicle, by any one of the following
methods, namely:
1. Plugging.
2. Rehostatic braking.
3. Regenerative braking.
a) PLUGGING
In this method of braking, the electric motor is reconnected to the supply in such a way
that it has to develop a torque in opposite direction to the movement of the rotor. Now,
the motor will decelerates until zero speed is zero and then accelerates in opposite
direction. Immediately, it is necessary to disconnect the motor from the supply as soon
as system comes to rest. The main disadvantage of this method is that the kinetic
energy of the rotating parts of the motor is wasted and an additional amount of
energy from the supply is required to develop the torque in reverse direction, i.e., in
this method, the motor should be connected to the supply during braking. This
method can be applied to both DC and AC motors.
Plugging applied to DC motors

Pulling is nothing but reverse current braking. This method of braking can be applied
to both DC shunt and DC series motors by reversing either the current through
armature or the field winding in order to produce the torque in apposite direction,
but not both. The connection diagrams for both DC shunt and DC series motors during
normal and braking periods are given as follows.
The connection diagram for normal running conditions of both DC shunt and DC
series motors are shown in Figure. 3.10 (a) and 3.11 (a). The back emf developed by
the motor is equal in magnitude and same as to the direction of terminal or supply
voltage. During the braking, the armatures of both shunt and series motors are reversed
as shown in Figure. 3.10 (b) and Figure 3.11 (b). Now, the back emf developed by the
motor direction of terminal voltage. A high resistance ‘R’ is connected in series with
the armature to limit high-starting current during the braking period.
 Figure. 3.10 Plugging of DC shunt motor

Figure. 3.11 Plugging of DC series motor

Current flowing through the armature during normal run condition:

(3.1)
where V is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf, and Ra is the armature resistance.
Current flowing through the armature during braking period:

Electric braking torque, TB ∝φ I2.

(3.2)
But we know that:

(3.3)

Substitute Equation (9.3) in Equation (9.2):

(3.4)

Where and .
We know that,

(3.5)

in case of series motor flux (φ) developed by the winding is depending the current
flowing through it. In case of shunt motor, the flux remains constant.
(3.6)

Plugging applied to induction motor

During the normal operating condition, the rotating magnetic field developed by the
stator and the rotation of rotor are in the same direction. But during the braking period,
plugging is applied to an induction motor by reversing any two phases of the three
phases of stator winding in order to change the direction of the rotating magnetic field as
shown in Fig. 3.6. So that, the rotating magnetic field and the rotor will be rotating in
opposite direction. So that, the relative speed between emf and rotor is nearly twice the
synchronous speed Ns –(–Ns) = 2Ns

Figure.3.6 Plugging applied to induction motor

Slip during the braking period:

But the voltage induced in the rotor (E2) is proportional to the slip (S ) × stator voltage
(V):
E2 ∝S V.
So, the rotor voltage during the braking period is twice the normal voltage. To
avoid the damage of the rotor winding, it should be provided with additional insulation,
to withstand the high induced voltage. The rotation of the magnetic field in the reverse
direction produce torque in reverse direction; thereby applying the brakes to the motor.
The braking of induction motor can be analyzed by the torque–slip characteristics shown
in Figure. 3.12.

Figure. 3.12 Torque–slip characteristics

Rotor current during the braking period,

The characteristic curve for the rotor current and the rotor voltage with the variation of
the slip is shown in Figure. 3.13.

Figure. 3.13 Rotor current–slip characteristics

Plugging applied to synchronous motor
Normally, the stator winding of the synchronous motor is fed with 3-φ AC supply to
produce the rotating magnetic field that induces stator poles. And, the field winding is
excited by giving the DC supply thereby inducing the rotor poles. At any instant, the
stator poles gets locked with the rotor poles and the synchronous motor rotating at the
synchronous speed. In this method of plugging applied to synchronous motor, simply it
is not possible to produce the counter torque during the braking period by interchanging
any two of three phases. This is due to the magnetic locking of stator and rotor poles
(Figure. 3.14).

Figure. 3.14 Synchronous motor

In order to develop the counter torque, the rotor of synchronous motor should be
provided with damper winding. The EMF induced in the damper winding whenever
there is any change, i.e., the reversal of the direction of the stator field. Now, according
to Lenz's law, the emf induced in the damper winding opposes the change which
producing it. This emf induced in the damper winding produces the circulating current
to produce the torque in the reverse direction. This torque is known as braking
torque. This braking torque helps to bring the motor to rest. Rheostatic or dynamic
braking

In this method of braking, the electric motor is disconnected from the supply during
the braking period and is reconnected across same electrical resistance. But field
winding is continuously excited from the supply in the same direction. Thus, during the
starts working as generator during the braking period and all the kinetic energy of
the rotating parts is converted into electric energy and is dissipated across the external
resistance. One of the main advantages of the rehostatic braking is electrical energy is
not drawn by the motor during braking period compared to plugging. The rehostatic
braking can be applied to various DC and AC motors.
b) RHEOSTATIC BRAKING

Rheostatic braking applied to DC motors

The rheostatic braking can be applied to both DC shunt and DC series motors, by
disconnecting the armature from the supply and reconnecting it across and external
resistance. This is required to dissipate the kinetic energy of all rotating parts thereby
brining the motor to rest.

DC shunts motor
Figure 3.10 shows the connection diagram of the DC shunt motor during both
normal and braking conditions. In case of DC shunt motor, both armature and field
windings are connected across the DC supply, as shown in Figure. 3.15 (a.)

Figure. 3.15 Rheostatic braking of DC shunt motor

During the braking period, the armature is disconnected from the supply and field
winding is continuously excited by the supply in the same direction, as shown in Fig.
3.10 (b). The kinetic energy of all rotating parts is dissipated in the resistor ‘R’ now
the machine starts working as generator. Now, braking developed is proportional to the
product of the field and the armature currents.

But the shunt motor flux remains constant, so the braking torque is proportional to
armature current at low-speeds braking torque is less and in order to maintain constant
braking torque, the armature is gradually disconnected. Hence, the armature current
remains same thereby maintaining the uniform braking torque.
Rheostatic braking applied to DC series motor

In this braking, which is applied to DC series motor, the armature is disconnected

from the supply and is reconnected across an external resistance ‘R’ shown in Fig 9.11
(a) and (b). But, simply, it is not possible to develop the retarding torque by the DC
series motor after connecting armature across the resistance as DC shunt motor.

Figure. 3.16 Rheostatic braking of DC series motor

In case of DC series motor, both the field and armature windings are connected
across the resistance after disconnecting the same from the supply; current directions of
both the field and armatures are reversed. This results in the production of torque in
same direction as before. So, in order to produce the braking torque only the direction
of current in the armature has to be reversed. The connection diagram of DC series is
shown in Figure. 3.16. If more than one motor has to be used as in electric traction.
All motors can be connected in equalizer connection as shown in Figure. 3.17. In this
connection, one machine is excited by the armature current of another machine.

Figure. 3.17 Equalizer connection

Braking torque
The current flowing through the armature during braking period:

(7)

where Eb is the back emf developed, R is the external resistance, and Ra is the
armature resistance.

(8)
Braking torque, TB ∝φ Ia.
(9)

Now, substitute Equation (8) in Equation (9): For shunt motor flux is practically constant:

C) REGENERATIVE BRAKING

• In the previous two methods of electric braking the stored energy of the rotating
parts of the motor and its driven machine is wasted in case of rheostatic braking
whilst in plugging extra energy is drawn during the braking period and is wasted.
• In regenerative braking, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, part
of which is returned to the supply and the rest of the energy is lost as heat in the
windings and the bearings of the electrical machines.
• This type of braking is possible when the driven load or machinery forces the
motor to run at a speed higher than the no-load speed with a constant excitation.
Most of the electrical machines pass smoothly from motoring to generating
operation, when overdriven by load.
• Under this condition, the back emf Eb of the motor is greater than the supply
voltage V, which reverses the direction of motor armature current. The machine
now begins to operate as a generator and the energy generated is supplied to the
source.

• Regenerative braking can also be performed at very low speeds if the motor is
connected as a separately excited generator. The excitation of the motor is
increased as the speed is reduced so that the two equations shown below are
satisfied.

Regenerative braking applied to DC series motor

In case of DC series motor, it is not easy to apply regenerative braking as of DC shunt
motor. The main reasons of the difficulty of applying regenerative braking to DC series
motor are:
i. During the braking period, the motor acts as generator by reversing the direction of
current flowing through the armature, but at the same time, the current flowing
 through the field winding is also reversed; hence, there is no retarding torque. And, a
short-circuit condition will set up both back emf and supply voltage will be added
together. So that, during the braking period, it is necessary to reverse the terminals
of field winding.
ii. Some sort of compensating equipment must be incorporated to take care of large
change in supply voltage On doing some modifications during the braking period,
the regenerative braking can be applied to DC series motor. Any one of the
following methods is used.

Method-I (French method)

If one or more series motors are running in parallel, during the braking period, the
field windings, of all series motors, are connected across the supply in series with
suitable resistance. Thereby converting all series machines in shunt machines as shown
in Figure. 3.18.

Figure. 3.18. Regenerative braking of DC series motor

The main advantage of this method is, all armatures are connected in parallel and
current supplied to one machine is sufficient to excite the field windings of all the
machines, and the energy supplied by remaining all the machines is fed back to the
supply system, during the braking period.
Method-II
In this method, the exciter is provided to excite the field windings of the series machine
during the regenerative braking period. This is necessary to avoid the dissipation of
energy or the loss of power in the external resistance. Whenever the excitation of
field winding is adjusted to increase the rotational emf more than the supply voltage,
then the energy is supplied to the supply system.
At that time, the field winding of the series machine is connected across an excited being
driven by motor operated from an auxiliary supply. Now, during the braking period, the
series machine acts as separately excited DC generator which supplies energy to the
main lines. A stabilizing resistance is used to control the braking torque (Figure. 3.18
and 3.19).

Figure. 3.18 Regenerative braking

Figure. 3.19 Regenerative braking

Method-III
In this method, the armature of exciter is connected in series. With the field winding of
series machine, this combination is connected across the stabilizing resistance.
Here, the current flowing through stabilizing resistance is the sum of exciter current
and regenerated current by the series machines. During the braking period, the
regenerated current increases the voltage drop across the stabilizing resistance, which
will reduce the voltage across the armature circuit and cause the reduction of the
exciter current of the series machine field winding. Hence, the traction motors
operating as series generators.

Regenerative braking applied to 3-φ induction motor

Regenerative braking is applied to the induction motor by increasing its speed
above the synchronous speed. Now, the induction motor acting as an induction generator
that feeds power to the main line. The torque slip characteristics of the induction motors
are shown in Figure. 3.20.

Figure. 3.20 Torque vs slip characteristics

The main advantage of the induction motor is during the braking period; no need of
placing external resistance in the rotor circuit. The speed during the braking remains
almost constant and independent of the gradient and the weight of the train. This
regenerative braking applied to an induction motor can save 20% of the total energy
leads the reduction of operating cost.
 Regenerative braking applied to AC series motors
It is not simple way to apply regenerative braking to an AC series motor. In this
method, the armature of traction motor is connected to the top changing transformer
through iron cored reactors RE1 andRE2 and commutating pole winding ‘C’. An
auxiliary transformer is provided to excite the field winding of the traction motor. Let
us assume ‘V ’ be the voltage of tap- changing transformer and If is the field
current of traction motor. Due to the presence of reactor, If lags V by an angle 90°
of traction motor is phase with exciting current as shown in Figure. 3.21.

Figure. 3.21.Phasor diagram

From the phasor diagram, the vector difference of and gives voltage across iron-cored
reactor RE1. Now, the armature current Ia lags by 90°. And, the braking torque
developed the series machine will be proportional to Ia cosφ. And, the power returned
to the supply is also proportional Ia cosφ. So that, proper phase angle must be obtained
for efficient braking effect arise in the regenerative braking applied to an AC series
motor are:
 During the regenerative braking, the braking torque is proportional to the operating
power factor. In order to operate the series motor at high power factor field, winding
must be excited separately from other auxiliary devices.
 Proper phase-shifting device must be incorporated to ensure correct phase angle. To
overcome the difficulty stated above, a special arrangement is adopted that is known as
Behn Eschenburg method of regenerative braking. The circuit diagram for applying
regenerative braking to an AC series motor is shown in Figure. 3.22.
Figure. 3.22. .Regenerative braking of AC series motor
 MODULE-IV

ELECTRIC TRACTION-II

4.0 INTRODUCTION

The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be most conveniently studied by
means of the speed–distance and the speed–time curves. The motion of any vehicle may be at
constant speed or it may consist of periodic acceleration and retardation. The speed–time curves
have significant importance in traction. If the frictional resistance to the motion is known value,
the energy required for motion of the vehicle can be determined from it. Moreover, this curve
gives the speed at various time instants after the start of run directly.

4.1 TYPES OF SERVICES

There are mainly three types of passenger services, by which the type of traction
system has to be selected, namely:
a) Main line service.
b) Urban or city service.
c) Suburban service.

Main line services

In the main line service, the distance between two stops is usually more than 10 km. High
balancing speeds should be required. Acceleration and retardation are not so important.

Urban service
In the urban service, the distance between two stops is very less and it is less than 1 km. It
requires high average speed for frequent starting and stopping.

Suburban service
In the suburban service, the distance between two stations is between 1 and 8 km. This service
requires rapid acceleration and retardation as frequent starting and stopping is required.
4.2 SPEED–TIME AND SPEED–DISTANCE CURVES FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES
The curve that shows the instantaneous speed of train in kmph along the ordinate and time in
seconds along the abscissa is known as ‘speed–time’ curve. The curve that shows the distance
between two stations in km along the ordinate and time in seconds along the abscissa is known
as ‘speed–distance’ curve. The area under the speed–time curve gives the distance travelled
during, given time internal and slope at any point on the curve toward abscissa gives the
acceleration and retardation at the instance, out of the two speed–time curve is more important.
Speed–time curve for main line service Typical speed–time curve of a train running on main
line service is shown in Figure. 4.1 It mainly consists of the following time periods:

a) Constant accelerating period.

b) Acceleration on speed curve.
c) Free-running period.
d) Coasting period.
e) Braking period.

Figure. 4.1 Speed–time curve for mainline service

Constant acceleration
During this period, the traction motor accelerates from rest. The curve ‘OA’ represents the
constant accelerating period. During the instant 0 to T1, the current is maintained approximately
constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased by cutting out the starting
resistance slowly moving from one notch to the other. Thus, current taken by the motor and the
tractive efforts are practically constant and therefore acceleration remains constant during this
period. Hence, this period is also called as notch up accelerating period or rehostatic
accelerating period. Typical value of acceleration lies between 0.5 and 1 kmph. Acceleration is
denoted with the symbol ‘α’.

Acceleration on speed-curve
During the running period from T1 to T2, the voltage across the motor remains constant and the
current starts decreasing, this is because cut out at the instant ‘T1’. According to the
characteristics of motor, its speed increases with the decrease in the current and finally the
current taken by the motor remains constant. But, at the same time, even though train
accelerates, the acceleration decreases with the increase in speed. Finally, the acceleration
reaches to zero for certain speed, at which the tractive effort excreted by the motor is exactly
equals to the train resistance. This is also known as decreasing accelerating period. This
period is shown by the curve ‘AB’.

Free-running or constant-speed period

The train runs freely during the period T2 to T3 at the speed attained by the train at the instant
‘T2’. During this speed, the motor draws constant power from the supply lines. This period is
shown by the curve BC.

Coasting period
This period is from T3 to T4, i.e., from C to D. At the instant ‘T3’ power supply to the traction,
the motor will be cut off and the speed falls on account of friction, windage resistance, etc.
During this period, the train runs due to the momentum attained at that particular instant. The
rate of the decrease of the speed during coasting period is known as coasting retardation.
Usually, it is denoted with the symbol ‘βc’.

Braking period
Braking period is from T4 to T5, i.e., from D to E. At the end of the coasting period, i.e., at ‘T4’
brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period, the speed of the train decreases
rapidly and finally reduces to zero.
4.2.1 Speed Time Curve for Main Line and Sub-urban Services

In main line service, the free-running period will be more, the starting and braking periods are
very negligible, since the distance between the stops for the main line service is more than 10
km.

Speed–time curve for suburban service In suburban service, the distance between two
adjacent stops for electric train is lying between 1 and 8 km. In this service, the distance
between stops is more than the urban service and smaller than the main line service. The
typical speed–time curve for suburban service is shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2.Typical speed–time curve for suburban service

The speed–time curve for urban service consists of three distinct periods. They are:
a) Acceleration.
b) Coasting.
c) Retardation.
For this service, there is no free-running period. The coasting period is comparatively longer
since the distance between two stops is more. Braking or retardation period is comparatively
small. It requires relatively high values of acceleration and retardation. Typical acceleration and
retardation values are lying between 1.5 and 4 kmphp and 3 and 4 kmphp, respectively. Speed–
time curve for urban or city service The speed–time curve urban or city service is almost similar
to suburban service and is shown in Figure 4.3.
 Figure 4.3.Typical speed–time curve for urban service
In this service also, there is no free-running period. The distance between two stop is less
about 1 km. Hence, relatively short coasting and longer braking period is required. The
relative values of acceleration and retardation are high to achieve moderately high average
between the stops. Here, the small coasting period is included to save the energy
consumption. The acceleration
for the urban service lies between 1.6 and 4 kmphp. The coasting retardation is about
0.15 kmphp and the braking retardation is lying between 3 and 5 kmphp. Some typical
values of various services are shown in Table. 4.1.
Table 4.1 Types of services

4.3 SOME
DEFINITIONSCrest
speed
The maximum speed attained by the train during run is known as crest speed. It is denoted with
‘Vm’.
Average speed
It is the mean of the speeds attained by the train from start to stop, i.e., it is defined as the
ratio of the distance covered by the train between two stops to the total time of rum. It is
denoted as

where Va is the average speed of train in kmph, D is the distance between stops in km, and T
is the actual time of run in hours.
Schedule speed
The ratio of the distance covered between two stops to the total time of the run including
thetime for stop is known as schedule speed. It is denoted with the symbol ‘Vs’.
where Ts is the schedule time in hours.
Schedule time
It is defined as the sum of time required for actual run and the time required for
stop.i.e., Ts = Trun + Tstop.

4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHEDULE SPEED OF A TRAIN

The factors that affect the schedule speed of a train are:
a) Crest speed.
b) The duration of stops.
c) The distance between the stops.
d) Acceleration.
e) Braking retardation.

Crest speed
It is the maximum speed of train, which affects the schedule speed as for fixed acceleration,
retardation, and constant distance between the stops. If the crest speed increases, the actual
running time of train decreases. For the low crest speed of train it running so, the high crest
speed of train will increases its schedule speed. Duration of stops If the duration of stops is
more, then the running time of train will be less; so that, this leads to the low schedule speed.
Thus, for high schedule speed, its duration of stops must be low. Distance between the stops
If the distance between the stops is more, then the running time of the train is less; hence, the
schedule speed of train will be more.
Acceleration
If the acceleration of train increases, then the running time of the train decreases provided the
distance between stops and crest speed is maintained as constant. Thus, the increase in
acceleration will increase the schedule speed.
Breaking retardation
High breaking retardation leads to the reduction of running time of train. These will cause high
schedule speed provided the distance between the stops is small.

4.5 SIMPLIFIED TRAPEZOIDAL AND QUADRILATERAL SPEED TIME CURVES

Simplified speed–time curves gives the relationship between acceleration, retardation average
speed, and the distance between the stop, which are needed to estimate the performance of a
service at different schedule speeds. So that, the actual speed–time curves for the main line,
urban, and suburban services are approximated to some from of the simplified curves. These
curves may be of either trapezoidal or quadrilateral shape.

4.5.1 Analysis of trapezoidal speed–time curve

Trapezoidal speed–time curve can be approximated from the actual speed–time curves of
different services by assuming that:
 The acceleration and retardation periods of the simplified curve is kept same as to that of the
actual curve.
 The running and coasting periods of the actual speed–time curve are replaced by the constant
periods.
This known as trapezoidal approximation, a simplified trapezoidal speed–time curve is shown
in Figure. 4.4

Figure. 4.4 Trapezoidal speed–time curve

Calculations from the trapezoidal speed–time curve
Let D be the distance between the stops in km, T be the actual running time of train in second,
α be the acceleration in km/h/sec, β be the retardation in km/h/sec, Vm be the maximum or the
crest speed of train in km/h, and Va be the average speed of train in km/h. From the Figure. 4.4:

Area under the trapezoidal speed–time curve gives the,

The distance between the stops (D) = area under triangle OAE + area of rectangle ABDE +
area of triangle DBC
Therefore,
The distance between the stops (D) = The distance travelled during acceleration + distance
travelled during free running period + distance travelled during retardation.
Now,
The distance travelled during acceleration = average speed during accelerating period × time for
acceleration
The distance travelled during free-running period = average speed × time of free running

The distance travelled during retardation period = average speed × time for retardation

The distance between the two stops is:

Solving quadratic Equation (4.5), we get:

(4.5)
 (4.5)

Solving quadratic Equation (5), we get:

By considering positive sign, we will get high values of crest speed, which is practically not
possible, so negative sign should be considered:

(4.6)

4.5.2 Analysis of quadrilateral speed–time curve

Quadrilateral speed–time curve for urban and suburban services for which the distance between
two stops is less. The assumption for simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is the initial
acceleration and coasting retardation periods are extended, and there is no free-running period.
Simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is shown in Figure. 4.5.

Figure. 4.5.Quadrilateral speed–time curve

Let V1 be the speed at the end of accelerating period in km/h, V2 be the speed at the end of
coasting retardation period in km/h, and βc be the coasting retardation in km/h/sec.
Time for acceleration,

Time for coasting period,

Time period for braking retardation period,

Total distance travelled during the running period D = the area of triangle PQU + the area
of rectangle UQRS + the area of triangle TRS.
Therefore,
Total distance travelled during the running period D = the distance travelled during
acceleration + the distance travelled during coasting retardation + the distance travelled during
breaking retardation.
But, the distance travelled during acceleration = average speed × time for Acceleration

The distance travelled during coasting retardation=

The distance travelled during breaking retardation = average speed × time for
breaking retardation
Total distance travelled:

(4.7)

4.6 TRACTIVE EEFFORT (FT)

It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the train is
known as ‘tractive effort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive effort is a vector
quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It is measured in newton. The
net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a locomotive or a train to run
on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:
a) Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).
b) To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
c) To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).

IMPORTANT TERMS
Dead Weight
The total weight of locomotive and train to be pulled by the locomotive is known as dead weight.
Accelerating Weight
The dead weight of the train i.e., the weight of locomotive and train can be considered to be
divided into two parts:
i. The weight, which requires angular acceleration such as weight of wheels, axles, gears etc.
and
ii. The weight, which requires linear acceleration. Hence the effective weight, which is greater
than dead weight is called the accelerating weight. Accelerating weight is taken 5 to 10 per
cent more than dead weight.
Adhesive Weight
The total weight to be carried on the driving wheels is known as the adhesive weight.
Wa= x W
Where, ‘x’ is a fraction varying from 0.6 to 0.8
Coefficient of Adhesion (μ)
Maximum tractive effort that can be applied without slipping of wheels/Adhesive weight (Weight
on the driving wheels)
The coefficient of adhesion reduces with the increase in speed as shown below in Table 4.2

Table 4.2 Variation of Coefficient of adhesion with speed on dry rails

The normal value of coefficient of adhesion with clean dry rails is 0.25 and with wet or greasy
rails the value may be as low as 0.08.
Electric traction has a very important advantage over steam traction and that is on account of
greater adhesive weight – in a motor coach 100 per cent of the weight is on the driving wheels, in
an electric locomotive 70 per cent whereas in a steam locomotive less than 50 per cent.
The coefficient of adhesion in electric traction is also greater than that in steam traction due to the
following two reasons:
(i) In electric traction the torque exerted is continuous whereas in steam traction the torque is
pulsating which causes jolting and skidding.
(ii) In electric traction the driving wheels are distributed over a much greater length whereas in
steam traction they are close to each other.
Since higher value of tractive effort can be used in electric traction, therefore, an electric train can
be made to accelerate at a faster rate. This results in saving of time, especially when the distance
between stops is small e.g., in urban and suburban areas.
4.7 MECHANICS OF TRAIN MOVEMENT
The essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in Fig. 4.6. The electric
locomotive consists of pinion and gear wheel meshed with the traction motor and the wheel of
the locomotive. Here, the gear wheel transfers the tractive effort at the edge of the pinion to the
driving wheel.

Let
T - is the torque exerted by the motor in N-m,
Fp - is tractive effort at the edge of the pinion
in Newton,
Ft - is the tractive effort at the wheel,
D - is the diameter of the driving wheel,
d1 - and d2 are the diameter of pinion and
gear wheel respectively,
η - is the efficiency of the power
transmission for the motor to the driving axle.

Figure. 4.6 Driving mechanism of electric locomotives

Let T is the torque exerted by the motor in N-m, Fp is tractive effort at the edge of the pinion in
Newton, Ft is the tractive effort at the wheel, D is the diameter of the driving wheel, d1 and d2
are the diameter of pinion and gear wheel, respectively, and η is the efficiency of the power
transmission for the motor to the driving axle.
 (4.8)
The tractive effort at the edge of the pinion transferred to the wheel of locomotive is:

(4.9)
From Equation (4.8) and (4.9)

(4.10)

The maximum frictional force between the driving wheel and the track = µW
where µ is the coefficient of adhesion between the driving wheel and the track and W is the
weight of the train on the driving axles (called adhesive weight).

Slipping will not take place unless tractive effort > µW

The magnitude of the tractive effort that can be employed for propulsion, therefore, depends upon
the weight coming over the driving wheels and the coefficient of adhesion between the driving
wheel and the track.

4.7 TRACTIVE EEFFORT (FT)

It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the train is
known as ‘tractive effort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive effort is a vector
quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It is measured in newton. The
net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a locomotive or a train to run
on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:
a) Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).
b) To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
c) To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).
Tractive effort required for propulsion of train
The tractive effort required for train propulsion is:
Ft = Fa + Fg + Fr,
where Fa is the force required for linear and angular acceleration, Fg is the force required to
overcome the gravity, and Fr is the force required to overcome the resistance to the motion.
4.7.1 Force required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa)
According to the fundamental law of acceleration, the force required to accelerate the motion of
the body is given by:
Force = Mass × acceleration
• Consider a train of weight W tonnes being accelerated at a kmphps
• The weight of train = 1,000 W kgf

• Mass of train, m = 1,000 W kg

• Acceleration = α kmphps
= α × 1,000/3,600 m/s2
= 0.2778 α m/s2
• Tractive effort required for linear acceleration,
• Fa = mα = 1,000 W × 0.2778 α = 277.8 W α newtons
Equation holds good only if the accelerating body has no rotating parts. Owing to the fact
that the train has rotating parts such as motor armature, wheels, axels, and gear system.
Hence, these parts need to be given angular acceleration at the same time as the whole train
is accelerated in linear direction.
• The tractive effort required-for linear and angular acceleration is Fa = 277.8 We α newtons
Where, We is the equivalent or accelerating weight of the train, which is higher than the
dead weight W requiring linear acceleration to consider the tractive effort for the angular
acceleration.
In practice We is higher than W by 8 to 15%.

4.7.2 Tractive Effort for Overcoming the Effect of Gravity (Fg)

• When a train is on a slope, a force of gravity equal to the component of the dead weight
along the slope acts on the train and tends to cause its motion down the gradient or slope.
• Fg = ± m g sin θ
• Hence force due to gradient, Fg = ± 1,000 W g sin θ kg (A) [ m= 1000W kg]
• But in railway work gradient is expressed as rise in metres in a track distance of 100
metres and is denoted as ‘percentage gradient’ (G%).

• i.e., % Gradient G = Sin θ × 100

or sin θ = G/100
• Substituting sin θ = G/100 in E.q. (A) we have,
Fg = ± 1,000 W g G/100
= ±10 W g G kg = ± 10 * W * g * G * 9.81 [ Since, g= 9.81 m/s2]

Fg = ± 98.1 WG newtons …. (B)

+ve sign for the train is moving on up gradient.
–ve sign for the train is moving on down gradient.

• When the train is going up a gradient, the tractive effort will be required to balance this
force due to gradient but while going down the gradient, the force will add to the tractive
effort.
4.7.3 Tractive Effort for Overcoming Train Resistance (Fr)

• Train resistance consists of all the forces resisting the motion of a train when it is running
at uniform speed on a straight and level track. Under these circumstances the whole of the
energy output from the driving axles is expended against train resistance.

• Train resistance is due to:

(i) The friction at the various parts of the rolling stock
(ii) Friction at the track and
(iii) Air resistance.

• The first two components constitute the mechanical resistance component of train
resistance. The train resistance depends upon various factors, such as shape, size and
condition of track etc., and is expressed in newtons per tonne of the dead weight. For a
normal train the value of specific resistance has been 40 to 70 newtons/tonne
• The general equation for train resistance is given as R = k1 + k2V + k3V2

Where, k1, k2 and k3 are constants depending upon the train and the track, R is the
resistance in newtons and V is the speed in kmph. The first two terms represent the
mechanical resistance and the last term represents air resistance.

Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance, Fr = W x r newtons

Total tractive effort required

• Total tractive effort required

• Ft = Fa ± Fg + Fr
Ft = 277.8 Wα ± 98.1 WG + Wr

Use,
+ ve sign for the motion up the gradient and
-ve sign for the motion down the gradient.
4.7.4 Power Output from the Driving Axles

Power, P =Rate of doing work

= Tractive effort x (distance/time)
= Tractive effort x speed
= Ft x v where Ft is in newtons and v is in m/s

4.7.5 Energy Output from Driving Axles

Assuming the run according to trapezoidal speed-time curve Total energy required for the run-

= Energy required during acceleration + energy required during free run

= Average power during acceleration x acceleration period + average power during free run x
duration of free

Where, Vm is the maximum speed in kmph, t1, is the time of acceleration in seconds, t2 is the time
of free run in seconds, Ft is the tractive effort required during acceleration in newtons and F’t is
the tractive effort required during free run in newtons.

4.8 ENERGY CONSUMPTION (EC)

• It equals the total energy input to traction motors from the supply. It is usually expressed
in Wh which equals to 3600J.
• It can be found by dividing the energy output of the driving wheels with the combined
efficiency of transmission gear and motor.
Factors Affecting Energy Consumption

Energy consumption in propelling the train is required for:

i. Having the linear and angular acceleration;

ii. Working against gravity while moving up the gradient;
iii. Working against the resistance to motion;
iv. Overcoming the losses due to gearing system and
v. Supplying losses in motors and other electrical system.

4.9 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION (SEC)

• The energy input to the motors is called the energy consumption. This is the energy
consumed by various parts of the train for its propulsion.
• The energy drawn from the distribution system should be equals to the energy consumed by
the various parts of the train like quantity of the energy required for lighting, heating,
control, and braking. This quantity of energy consumed by the various parts of train per ton
per kilometer is known as specific energy consumption. It is expressed in watt hours per ton
per km.

4.9.1 Determination of Specific Energy Output using Simplified Speed-Time Curve

Energy output is the energy required for the propulsion of a train or vehicle is mainly for
accelerating the rest to velocity ‘Vm’, which is the energy required to overcome the gradient and
track resistance to motion. Energy required for accelerating the train from rest to its crest speed
‘Vm’
Energy required for accelerating the train

Aranmanai Kili

Energy required for overcoming the gradient and tracking resistance to motion

Where, Ft′ is the tractive effort required to overcome the gradient and track resistance, W is the
dead weight of train, r is the track resistance, and G is the percentage gradient.
k
4.9.2 Factors Affecting Specific Energy Consumption of an Electric Train Operating on a
Given Schedule Speed
The specific energy consumption of a train operating at a given schedule speed depends
upon the following factors

a) Distance between stops

b) Acceleration
c) Retardation
d) Maximum speed
e) Nature of route and
f) The type of train equipment.

Distance between stations

Specific energy consumption is inversely proportional to the distance between stations. Greater
the distance between stops is, the lesser will be the specific energy consumption.
The typical values of the specific energy consumption is less for the main line service of 20–30
W-hr/ton-km and high for the urban and suburban services of 50–60 W-hr/ton-km.

Acceleration and retardation

For a given schedule speed, the specific energy consumption will accordingly be less for more
acceleration and retardation.

Maximum speed
For a given distance between the stops, the specific energy consumption increases with the
increase in the speed of train.

Gradient and train resistance

• From the specific energy consumption, it is clear that both gradient and train resistance are
proportional to the specific energy consumption. Normally, the coefficient of adhesion will
be affected by the running
• of train, parentage gradient, condition of track, etc. for the wet and greasy track conditions.
The value of the coefficient of adhesion is much higher compared to dry and sandy
conditions.
Example 10.1: The distance between two stops is 1.2 km. A schedule speed of 40
kmph is required to cover that distance. The stop is of 18-s duration. The values of
the acceleration and retardation are 2 kmphp and 3 kmphp, respectively. Then,
determine the maximum speed over the run. Assume a simplified trapezoidal
speed–time curve.

Solution:

Acceleration α = 2.0 kmphp.

Retardation β = 3 kmphp.

Schedule speed Vs = 40 kmph.

Distance of run, D = 1.2 km.

Actual run time, T = Ts – stop duration

 = 108 – 18

= 90 s.

where

Example 10.2: The speed–time curve of train carries of the following parameters:
1. Free running for 12 min.
2. Uniform acceleration of 6.5 kmphp for 20 s.
3. Uniform deceleration of 6.5 kmphp to stop the train.
4. A stop of 7 min.
Then, determine the distance between two stations, the average, and the schedule
speeds.

Solution:

Acceleration (α) = 6.5 kmphps.

Acceleration period t1 = 20 s.

Maximum speed Vm = αt1

= 6.5 × 20 = 130 kmph.

 Free-running time (t2) = 12 × 60

= 720 s.

The distance travelled during the acceleration period:

The distance travelled during the free-running period:

The distance travelled during the braking period

The distance between the two stations:

D = D1 + D2 + D3

= 0.36 + 26 + 0.362

= 26.724 km.
Example 10.3: An electric train is to have the acceleration and braking retardation of
0.6 km/hr/sec and 3 km/hr/sec, respectively. If the ratio of themaximum speed to the
average speed is 1.3 and time for stop is 25 s. Then determine the schedule speed for a
run of 1.6 km. Assume the simplified trapezoidal speed–time curve.

Solution:

Acceleration α = 0.6 km/hr/s.

Retardation β = 3 km/hr/s.

Distance of run D = 1.6 km.

Let the cultural time of run be ‘T ’ s.

Example 10.4: The distance between two stops is 5 km. A train has schedule
speed of 50 kmph. The train accelerates at 2.5 kmphps and retards 3.5 kmphps and
the duration of stop is 55 s. Determine the crest speed over the run assuming
trapezoidal speed–time curve.

Solution:

Acceleration (α) = 2.5 kmphps.

Retardation (β) = 3.5 kmphps.

By using the equation:

Example 10.5: A train is required to run between two stations 1.5 km apart at an
average speed of 42 kmph. The run is to be made to a simplified quadrilateral
speed–time curve. If the maximum speed is limited to 65 kmph, the acceleration to
2.5 kmphps, and the casting and braking retardation to 0.15 kmphs and 3kmphs,
respectively. Determine the duration of acceleration, costing, and brakingperiods.

Solution:

Distance between two stations D = 1.5 km.

Average speed Va = 42 kmph.

Maximum speed Vm = 65 kmph.

Acceleration (α) = 2.5 kmphps.

Coasting retardation βc = 0.15 kmphps.

Barking retardation β = 3 kmphps.

Before applying brakes; let the speed be V2.

 The actual time of run, T = t1 + t2 + t3

Example 10.6: A train has schedule speed of 32 kmph over a level track distance
between two stations being 2 km. The duration of stop is 25 s. Assuming the
braking retardation of 3.2 kmphps and the maximum speed is 20% grater than the
average speed. Determine the acceleration required to run the service.

Solution:

Schedule speed Vs = 32 kmph.

Distance D = 2 km.

Duration of stop = 25 s.

Braking retardation = 3.2 kmphps.

Example 10.7: A suburban electric train has a maximum speed of 75 kmph. The
schedule speed including a station stop of 25 s is 48 kmph. If the acceleration is 2
kmphps, the average distance between two stops is 4 km. Determine the value of
retardation.

Solution:

Maximum speed Vm = 75 kmph.

The distance of run (D) = 4 km.

 Schedule speed (Vs) = 48 kmph.

Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphps.

The duration of stop = 25 s.

Example 10.8: An electric train is accelerated at 2 kmphps and is braked at 3

kmphps. The train has an average speed of 50 kmph on a level track of 2,000 min
between the two stations. Determine the following:
1. Actual time of run.
2. Maximum speed.
3. The distance travelled before applying brakes
4. Schedule speed.
Assume time for stop as 12 s. And, run according to trapezoidal.

Solution:

Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphps.

Retardation (β) = 3 kmphps.

Average speed (Va) = 50 kmph.

Distance D = 2,000 min = 2 km.

The duration of stop = 12 s.

 The distance travelled before applying brakes

D1 + D2 = D - D3

= 2 – 0.17 = 1.83 km.

Example 10.9: An electric train has an average speed of 40 kmph on a level track
between stops 1,500 m apart. It is accelerated at 2 kmphps and is braked at 3
kmphps. Draw the speed–time curve for the run.

Solution:

Average speed Va = 40 kmph.

The distance of run (D) = 1,500 m = 1.5 km.

Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphps.

Retroaction (β) = 3 kmphps.

Using the equation (Fig. P.10.1):

where
Fig. P.10.1
Example 10.10: An electric train has quadrilateral speed–time curve as follows:

1. Uniform acceleration from rest at 1.5 kmphps for 25 s.

2. Coasting for 45 s.
3. The duration of braking 20 s.

If the train is moving a uniform up gradient of 1.5%, the reactive resistance is 45

N/ton, the rotational inertia effect is 10% of dead weight, the duration of stop is 15
s, and the overall efficiency of transmission gear and motor is 80%. Find schedule
speed.

Solution:

Time for acceleration t1 = 25 s.

Time for coasting t2 = 45 s.

Time for braking t3 = 20 s.

Acceleration (α) = 1.5 kmphps.

Maximum speed Vm = α t1

= 1.5 × 25 = 37.5 kmph.

According to the equation:

 TRACTIVE EEFFORT (FT)

It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the
train is known as ‘tractive eff ort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive
effort is a vector quantity al ways actin g tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It
is measured in newton.

The net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a
locomotive or a train to run on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:
Example 10.11: A 250-ton motor coach having four motors each developing
6,000 N-m torque during acceleration, starts from rest. If the gradient is 40 in
1,000, gear ration is 4, gear transmission efficiency is 87%, wheel radius is 40 cm,
train resistance is 50 N/ton, the addition of rotational inertia is 12%. Calculate the
time taken to attain a speed of 50 kmph. If the line voltage is 3,000-V DC and the
efficiency of motors is 85%. Find the current during notching period.

Solution:

The weight of train W = 250 ton.

Gear ratio r = 4.

Wheel diameter D = 2 × 40 = 80 cm.

Or, D = 0.8 m.

Train resistance r = 50 N/ton.

Rotational inertia = 12%.

Accelerating weight of the train We = 1.10 × 250 = 275 ton.

Total torque developed T = 4 × 6,000 = 24,000 Nm.

But,

Ft = 277.8 We α + 98.1 WG + Wr

208,800 = 277.8 × 275 α + 98.1 × 250 × 4 + 250 × 50

∴ α = 1.285 kmphps.
The time taken for the train to attain the speed of 50 kmph:

Power output from the driving axles:

Example 10.12: An electric train of weight 250 ton has eight motors geared to
driving wheels, each is 85 cm diameter. The tractive resistance is of 50/ton. The
effect of rotational inertia is 8% of the train weight, the gear ratio is 4–1, and the
gearing efficiency is 85% determine. The torque developed by each motor to
accelerate the train to a speed of 50 kmph in 30 s up a gradient of 1 in 200.

Solution:

The weight of train W = 250 ton.

The diameter of driving wheel D =0.85 m.

Tractive resistance, r = 50N/ton.

Gear ratio r = 4.
 Gearing efficiency η = 0.85.

Accelerating weight of the train:

We = 1.10 × W

= 1.10 × 250 =275 ton.

Maximum speed Vm = 50 kmph.

Tractive effort Ft = 277.8 We α + 98.1 WG + Wr

= 126,815.7+12,262.5+12,500

= 151,578.2 N.

Example 10.13: A tram car is equipped with two motors that are operating in
parallel, the resistance in parallel. The resistance of each motor is 0.5 Ω. Calculate
the current drawn from the supply mains at 450 V when the car is running at a
steady-state speed of 45 kmph and each motor is developing a tractive effort of
1,600 N. The friction, windage, and other losses may be assumed as 3,000 W per
motor.

Solution:

The resistance of each motor = 0.5 Ω.

Voltage across each motor V = 450 V.

 Tractive effort Ft = 1,600 N.

Maximum speed Vm = 45 kmph.

Losses per motor = 3,000 W.

Copper losses = I2Rm = I2× 0.5

Motor input = motor output + constant loss + copper losses

450 × I = 20,000 + 3,000 + 0.5I2

0.5 I2– 450I + 23,000 = 0.

After solving, we get I = 54.39 A.

Total current drawn from supply mains = 2 × 54.39

= 108.78 A.

Example 10.14: A locomotive exerts a tractive effort of 35,000 N in halting a

train at 50 kmph on the level track. If the motor is to haul the same train on a
gradient of 1 in 50 and the tractive effort required is 55,000 N, determine the
power delivered by the locomotive if it is driven by (i) DC series motors and (ii)
induction motors.

Solution:

Tractive effort Ft= 35,000 N.

Maximum speed Vm = 50 kmph.

The power delivered by the locomotive on up gradient track with the DC series
motors:

Since the power output the power delivered by the locomotive on up

gradient with the induction motors is:

Example 10.15: A train weighting 450 ton has speed reduced by the regenerative
braking from 50 to 30 kmph over a distance of 2 km on down gradient of 1.5%.
Calculate the electrical energy and the overage power returned to the line tractive
resistance is 50 N/ton. And, allow the rotational inertia of 10% and the efficiency
conversion 80%.

Solution:

The accelerating weight of the train We = 1.1 W

= 1.1 × 450 = 495 ton.

 The distance travelled D = 2 km.

Gradient G = 1.5%

Track resistance r = 50 N/ton.

Efficiency η = 0.8.

The energy available due to the reduction in the speed is:

The tractive effort required while going down the gradient:

Ft = Wr – 98.1 WG

= 450 × 50 – 98.1 × 450 × 1.5

= -43,717.5 N.

The energy available while moving down the gradient a distance of 2 km is:

The total energy available = 8.49 + 24.2875

= 32.7775 kW-hr.
Example 10.16: A train weighing 450 ton is going down a gradient of 20 in
1,000, it is desired to maintain train speed at 50 kmph by regenerative braking.
Calculate the power fed into the line and allow rotational inertia of 12% and the
efficiency of conversion is 80%. Traction resistance is 50 N/ton.

Solution:

The dead weight of train W = 450 ton.

The maximum speed Vm = 50 kmph.

Tractive resistance r = 50 N/ton.

Rotational inertia = 12%.

The efficiency of conversion = 0.8

The tractive effort required while going down the gradient:

Tractive resistance r = 50 N/ton.

Rotational inertia = 12%.

The efficiency of conversion = 0.8

The tractive effort required while going down the gradient:

= Wr – 98.1 WG
 = 450 × 50 – 98.1 × 450 × 2

= –65,790 N.

The power fed into the line = power available × efficiency of conversion

= 913.75 × 0.8

= 731 kW.

Example 10.17: The speed–time curve of an electric train on a uniform raising

gradient of 10 in 1,000 comprise of:

1. Uniform acceleration from rest at 2.2 kmphps for 30 s.

2. Wasting with power off for 30 s.
3. Braking at 3.2 kmphps to standstill the weight of the train is 200 ton. The tractive
resistance of level track being 4 kg/ton and the allowance for rotary inertia 10%.
Calculate the maximum power developed by traction motors and the total distance
travelled by the train. Assume the transmission efficiency as 85%.

Solution:

Acceleration (α) = 2.2 kmphps.

Braking (β) = 3.2 kmph.

The dead weight of train W = 200 ton.

Track resistance r = 4 kg/ton = 4 × 9.81 = 39.24 N/ton.

Maximum velocity Vm = αt1 = 2.2 × 30 = 66 kmph.

Tractive effort required:

 Ft = 277.8 Weα + 98.1 WG + Wr

= 277.8 × 8 × 1.1 × 200 × 2.2 + 98.1 × 200 × 1 + 200 × 39.24

= 161,923.2 N.

The maximum power developed by the traction motor = = 3492.46kW.

Let, the coasting retardation be βc:

Ft = 277.8 We(-βc) + 98.1 WG + Wr

0 = -277.8 × (1.1 × 200) × βc + 98.1 × 200 × 1 + 200 × 39.24

βc = 0.449 kmphps

V2 = Vm – βcV2

= 66 – 0.449 × 65

= 36.815 kmph.

The total distance travelled by the train:

Example 10.18: A 2,300-ton train proceeds down a gradient of 1 in 100 for 5
min, during which period, its speed gets reduced from 40 to 20 kmph by the
application of the regenerative braking. Find the energy returned to the lines if the
tractive resistance is 5 kg/ton, the rotational inertia 10%, and the overall efficiency
of the motors during regeneration is 80%.

Solution:

The dead weight of the train W = 2,300 ton.

The accelerating weight of the train We = 1.1 × 2,300 s

= 2,530 ton.

Tractive resistance r = 5×9.81= 49.05 N/ton.

Regenerative period t = 5 × 60

= 300 s.

Overall efficiency η = 0.8.

The energy available due to the reduction in speed:

= 0.01072 We

= 0.01072 × 2,530 × (402-202)

 = 32,545.92

= 32.54 kW-hr.

The tractive effort required while going down the gradient:

= Wr – 98.1 WG

= 2,300 × 49.05–98.1 × 2,300 × 1

= –112,815.

The distance moved during regeneration:

The energy available on the account of moving down the gradient over a distance
of 2,500 m:

The total energy available = 32.54 + 78.34

= 88.707 kW-hr.

The energy returned to the line = 0.8×11.08

= 88.707 kW-hr.

Example 10.19: An electric train has an average speed of 50 kmph on a level

track betweenstops 1,500 m a part. It is accelerated at 2 kmphs and is braked at 3
kmphs. Estimate the energy consumption at the axle of the train per ton-km. Take
the reactive resistance constant at 50 N/ton and allow 10% for rotational inertia.

Solution:
 Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphs.

Retardation (β) = 3 kmphs.

The distance of run (D) = 1.5 km.

Average speed Va = 50 kmph.

Using the equation:

The distance travelled during braking:
The energy consumption at the axle of the train per ton-km:

Example 10.20: An electric train has quadrilateral speed–time curve as follows.

1. The uniform acceleration for rest at 2.2 kmphs for 30 s.

2. Coasting for 45 s.
3. The braking period of 20 s.

The train is moving in a uniform up gradient of 1%, the tractive resistance is 50

N/ton, the rotational inertia effect 10% of the dead weight the duration of the
station stop 20 s and overall efficiency of transmission gear and motor as 80%.
Determine the value of is schedule speed and specific energy consumption of run.

Solution:

Time of acceleration t1 = 30 s.

Time of coasting t2 = 45 s.

Time of braking t3 = 20 s.

Acceleration (α) = 2.2 kmphps.

Maximum speed Vm = α t1 = 2.2 × 30 = 66 kmph.

Gradient G = 1%.

Let the coasting retardation be βc:

Ft = 277.8 We(–βc) + 98.1 WG + Wr.

 0 = 277.8 × 1.1 W βc + 98.1 × W × 1 + 50 W

=–305.58 W βc + 98.1 W + 50 W.

βc = 0.4846 kmphps.

V2 = Vm – βct2

= 66 – 0.4846 × 45

= 44.193 kmph.

When power is on, the distance travelled is:

D1 = distance travelled during acceleration period

The specific energy output:

Example 10.21: A train weighing 200-ton accelerates uniformly from rest to a

speed of 40 kmph up a gradient of 1 in 100, the time taken being 30 s. The power
is then cut off and train coasts down a uniform gradient of 1 in 1,000 for period of
40 s. When brakes are applied for period of 20 s so as to bring the train uniformly
to rest on this gradient determine:

1. The maximum power output from the driving axles.

2. The energy taken from the conductor rails in kW-hr assuming an efficiency of 70%
assume tractive resistance to be 45 N/ton at all speeds and allow 10% for rotational
inertia.

Solution:
 Maximum speed Vm = 40 kmph.

Accelerating period t1 = 30 s.

Tractive effort required:

Ft = 27.88 We α + 98.1 WG + Wr

= 277.8 × 220 × 1.33 + 98.1 × 200 × 1 + 200 × 45

= 109,904.28 N.

1. The maximum power output from driving axle:

Total energy required for the run:

2.
Example 10.22: Calculate the energy consumption if a maximum speed of 12
m/sec and for a given run of 1,500 m, an acceleration of 0.36 m/s2 desired. The
tractive resistance during acceleration is 0.052 N/kg and during the coasting is 6.12
N/1,000 kg. Allow a 10% of rotational inertia, the efficiency of the equipment
during the acceleration period is 60%. Assume quadrilateral speed–time curve.

Solution:

Accelerating weight of the train We = 1.1 W.

Maximum speed Vm = 12 m/s.

The distance of run D = 1,500 m.

Acceleration α = 0.36 m/s2.

The tractive resistance during acceleration r = 0.52 N/kg. The

tractive effort required during acceleration Ft = Weα + Wr

= 1.1 W × 0.36 + W × 0.052

= 0.448 W N.
Example 10.23: A 100-ton weight train has a rotational inertia of 10%. This train
has to be run between two stations that are 3 km a part and has an average speed of
50 km/hr. The acceleration and the retardation during braking are 2 kmphps and 3
kmphps, respectively. The percentage gradient between these two stations is 1%
and the train is to move up the incline the track resistance is 50 N/ton, then
determine:

1. Maximum power at the driving axle.

2. Total energy consumption.
3. Specific energy consumption.

The combined efficiency of the alembic train is 70%. Assume simplified

trapezoidal speed–time curve.

Solution:

The dead weight of the train, W = 100 ton.

The accelerating weight of the train, We = 1.1 × W = 1.1 × 100 = 110 ton.
 The distance of run (D) = 3 km.

Average speed Va = 50 kmph.

Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphps.

Retardation (β) = 3 kmphps.

Gradient (G) = 1%.

Tractive resistance r = 50 N/ton.

Using the equation, the maximum speed:

Tractive effort required during free running is :
Example 10.24: An electric train has quadrilateral speed–time curve as follows:

1. Uniform acceleration from rest 2 kmphps for 30 s.

2. Coasting for 40 s.
3. Braking period of 25 s.

The train is moving a uniform down gradient of 1% and the tractive resistance of
50 N/ton. The rotational resistance is 10% of the dead weight, the duration of the
stop is 20 s and the overall efficiency of the transmission the gear and the motor as
80%. Calculate its schedule speed and specific energy consumption.

Solution:

Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphps.

Acceleration period (t1) = 30 s.

Gradient (G) = 1%.

The tractive of resistance (r) = 50 N/ton.

The duration of stop = 20 s.

 Overall efficiency (η) = 80%.

Maximum speed Vm = αt1

= 2 × 30 = 60 kmph.

Let the coasting retardation be βc:

Tractive effort:

Ft = 277.8 Wc (–βc) – 98.1 × WG + Wr

0 = –277.8 × 1.1 W βc – 98.1 × W × 1 + 50 W

βc = – 0.157 kmphps

V2 = Vm – βct2

= 60 – (–0.517 × 40)

= 66.28 kmph.
The specific energy output:

Example 10.25: The schedule speed of a electric train is 40 kmph. The distance
between two stations is 3 km with each stop is of 30 s duration. Assuming the
acceleration and the retardation to be 2 and 3 kmphps, respectively. The dead
weight of the train is 20 ton. Assume the rotational inertia is 10% to the dead
weight and the track resistance is 40 N/ton. Calculate:

1. The maximum speed.

2. The maximum power output from driving axles.
3. The specific energy consumption is watt-hours per ton-km. The overall efficiency is
80%, assume simplified speed–time curve.

Solution:

Schedule speed Vs = 40 kmph.

The distance between the two stations (D) = 3 km.

The duration of stop = 30 s.

Acceleration (α) = 2 kmphps.

Retardation (β) = 3 kmphps.

The dead weight of the train (w) = 20 ton.

The track resistance (r) = 40 N/ton.

 The overall efficiency (η) = 80%.

where:

The tractive effort during acceleration:

Ft = 277.8We × α + Wr
 = 277.8 × 1.1 × 20 × 2 + 20 × 40

= 13,023.2 N.

The maximum power output = 177.958 kW.

(iii) The distance travelled during braking:

The distance travelled with power is on:

D1 = 3 – 0.112

= 2.88 km.

The specific energy output:

 CALCULATION OF ENERGY RETURNED TO THE SUPPLY DURING REGENERATIVE
BRAKING

When the train is accelerating, it acquires kinetic energy corresponding to that

speed. During the coasting period, some of the kinetic energy is wasted, to propel
the train against the friction and windage resistance.

While the train is moving on the down gradients or level track, the KE acquired
by the rotating parts is converted into the electrical energy, which is fed back to the
supply system. The amount of energy fed back to the system is depending on the
following factors.

1. The initial and final speeds during the regenerative braking.

2. The train resistance and the gradient of the track.
3. The efficiency of the system.

Consider the initial and final speeds of the train during regenerative braking
are V1 and V2 in KMPH, and the effective weight of the train is We tons.
 MODULE-V
ELECTRIC DRIVE VEHICLES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

An electric vehicle, also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or
traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector
system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar
panels or a generator to convert fuel to electricity. EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface
and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the
preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of
operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The internal combustion
engine has been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but
electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller
vehicles of all types. In the 21st century, EVs saw a resurgence due to technological
developments and an increased focus on renewable energy.

A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations include
diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one energy source is
storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power
sources may support two separate propulsion systems. Thus, to be a True hybrid, the vehicle
must have at least two modes of propulsion.
For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several
electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid . But if the truck has electrical energy
storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle.
These two power sources may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine charges the
batteries of an electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms driving
the car direct

5.2 ELECTRIC DRIVE VEHICLES

• Electric-drive vehicles use electricity as their primary fuel
• The drive system is the centerpiece of a battery-electric vehicle. Comprising the
power electronics, e-motor, transmission, and battery, the drive system generates zero
local CO2 emissions and delivers full torque right from the start.
• EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft
and electric spacecraft.
• In 2030, one in three vehicles will be a battery-electric vehicle thanks to the electric
drive’s steadily improving efficiency and the sinking total cost of ownership for such
models.
5.3 TYPES OF EVs
A) Battery electric vehicles (BEV)
B) Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)
C) Plug-in Hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV)
D) All-Electric vehicles (EV)

Figure.5.1 Types of EVs

A) Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)

In battery electric vehicles (BEVs), the battery remains the most critical component. Battery
state-of-health estimations, together with thermal safety issues, are of utmost importance for
improving performance, safety, and cost-effectiveness of these vehicles, as they strongly
influence driving performance and particularly range per charge. In fact, the major barrier to
large scale adoption of BEVs is the rather low range—typically less than 300 km—compared
with classical diesel or gasoline fuelled vehicles, which causes anxiety among the users,
especially for the concern of finding a charging station. As a matter of fact, higher ranges can
be obtained by increasing battery size and although this affects the vehicle price, consumers
may prefer spending more to gain some extra range.
• Battery Electric Vehicles, also called BEVs, and more frequently called EVs, are
fully-electric vehicles with rechargeable batteries and no IC engine.
• Battery electric vehicles store electricity onboard with high-capacity battery packs.
Their battery power is used to run the electric motor and all onboard electronics.
• BEVs do not emit any harmful emissions and hazards caused by traditional IC
Engine-powered vehicles. BEVs are charged by electricity from an external source.

Figure 5.2 (a)

Figure 5.2 (b)

Figure 5.2 (a) & (b). Block diagram of the power flows in the components of the electric vehicle
The vehicle follows the velocity specified by the driving cycle so that the power required at
the wheels can be determined as a function of the resistance and the inertia forces. The block
diagram and bidirectional power flow diagram is shown in Figure 5.2: electrical energy is
drawn from the battery and transformed into kinetic energy during traction, while kinetic
energy from the wheels is transformed into electrical energy during braking.

EV Battery Levels

Electric Vehicle (EV) chargers are classified according to the speed with which they recharge
an EVs battery. The classifications are Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 or DC fast charging.

• Level 1 EV charging uses a standard household (230v) outlet to plug into the electric
vehicle and takes over 8 hours to charge an EV for approximately 75-80 miles. Level one
charging is typically done at home or at your workplace. Level 1 chargers have the
capability to charge most EVs on the market.

• Level 2 charging requires a specialized station which provides power at higher voltage
levels. Level 2 chargers are typically found at workplaces and public charging stations
and will take about 4 hours to charge a battery to 75-80 miles of range.

• Level 3 charging, DC fast charging, or simply fast charging is currently the fastest
charging solution in the EV market. DC fast chargers are found at dedicated EV charging
stations and charge a battery up to 90 miles range in approximately 30 minutes.

B) Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

Figure 5.3. Hybrid Electric Car

• A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations
include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one
energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The
combination of two power sources may support two separate propulsion systems.
Thus to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have at least two modes of propulsion.
 • For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives
several electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid . But if the truck has
electrical energy storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it
is a hybrid Vehicle.
• These two power sources may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine
charges the batteries of an electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both
mechanisms driving the car directly.
• A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle that
combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an
electric propulsion system (hybrid vehicle drivetrain).
• The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve better fuel economy and
performance.
• The best example of HEV efficiency is the Toyota Prius Hybrid, which gets the best
gas mileage (between 50 and 60mph) of any car using an internal combustion engine.
The internal structure of HEV is shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4. Internal Structure of Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Key Components of a Hybrid Electric Car

a) Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides electricity
to start the car before the traction battery is engaged and also powers vehicle accessories.
b) DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
c) Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking,
transferring that energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor
generators that perform both the drive and regeneration functions.
d) Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives
the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and
regeneration functions.
e) Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out
through the tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions
within the exhaust system.
f) Fuel filler: A nozzle from a fuel dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the vehicle to fill
the tank.
g) Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed by
the engine.
h) Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected into
either the intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with air, and
the air/fuel mixture is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.
i) Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered
by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque
it produces.
j) Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range
of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
k) Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
l) Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or
electric traction motor to drive the wheels.

5.3.1 Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

a) Series Hybrid EV
b) Parallel Hybrid EV
c) Series – Parallel Hybrid EV

Series Hybrid EV

• Here, the combustion engine drives an electric

generator instead of directly driving the
wheels.
• The generator both charges a battery and
powers an electric motor that moves the
vehicle.
• When large amounts of power are required, the
motor draws electricity from both the battery
and the generator.
• Series hybrids may also be referred to
as extended-range electric vehicles
(EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles
(REEVs) since the gas engine only generates
electricity to be used by the electric motor and
 never directly drives the wheels.

Parallel Hybrid EV

• A parallel hybrid is propelled by both an

internal combustion engine (ICE) and an
electric motor connected to a mechanical
transmission.
• Power distribution between the engine and
the motor is varied so both run in their
optimum operating region as much as
possible.
• There is no separate generator in a parallel
hybrid.
• Whenever the generator's operation is
needed, the motor functions as generator.
• In a parallel mild hybrid, the vehicle can
never drive in pure electric mode. The
electric motor turns on only when a boost
is needed.

Series - Parallel Hybrid EV

C) Plug-in Hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV)

• Powered by an electric motor and combustion engine, which uses energy stored
in batteries.
 • PHEVs are similar to HEVs but have a larger battery that allows them to travel on
electricity alone. The battery can be charged by plugging in to an electric power
source, through regenerative braking, and by the ICE.
• PHEVs can charge their batteries through charging equipment and regenerative
braking
• Unlike conventional hybrids, PHEVS can be plugged-in and recharged from an outlet,
allowing them to drive extended distances using just electricity. When the battery is
emptied, the conventional engine turns on and the vehicle operates as a conventional,
non-plug-in hybrid.
• PHEVs may also produce lower levels of emissions, depending on the electricity
source and how often the vehicle is operated in all-electric mode. The block diagram
of PHEV is shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5. Block diagram of PHEV

5.4.1 Powered by Electric Motor and Combustion Engine

• PHEVs have an internal combustion engine and an electric motor, which uses energy
stored in batteries. PHEVs generally have larger battery packs than hybrid electric
vehicles. This makes it possible to drive moderate distances using just electricity
(about 15 to 60-plus miles in current models), commonly referred to as the "electric
range" of the vehicle.
• During urban driving, most of a PHEV's power can come from stored electricity.
• For example, a light-duty PHEV driver might drive to and from work on all-electric
power, plug the vehicle in to charge at night, and be ready for another all-electric
commute the next day. The internal combustion engine powers the vehicle when the
battery is mostly depleted, during rapid acceleration, or when intensive heating or air
conditioning loads are present.
• Some heavy-duty PHEVs work the opposite way, with the internal combustion engine
used for driving to and from a job site and electricity used to power the vehicle's
auxiliary equipment or control the cab's climate while at the job site.
5.4.2 Fuelling and Driving Options

• PHEV batteries can be charged by an outside electric power source, by the internal
combustion engine, or through regenerative braking. During braking, the electric
motor acts as a generator, using the energy to charge the battery, thereby recapturing
energy that would have been lost. Learn more about charging PHEVs.
• PHEV fuel consumption depends on the distance driven between battery charges. For
example, if the vehicle is never plugged in to charge, fuel economy will be about the
same as a similarly sized hybrid electric vehicle. If the vehicle is driven a shorter
distance than its all-electric range and plugged in to charge between trips, it may be
possible to use only electric power. Therefore, consistently charging the vehicle is the
best way to maximize the electric benefits.

5.4.3 Internal Structure

• The Internal Structure of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle is shown in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6. Internal Structure of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

5.4.4 Key Components of a Plug-In Hybrid Electric Car

a) Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides

electricity to start the car before the traction battery is engaged and also powers
vehicle accessories.
b) Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power
supply in order to charge the traction battery pack.
c) DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
d) Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking,
transferring that energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor
generators that perform both the drive and regeneration functions.
e) Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor
drives the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the
drive and regeneration functions.
f) Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out
through the tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions
within the exhaust system.
g) Fuel filler: A nozzle from a fuel dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the vehicle to
fill the tank.
h) Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed
by the engine.
i) Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected
into either the intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with
air, and the air/fuel mixture is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.
j) Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port
and converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates
with the charging equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage,
current, temperature, and state of charge while charging the pack.
k) Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy
delivered by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor
and the torque it produces.
l) Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature
range of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
m) Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
n) Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or
electric traction motor to drive the wheels.
 Figure 5.7 . Comparison between BEV and PHEV

Batteries for Hybrid and Plug-In Electric Vehicles

Energy storage systems, usually batteries, are essential for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs),
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and all-electric vehicles (EVs).

Types of Energy Storage Systems

a) Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable consumer electronics such as cell
phones and laptops because of their high energy per unit mass relative to other electrical
energy storage systems.

They also have a high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency, good high-
temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Most components of lithium-ion
batteries can be recycled, but the cost of material recovery remains a challenge for the
industry.

Most of today's PHEVs and EVs use lithium-ion batteries, though the exact chemistry
often varies from that of consumer electronics batteries. Research and development are
ongoing to reduce their relatively high cost, extend their useful life, and address safety
concerns in regard to overheating.

(b) Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries

Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and medical equipment, offer
reasonable specific energy and specific power capabilities. Nickel-metal hydride
 batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse
tolerant.

These batteries have been widely used in HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal
hydride batteries are their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high
temperatures, and the need to control hydrogen loss.

(c ) Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are inexpensive, safe, and
reliable. However, low specific energy, poor cold-temperature performance, and short
calendar and cycle life impede their use. Advanced high-power lead-acid batteries are
being developed, but these batteries are only used in commercially available electric-
drive vehicles for ancillary loads.

(d) Ultracapacitors

Ultracapacitors store energy in a polarized liquid between an electrode and an

electrolyte. Energy storage capacity increases as the liquid's surface area increases.
Ultracapacitors can provide vehicles additional power during acceleration and hill
climbing and help recover braking energy. They may also be useful as secondary energy-
storage devices in electric-drive vehicles because they help electrochemical batteries
level load power.

D) All-Electric vehicles (EV)

• All-electric vehicles (EVs) run on electricity only. They are propelled by one or more
electric motors powered by rechargeable battery packs.
• All-electric vehicles (EVs), also referred to as battery electric vehicles, have an
electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine. The vehicle uses a large
traction battery pack to power the electric motor and must be plugged in to a wall
outlet or charging equipment, also called electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE).
Because it runs on electricity, the vehicle emits no exhaust from a tailpipe and does
not contain the typical liquid fuel components, such as a fuel pump, fuel line, or fuel
tank.

Advantages:

• Energy efficient. EVs convert over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to
power at the wheels. Conventional gasoline vehicles only convert about 12%–30% of
the energy stored in gasoline to power at the wheels.
 • Environmentally friendly. EVs emit no tailpipe pollutants, although the power plant
producing the electricity may emit them. Electricity from nuclear-, hydro-, solar-, or
wind-powered plants causes no air pollutants.
• Performance benefits. Electric motors provide quiet, smooth operation and stronger
acceleration and require less maintenance than internal combustion engines (ICEs).
• Reduced energy dependence. Electricity is a domestic energy source.

Disadvantages:

• Driving range. EVs have a shorter driving range than most conventional vehicles—
although EV driving ranges are improving. Most EVs can travel more than 100 miles
on a charge, and some can travel in excess of 200 or 300 miles depending on the
model.
• Recharge time. Fully recharging the battery pack can take 3 to 12 hours. Even a "fast
charge" to 80% capacity can take 30 min.

5.5.1 Internal Structure

• The Internal Structure of All Electric Vehicle is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 5.8. Internal Structure of All Electric Vehicle

5.5.2 Key Components of an All-Electric Car

a) Battery (all-electric auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery

provides electricity to power vehicle accessories.
b) Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power supply
in order to charge the traction battery pack.
c) DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
d) Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives
the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and
regeneration functions.
e) Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and
converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates with the
charging equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage, current,
temperature, and state of charge while charging the pack.
f) Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered
by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque
it produces.
g) Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range
of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
h) Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
i) Transmission (electric): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the electric
traction motor to drive the wheels.
 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
IV B.Tech –I Sem (MR 20 - 2020-21 Batch) I-Mid Term Question Bank

Subject Code & Name: Utilization of Electrical Energy (A0243) Branch: EEE A&B
Name of the faculty: Dr.P.V.V. SAYANARAYANA

BT
Q.No. Question Marks CO
Level
MODULE I

1. Classify the different methods of electric heating. 5 L4 1

2. What is Resistance heating? Explain direct resistance heating 5 L2 1
method with neat diagram and mention its applications.
3. Explain the indirect resistance heating method with neat diagram 5 L2 1
4. With a neat diagram, explain the working of Metallic Arc welding. 5 L2 1
5. Compare AC welding and DC welding 5 L4 1
6. Explain the construction and working of Ajax-Wyatt furnace in 5 L4 1
detail with neat diagram and analyze the reason for the elimination
of pinch effect in this furnace.
7. Explain the working of Atomic- Hydrogen arc welding with neat 5 L2 1
diagram.
8. Explain the principle of dielectric heating. Also write the 5 L2 1
applications ofDielectric heating.

BT
Q.No. Question Marks CO
Level
MODULE II
1. Explain the working of fluorescent light with the help of a 5 L4 2
circuitdiagram and analyze different solutions for stroboscopic
effect.
2. Categorize the different lighting schemes and mention its 5 L4 2
applications.
3. State the application of Polar Curves in Illumination and 5 L3 2
explain thebasic principles of Light Control.
4. What are the objectives of a typical Street Lighting Scheme? 5 L3 2
Explain thetwo general principles employed in the design of street
lighting installation.
5. Explain the laws of illumination and derive the necessary 5 L2 2
expressions.
6. Explain with a neat diagram the principle of operation of a 5 L2 2
sodiumvapour lamp and mention its use.
 7. Describe the construction and working of high-pressure mercury 5 L2 2
vapourlamp.
8. Explain how Lumer–Brodhun photometer is used to find the 5 L2 2
candlepower or luminous intensity of a given source.

BT
Q.No. Question Marks CO
Level
MODULE III
1. State the main features for an ideal traction system. Explain the 5 L2 2
varioussystems of track electrification in India
2. Explain the different types of electric traction system with neat 5 L2 2
block diagram.
3. What is a Traction Motor? Justify with necessary characteristics 5 L5 2
diagram and equations that DC Series Motors are extensively
employed in DC Traction System.
4. Explain the construction and operation of AC series motor and 5 L5 2
justify with necessary expressions, characteristics diagrams and
phasor diagram that this motor is best suited for main line traction
service.

Prepared By : Dr.P.V.V. SAYANARAYANA

Signature : HOD Signature:

 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
B.TECH IVYEAR I Sem (MR 20)
Mid Examination I
Objective Question Bank

Subject Name: Utilization of Electrical Energy Branch: EEE

Subject Code: A0243 Name of the Faculty: Dr.PVV Sayanarayana

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
MODULE - 1
1 Which of the following heating element will have the least temperature range A
A. Eureka
B. Silicon carbon
C. Nichrome
D. Kanthal
2 Which of the following heating element can give highest temperature range in resistance heating B
A. Nichrome
B. Silicon carbide
C. Copper
D. Nickel-Cr-Fe alloy
3 Direct resistance heating is used in D
A. Electrode boiler
B. Salt bath furnace
C. Resistance welding
D. All of above
4 Radiant heating is used for C
A. Melting of ferrous metal
B. Annealing of metal
C. Drying of paints and varnishes
D. All of above
5 Induction heating takes place in D
A. Insulating materials
B. conducting and magnetic materials
C. Conducting but non=magnetic materials
D. Conducting material but may be magnetic or non-magnetic
6 Induction furnaces are used for A
A. Heat treatment of casting
B. Heating of insulations
C. Melting of aluminum
D. All of above
7 High frequency induction heating is used for C
A. Ferrous metals only
B. Non ferrous metals only
C. Both ferrous and nonferrous metals only
D. all of above
8 In dielectric heating current flows through B
 A. Air
B. dielectric
C. metallic conductor
D. Ionic discharge between dielectric medium and metallic conductor
9 For dielectric heating the range of frequency normally employed is D
A. 10KHZ to 100KHZ
B. 100KHZ to 10MHZ
C. 1MHZ to 10MHZ
D. 10MHZ to 40MHZ
10 The material of the heating element should be A
A. Such that if may withstand the required temperature without getting oxidized
B. At low resistivity
C. at low melting point
D. at high temperature coefficient
11 Which of the following is an advantage of heating by electricity D
A. Quicker operation
B. Higher efficiency
C. Absence of flue gases
D. All of the above
12 Which of the following methods of heating is not dependent on the frequency of supply C
A. Induction heating
B. Dielectric heating
C. Electric resistance heating
D. All of the above
13 Induction heating process is based on which of the following principles D
A. Thermal ion release principle
B. Nucleate heating principle
C. Resistance heating principle
D. Electromagnetic induction principle
14 The temperature inside a furnace is usually measured by which of the following A
A. Optical pyrometer
B. Mercury thermometer
C. Alcohol thermometer
D. Any of the above
15 Which of the following will happen if the thickness of refractory wall of furnace is Increased? C

A. Heat loss through furnace wall will increase

B. Temperature inside the furnace will fall
C. Temperature on the outer surface of furnace walls will drop
D. Energy consumption will increase
16 The material of the heating element for a furnace should have C
A. lower melting point
B. higher temperature coefficient
C. high specific resistance
D. all of the above
17 In a resistance furnace the atmosphere is A
A. Oxidizing
B. de-oxidizing
C. reducing
D. neutral
18 A non-dimensional number generally associated with natural convection heat transfer is B
A. Prandtl number
B. Grashoff number
C. Pecelet number
D. Nusselt number
19 has the highest value of thermal conductivity. A
A. Copper
B. Aluminium
C. Brass
D. Steel
20 For intermittent work which of the following furnaces is suitable
A. Indirect arc furnace A
B. Core less furnace
C. Either of the above
D. None of the above
21 Which one of the following is a temporary joint B
A. Welded joint
B. Press fit joint
C. Soldered joint
D. Riveted joint
22 Which type of fire extinguisher is used in a welding shop D
A. Halon extinguisher
B. Foam type extinguisher
C. Dry powder extinguisher
D. Carbon Dioxide extinguisher
23 The arc utilized in electric arc welding is a C
A. High voltage, high current discharge
B. Low voltage, low current discharge
C. Low voltage, high current discharge
D. High voltage, low current discharge
24 Which one of the following is the type of transformer used in arc welding A
A. Step down
B. Step up
C. One-to-one
D. Capable of increasing supply voltage
25 The welding machine, which is used to convert AC welding supply to DC welding supply is C
A. Engine generator set
B. Welding transformer
C. Rectifier set
D. Motor generator set
26 In DC welding heat distribution is possible between electrode and the base metal due to the A
change of polarity. The distribution of heat is
A. Positive 2/3 and negative 1/3
B. Positive 1/3 and negative 2/3
C. Positive 3/4 and negative 1/4
D. Positive 1/4 and negative 3/4
27 The size of a welding machine is determined by C
A. Open circuit voltage
B. Closed circuit voltage
C. Output amperage
 D. Input amperage
28 The electrode size refers to A
A. diameter of its core wire
B. thickness of flux coating
C. diameter (overall) of electrode
D. length of electrode
29 Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are used in C
A. Induction heating of steel
B. Dielectric heating
C. Induction heating of brass
D. Resistance heating
30 Ajax Wyatt furnace he's started when B
A. It is filled below core level
B. It is filled above core level
C. It is fully empty
D. None of the above
31 In direct arc furnace which of the following has highest value? A
A. Current
B. Voltage
C. Power factor
D. All of the above
32 Direct arc furnaces have which of the following power factors? B
A. Unity
B. Low, lagging
C. Low, leading
D. Any of the above
33 .......... is used for heating non-conducting materials D
A. Eddy current heating
B. Arc heating
C. Induction heating
D. Dielectric heating
34 Induction heating process is based on which of the following principles ? D
A. Thermal ion release principal
B. Nucleate heating principal
C. Resistance heating principal
D. Electromagnetic induction principle
35 Which of the following has the highest value of thermal conductivity? C
A. Water
B. Steam
C. Solid ice
D. Melting ice
36 In induction heating.........is abnormally high B
A. Phase angle
B. Frequency
C. Current
D. Voltage
37 For heating element high resistivity material is chosen to A
A. Reduce the length of heating element
B. Increase the life of the heating element
 C. Reduce the effect of oxidation
D. Producing large amount of heat
38 Induction heating takes place in which of the following? D
A. Insulating materials
B. Conducting materials which are magnetic
C. Conducting materials which are non-magnetic
D. Conducting materials which may or may not be magnetic
39 In resistance heating highest working temperature is obtained from heating elements made of C
A. Nickel copper
B. Nichrome
C. Silicon carbide
D. Silver
40 Which of the following heating methods has maximum power factor D
A. Arc heating
B. Dielectric heating
C. Induction heating
D. Resistance heating
41 For the transmission of heat from one body to another A
A. Temperature of the two bodies must be different
B. Both bodies must be solids
C. Both bodies must be in contact
D. At least one of the bodies must have some source of heating
42 Heat transfer by condition will not occur when D
A. Bodies are kept in vacuum
B. Bodies are immersed in water
C. Bodies are exposed to thermal radiations
D. Temperatures of the two bodies are identical
43 Which of the following methods of heating is not dependent on the frequency of supply? C
A. Induction heating
B. Dielectric heating
C. Electrical resistance heating
D. All of the above
44 The voltage - current characteristics of the arc welding must be B
A. Exponentially rising
B. Drooping
C. Straight line
D. Parabolic
45 Spot welding is used to weld metal pieces whose thickness B
A. Should be greater than 12 mm
B. Lesser than 12 mm
C. Lies between 15 to 20 mm
D. Greater than 20 mm
46 The electrodes used for projection welding are B
A. Flat and smaller in diameter
B. Flat and larger in diameter
C. Round and smaller in diameter
D. Round and larger in diameter
47 Seam welding is not used for the D
A. Welding in tanks
B. Welding in transformers
C. Welding in air crafts
 D. Welding alloys of copper
48 Eureka is an alloy of B
A. Nickel and chromium
B. Nickel and copper
C. Iron, chromium and aluminium
D. Nickel, chromium and aluminium
49 In salt bath heating, the current are allowed to flow only through the A
A. Only through the salt bath
B. Only through the material being heated
C. The metal piece
D. None of these
50 Direct resistance heating method is used in D
A. Salt bath furnaces
B. Resistance welding
C. Electrode boiler for heating water
D. All of these
MODULE - 2
51 Light C
A. Is a form of heat energy
B. Is a form of electrical energy
C. Consist of electromagnetic waves
D. consist of shooting particles
52 An object which appears red to the eyes absorbs D
A. Blue radiations
B. violet radiations
C. green radiations
D. all of the above
53 Sky appears blue due to D
A. Radiation
B. reflection
C. refraction
D. scathing of light over dust particles
54 A fluorescent tube can be operated on A
A. Both DC as well as AC
B. AC only
C. DC only
D. satisfactorily only on DC
55 Luminous flux is A
A. The rate of energy radiation in the form of light wave
B. The part of light energy radiated by the sun that is received in earth
C. Measuring in lux
D. None
56 Candle power is B
A. The luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle
B. The light radiated capacity of a source in a given direction
C. The unit of illumination
D. all of the above
57 The illumination at various points in a horizontal surface illuminated by the same source varies C
as
A. COS
 B. COS 2 
C. COS 3 
D. 1
COS
58 An electric bulb when broken producer bang it is an account of A
A. Vacuum inside the bulb
B. pressure inside is equal to that out side
C. Pressure at air in the bulb
D. none
59 Sodium vapor lamp needs an ionization voltage of about A
A. 5 V
B. 20 V
C. 50 V
D. 100 V
60 The illumination level in houses is in the range of B
A. 20-50 lux
B. 100-200 lux
C. 300-500 lux
D. 700 lux
61 Carbon arc lamps are commonly used in C
A. domestic lighting
B. street lighting
C. cinema projectors
D. photography
62 Candela is the unit of B
A. Luminous flux
B. Luminous intensity
C. Wavelength
D. None of the above
63 The unit of luminous flux is C
A. Steradian
B. candela
C. lumen
D. lux
64 The illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle made by the normal to the D
illuminated surface with the direction of the incident flux. Above statement is associated with
A. Planck's law
B. Macbeth’s law of illumination
C. Euler’s law
D. Lambert's cosine law
65 Which of the following will need the highest level of illumination A
A. Proof reading
B. Bed rooms
C. Hospital wards
D. Railway platforms
66 The illumination level in houses is in the range D
A. 10-20 lumen/m2
B. 30 - 50 lumen/m2
C. 40-75 lumen/m2
 D. 100-140 lumen/m2
67 One lumen per square meter is the same as A
A. One candela
B. One foot candle
C. One lumen meter
D. none
68 Illumination level required for precision work is around D
A. 50 lm/m2
B. 100 lm/m2
C. 200 lm/m2
D. 500 lm/m2
69 Which of the following will need the highest level of illumination A
A. Proof reading
B. Bed rooms
C. Hospital wards
D. Railway platforms
70 Which of the following lamp gives nearly monochromatic light A
A. Sodium vapor lamp
B. GLS lamp
C. Tube light
D. Mercury vapor lamp
71 In fluorescent lamp one capacitor is connected across the lamp circuit and another is connected C
across the starter. Then
A. Both the capacitors are used for improving power factor
B. Both the capacitors are used for reducing radio interference
C. Former capacitors is used for improving power factor and later is used for reducing radio
interference
D. Former capacitors is used for reducing radio interference and later is used for improving power
factor

72 The main electrode of high pressure mercury vapour lamp is made up of C

A. Quartz
B. Hard glass
C. Tungsten
D. Bronze
73 The practical luminous efficiency of the sodium vapour lamp is of the order of B
A. 25 to 40 lumens per watt
B. 40 to 45 lumens per watt
C. 45 to 50 lumens per watt
D. 60 to 67 lumens per watt
74 Maintenance factor is the ratio of C
A. Lumens on the working plane under normal working conditions to the lumens on the working
plane under ideal condition
B. Lumens on the working plane under ideal working conditions to the lumens on the working
plane under normal condition
C. Lumens falling on the working plane to the lumens emitted by the working plane under ideal
condition
D. Lumens emitting by the working plane to the lumens falling on the working plane under ideal
condition
75 For avoiding hard and long shadows, B
A. Large number of small luminaries mounted at a height of less than 2.5 m can be used
B. Large number of small luminaries mounted at a height of not less than 2.5 m can be used
C. Small number of small luminaries mounted at a height of less than 2.5 m can be used
D. Small number of large luminaries mounted at a height of not less than 2.5 m can be used
76 For best visual performance, the range of brightness within the field of vision A
A. Should be less than 3:1
B. Should be greater than 3:1
C. Should be less than 1:3
D. Should be greater than 1:3
77 The dielectric strength of air gap is C
A. 2.11kV/cm
B. 21.1kV/m
C. 21.1kV/cm
D. 2.11kV/m
78 The inside wall of fluorescent tube is coated with B
A. Sulphur powder`
B. Phosphor powder
C. Sodium
D. Krypton
79 Nitrogen is added with the argon in an incandescent lamp to B
A. Reduce the temperature
B. Reduce the possibility of arcing
C. Increase the brightness
D. Increase the efficiency
80 The artificial source of light is D
A. Arc lamp
B. Incandescent lamp
C. Discharge lamp
D. All of these
81 The polar curves are used to find out the A
A. MHCP
B. Luminous Intensity
C. Lux
D. None of these
82 According to the first law of illumination, the illumination of a surface due to a source of light B
is
A. Inversely proportional to the distance between the surface and the source of light
B. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the surface and the source of light
C. Directly proportional to the distance between the surface and the source of light
D. Directly proportional to the square of the distance between the surface and the source of light
83 According to second law of illumination, the illumination at any point on an inclined Surface is A
A. Directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal to the surface at that point
B. Directly proportional to the sin of the angle between the normal to the surface at that point
C. Directly proportional to the tan of the angle between the normal to the surface at that point
D. Directly proportional to the cot of the angle between the normal to the surface at that point
84 Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its B
A. Mean horizontal candle power to the mean spherical candle power
B. Mean spherical candle power to the mean horizontal candle power
C. Maximum horizontal candle power to the mean spherical candle power
D. Mean spherical horizontal candle power to the maximum spherical candle power
85 The glare can be reduced by C
A. Decreasing the height of bright light sources
B. Using glossy surfaces for bench tops
C. Using reflectors to the bright sources
D. All of these
86 Flood lighting is used for D
A. For enhancing the beauty of building at nights
B. For illuminating sports stadium
C. For illuminating show cases
D. All of these
87 The suitable lamps for street lighting are A
A. Mercury vapour lamps
B. Fluorescent lamp
C. Incandescent lamp
D. None of these
88 The illumination due to good daylight is approximately equal to B
A. 100 lux
B. 200 lux
C. 300 lux
D. 400 lux
89 Lux is the unit of D
A. Luminous flux
B. Luminous intensity
C. Illumination
D. Luminance
90 The range of visible radiation lies between D
A. 2000 angstrom to 2500 angstrom
B. 4000 angstrom to 4500 angstrom
C. 5000 angstrom to 6000 angstrom
D. 4000 angstrom to 7500 angstrom
91 With increase in temperature of the body, the emission of light waves is A
A. Increases
B. Decreases
C. Remains same
D. None of these
92 The radiant efficiency of the luminous source depends on B
A. The shape of the source
B. The temperature of the source
C. The wavelength of the light rays
D. All of the above
93 Lightwave travel with a velocity of A
A. 3 × 1010 cm/s
B. 3 × 1012 cm/s
C. 3 × 1015 cm/s
D. 3 × 1018 cm/s
94 The unit of solid angle is C
A. Solid Angle
B. Radian
 C. Steradian
D. Candela
95 Which cells in the eye are responsible for scotopic vision? B
A. Cone cells
B. Rod cells
C. Eye Balls
D. None of these
96 Which lamps can be directly connected to a solar cell? D
A. Incandescent
B. Metal Halide
C. Compact Fluorescent
D. LED
97 Candela/metre square is the unit of which photometric quantity? C
A. Illuminance
B. Luminous flux
C. Luminance
D. Luminous Intensity
98 Which lamp is best suited for lighting an International sports arena? B
A. Incandescent
B. Metal Halide
C. Compact Fluorescent
D. LED
99 What is the work of a driver in case of an LED? A
A. To convert AC to DC
B. To convert DC to AC
c. Rectification
D. None of these

100 Which lamp has a negative Colour Rendering Index (CRI)? D

A. LED
B. Fluorescent
C. High pressure sodium vapour
D. Low pressure sodium vapour
MODULE - 3
101 Main traction system used in India are using locomotives D
A. Steam engine
B. diesel engine
C. electric engines
D. all of the above
102 Sub urban railways use A
A. 1500 V DC
B. 400 V, 3 phase AC
C. 330 V 3 phase AC
 D. 600V 3phase AC
103 Long distance railways operate in B
A. 600 V DC
B. 25 KV single phase AC
C. 25 KV 3 ph AC
D. 15 KV 3 ph AC
104 The braking retardation for urban (or) sub urban service is B
A. 1.5-2.5 KMPHS
B. 3-4 KMPHS
C. 5-10 KMPHS
D. 0.5-1.5 KMPHS
105 The maximum speed at which trains run in main line railway service is A
A. 160 KMPH
B. 120KMPH
C. 100 KMPH
D. 200 KMPH
106 In sub urban trains the train motors are installed in A
A. Locomotive only
B. locomotive and coaches
C. coaches only
D. Near transformers
107 The type of DC motors used in electric traction is A
A. Series motors
B. shunt motors
C. separately excited motors
D. none
108 The braking system employed with steam locomotives is A
A. Vacuum system
B. Pneumatic system
C. Hydraulic system
D. Any of the above
109 The type of braking used in electric traction is C
A. Mechanical braking
B. Vacuum brake system
C. Electro pneumatic braking
D. All the above
110 The normal value of coefficient of adhesion is A
A. 0.25
B. 0.35
C. 0.5
D. 0.65
111 The efficiency of diesel locomotives is about A
A. 25
B. 30
C. 35
D. 40
112 For standard passenger locomotives the crushing range is around Km. B
A. 110
B. 160
C. 170
 D. 190
113 Maintenance and operating cost of diesel electric locomotives are A
A. High
B. Low
C. Moderate
D. None
114 Sub urban railway service need acceleration and braking retardation and Stopping and B

starting.
A. Slow, Free
B. Rapid, Slow
C. Slow, Rapid
D. None
115 In electric traction the torque exerted is where as in steam traction it is . A
A. Continuous, Pulsating
B. Pulsating, Rapid
C. Rapid, Acceleration
D. None
116 The overall efficiency of steam locomotives is D
A. 11-15%
B. 12-14%
C. 14-16%
D. 10-15%
117 In Calcutta city train ways are a means of public transport A
A. Still
B. Run
C. slow
D. None C
118 The in case of train ways is regenerative one
A. Electric is employed
B. Supply is cut off
C. Braking Employed
D. None
119 braking is used in trolley buses A
A. Plain Rheostatic
B. Plugging
C. None
D. Regenerative
120 Cost of of track is more than that of DC electric traction A
A. AC traction
B. Non electric traction
C. Composite traction
D. None
121 The return circuit for tramcars is through B
A. neutral wire
B. rails
C. cables
D. common earthing
122 was the first city in India to adopt electric traction. D
A. Delhi
B. Madras
C. Calcutta
D. Bombay
123 frequency is not common in low frequency traction system A
A. 40 Hz
B. 25 Hz
C. 16 -3 Hz
D. none of the above
124 For 25 kV single phase system power supply frequency is B
A. 60 Hz
B. 50 Hz
C. 25 Hz
D. 16 - Hz
125 Power for lighting in passenger coach, in a long distance electric train, is provided B
A. directly through overhead electric line
B. through individual generator of bogie and batteries
C. through rails
D. through locomotive

Signature of the Faculty Signature of HOD

 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
IV B.Tech. –I Sem (MR 20 - 2020-21 Batch) II-Mid Term Question Bank

Subject Code & Name: Utilization of Electrical Energy (A0243) Branch: EEE A & B
Name of the faculty: Dr.P.V.V. Sayanarayana

BT
Q.No. Question Marks CO
Level
MODULE III
1. Explain plugging type of braking with reference to DC motor and
5 L2 3
Induction Motor.
2. Explain regenerative braking and dynamic braking with reference
5 L2 3
to DC motor.
3. Analyze the essential mechanical features and electrical characteristics
5 L4 3
required for the selection of traction motors
4. Compare the characteristics of DC series motor and AC series
5 L4 3
motor with reference to traction application.

S.No Marks BT Level CO

Question
MODULE IV
1. Draw and explain the typical speed-time curve for (i) Urban 5 L2 4
Service (ii) sub-urban service and (ii) Main line service
2. Explain dead weight, accelerating weight and train resistance 5 L2 4
referred to traction
3. List the factors affecting the scheduled speed of the train and 5 L4 4
derive the expression for the maximum speed (Vm) of the train
using simplified trapezoidal speed-time curve.
4. List the factors affecting the scheduled speed of the train and 5 L4 4
derive the expression for the distance travelled by the train using
quadrilateral speed-time curve.
5. The distance between two stops is 1.2 km. A schedule speed of 40 5 L5 4
kmph is required to cover the distance. The stop is 18-s duration.
The values of acceleration and retardation are 2kmphps and 3
kmphps, respectively. Determine the maximum speed over the
run. Assume a simplified trapezoidal speed-time curve.
6. The speed–time curve of train carries of the following parameters: 5 L5 4
Free running for 12 min, Uniform acceleration of 6.5 kmphps for
20 s, Uniform deceleration of 6.5 kmphps to stop the train and A
stop of 7 min. Determine the distance between two stations, the
average, and the schedule speeds.
7. Derive the expression for specific energy output from the driving 5 L3 4
axles using a simplified speed time curve. Assume necessary
initialconditions.
 8. Deduce the necessary expression to calculate total tractive effort 5 L3 4
required to run a train on track.

Q.No. Question Marks BT Level CO

MODULE V
1. Briefly explain the different types of electric vehicles and write its 5 L2 5
advantages and disadvantages.
2. What are the types of batteries used in EV? Explain it in detail? 5 L2 5
3. List out the dominant factors contributing to the success of electric 5 L4 5
vehicle in the marketplace?
4. List out the key components of a hybrid electric vehicle and 5 L4 5
explain the different types of hybrid electric vehicle with relevant
block diagrams.
5. With a neat diagram explain the structure and operation of battery- 5 L2 5
operated electric vehicle.
6. Explain the concept of electric drive vehicles and its application. 5 L2 5
7. Explain plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and write its advantages 5 L2 5
and disadvantages.
8. Explain Battery electric vehicles and write its advantages and 5 L2 5
disadvantages.

Prepared By : Dr. P.V.V. Sayanarayana

Signature : HOD Signature:

 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
B.TECH IVYEAR I Sem (MR 20)
Mid Examination II
Objective Question Bank

Subject Name: Utilization of Electrical Energy Branch: EEE

Subject Code: A0243 Name of the Faculty: Dr.P.V.V. Sayanarayana

1. Sub urban railways use [a]

a)1500 V DC b) 400 V, 3 phase AC c) 330 V 3 phase AC d) 600V 3phase AC
2. The type of braking used in electric traction is [c]
a) Mechanical braking b) Vacuum brake system c) Electro pneumatic braking d) All
the above
3. Maintenance and operating cost of diesel electric locomotives are [a]
a) High b) Low c) Moderate d) None
4. The overall efficiency of steam locomotives is [d]
a) 11-15% b) 12-14% c) 14-16% d) 10-15%
5. The return circuit for tramcars is through [b]
a) neutral wire b) rails c) cables d) common earthing
6. For 25 kV single phase system power supply frequency is [b]
a) 60 Hz b) 50 Hz c) 25 Hz d) 16 - Hz
7. To save energy during braking-----------------braking is used? [c]
a) dynamic b) plugging c) regenerative d) all of the above
8. The braking retardation for urban (or) sub urban service is [b]
a) 1.5-2.5 KMPHS b) 3-4 KMPHS c) 5-10 KMPHS d) 0.5-1.5 KMPHS
9. Which of the following are electrical braking methods ? [d]
a) dynamic b) plugging c) regenerative d) all of the above
10. was the first city in India to adopt electric traction [d]
a) Delhi. b) Madras c) Calcutta d) Bombay
11. Which braking is not possible in series motor? [a]
a) Regenerative braking b) Dynamic braking c) Counter current braking d) Rheostat
braking
12. Polarity of supply voltage is reversed in which type of braking? [c]
a) Regenerative braking b) Dynamic braking c) Plugging d) None of these
13. In industries which electrical braking is preferred? [a]
a) Regenerative braking b) Plugging c) Dynamic braking d) None of the above.
14. The brushes of electrical machines are made of [a]
a) Carbon b) Copper c) Cast iron d) Steel
15. Which of the following method of speed control of d.c. machine will offer minimum [a]
efficiency?
a) Armature control method b) Field control method c) Voltage control method d)
All above methods
16. In which of the following methods of speed control computation is unsatisfactory? [b]
 a) Armature current control method b) Field control method c) Voltage control
method d) All above method
17. The plugging gives the [b]
a) Smallest torque breaker b) Highest torque breaker c) Zero torque breaker d) None
of them
18. Which of the method of breaking will be selected if the highest braking torque is [c]
required?
a) Dynamic braking b) Regenerative braking c) Counter breaking d) None of the
above
19. If the terminals of armature of d.c. machine are interchanged, this action will offer [a]
following kind of braking.
a) Plugging b) Regenerative c) Dynamic braking d) Any of the above
20. If we have to control the speed of 150 HP d.c. motor from zero to 1000 rpm having [b]
rated speed of 1500 rpm. Then it will be preferred to
a) Select a motor of 150 HP, 1500 r.p.m. b) Select a motor of 1.5 × 150 HP, 1500
r.p.m. c) Select a motor of 150 HP, 750 r.p.m. d) Select a motor of 75 HP, 1500
r.p.m.
21. [a]
Speed control by variation of field flux results in
a) constant power drive b) constant torque drive c) variable power drive d) none of
the above
22. [b]
For which off the following applications DC motors are still preferred?
a) High operation b) Variable speed drive c) High starting torque d) Reversibility
23. [d]
Which of the following motors is preferred when quick speed reversal is the main
consideration?
a) Squirrel cage induction motor b) Wound rotor induction motor c) Synchronous
motor d) DC motor
24. [a]
Which off the following motors is preferred when a smooth and precise speed
control over a wide range is desired?
a) DC motor b) Squirrel cage induction motor c) Wound rotor induction motor d)
Synchronous motor
25. [b]
When an electric train is moving down a hill the DC motor operates as a DC
a) Series motor b) Series generator c) Shunt motor d) Shunt generator
26. The speed time curve for urban services has no [b]
(a) Coasting period (b) free running period (c) braking period (d) acceleration
period

27. Free running and coasting periods are generally long in case of [c]
(a) City service (b) sub urban service (c) main line service (d) outer sub
urban service

28. In sub urban services as compared to urban services [a]

 (a) The coasting period is longer (b) The coasting period is smaller but free running
period is longer (c) The coasting and free running periods are smaller (d) none of the
above
29. Trapezoidal speed time curve pertains of [a]
(a) Main line service (b) urban service (c) sub urban service (d) None
30. Quadrilateral speed time curve is the close approximation for [c]
(a) Urban service (b) sub urban service (c) urban/sub urban service (d) Main line
service
31. Area under the speed time curve represents [a]
(a) Total distance traveled (b) average speed (c) average acceleration (d) None
32. The speed of train estimated taking in to account the stoppage time at a station in [b]
addition to the Actual running time between stop is Called the Speed
(a)Average (b) Schedule (c) Free running (d) notching
33. The average speed of a train is independent of [a]
(a) Duration of stop (b) acceleration and braking retardation
(b) Distance between stops (d) running time
34. The schedule speed of a given train when running in a given service is affected by [d]
(a) Acceleration and braking retardation (b) maximum (or) crest speed (c) Duration
of stop (d) all of above
35. Skidding of a vehicle always occurs when [a]
(a) Braking effort exceeds its adhesive (b) brake is applied suddenly
(c) It negotiates a curve (d) it passes over point and crossing
36. Owing to high center of gravity of steam locomotives, the speed [b ]
(a) Extended (b) Limited (c) both (d) None
37. The efficiency of IC engine at its normal speed is about percent [d]
(a) 10 (b)15 (c) 20 (d) 25
38. For the same power diesel electric locomotives is_ than steam (or) electric [a]
locomotive
(a) Cheaper (b) Costlier (c) Both (d) None
39. Operating voltage for DC traction is volts [b]
(a) 2000 (b) 1500 (c) 1000 (d) 2500
40. The maximum speed attained by the vehicle during the run is called the speed [a]
(a)Crest (b) Average (c) Both (d)None
41. In similar conditions the energy consumption in _ is more as compared with AC [c ]
traction
System.
(a) Non electric traction (b) Diesel electric traction (c) Dc traction system (d) None
42. the train resistance increases linearly with speed. [ a]
(a) During starting (b) During running (c) Braking (d) None
43. AC series motors are employed for getting necessary motive power [a]
(a)1 Phase power (b) 2 phase power (c) 3 phase power (d) None

44. The speed of the linear induction motor drive will be that of the travelling field [b]
(a) More than (b) lesser than (c) Equal to (d) None
45. Speed control of motors in AC traction is and Wasteful that in Dc system [c]
(a) Easy (b) Moderate (c) Difficult (d) None
46. Pantograph collector works on [a ]
(a) AC (b) DC (c)Both (d) none
47. Specific energy consumption is least in service [ a]
(a) Main line service (b) urban service (c) sub urban service (d) None
48. frequency is not common in low frequency traction system [b]
(a)25HZ (b) 40Hz (c) 162/3HZ (d) None
49. Battery operated trucks are used in [d]
(a) Steel mills (b) power stations (c) narrow gauge traction (d) None
50. The value of coefficient of adhesion will be high when rails are [ d]
(a) Greased (b) wet (c) sprayed with oil (d) cleaned with sand
51. The demand factor must be always [c]
(a) =1 (b) >1 (c) <1 (d) All of the above
52 The unit per cost is low when load factor is [ a]
(a) High (b) Low (c) =1 (d) None
53. In order to reduce the tariff the load factor and diversity factor should be [b]
(a) =1 (b) >1 (c) <1 (d) All of the above
54. The speed of a superfast train is [d]
(a) 60kmph (b) 75kmph (c) 100kmph (d) more than 100kmph
56. Quadrilateral speed time curves pertains to which of the following services [ d]
(a) Main line service (b) urban service (c) sub urban service (d) Urban/suburban
service
57. The normal value of coefficient of adhesion is [a]
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.35 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.65
58. The power factor of Inductive Load is [b]
(a) >1 (b) <1 (c) =1 (d) None
59. The Load factor must be to low cost of Electrical Energy [a]
(a) >1 (b) <1 (c) =1 (d) None
60. Long distance railways operate in [b]
(a) 600 V DC (b) 25 KV single phase AC (c) 25 KV 3 ph AC (d) 15 KV 3 ph AC
61. The braking retardation for urban (or) sub urban service is [ b]
(a) 1.5-2.5 KMPHS (b) 3-4 KMPHS(c) 5-10 KMPHS (d) 0.5-1.5 KMPHS
62. The maximum speed at which trains run in main line railway service is [a]
(a) 160 KMPH (b) 120 KMPH (c) 100 KMPH (d) 200 KMPH
63. The type of DC motors used in electric traction is [a]
(a) Series motors (b) shunt motors (c) separately excited motors (d) none
64. The type of braking used in electric traction is [ c]
(a) Mechanical braking (b) vacuum brake system (c) electro pneumatic braking (d)
 both b & c
65. The Power factor can be improved by [ a]
(a) Shunt capacitor (b) shunt inductor (c) series Capacitor (d) series inductor
66. The unit per cost is low when load factor is [ a]
(a) High (b) Low (c) =1 (d) None
67. Cost of of track is more than that of DC electric traction [a]
(a) AC traction (b) non electric traction (c) Both a & b (d) None
68. braking is used in trolley buses [a]
(a) Plain Rheostatic (b) Plugging (c) None (d) Regenerative
69. The in case of train ways is regenerative one [ c]
(a)Electricity is employed (b) Supply is cut off (c) Braking Employed (d) None
70. The overall efficiency of steam locomotives is____________ [ a]
(a)11-15% (b)12-14% (c) 14-16% (d) 10-15%
71. In electric traction the torque exerted is where as in steam traction it [b]
is .
(a) Continuous, Pulsating (b) Pulsating, Rapid (c) Rapid, Acceleration (d)None
72. Sub urban railway service need acceleration and braking retardation and [b]
Stopping and starting.
(a) Slow, Free (b) Rapid, Slow (c) Slow, Rapid (d) None
73. Maintenance and operating cost of diesel electric locomotives are [ a]
(a)High (b) Low (c)Moderate (d) None
74. For standard passenger locomotives the crushing range is around Km. [ b]
(a)110 (b) 160 (c) 170 (d) 190
75. The efficiency of diesel locomotives is about [ a]
(a) 25 (B) 30 (c) 35 (d) 40
76. When was the first electric car invented? [ c]
(a) 1830 (b) 1985 (c) 1832 (d) 1945
77. Electric Vehicles are generally powered by [ b]
(a) Aluminum batteries (b) Lead-acid batteries (c) Sodium batteries (d) Magnesium
batteries
78. Who coined the term battery? [ c]
(a) George Franklin (b) Benjamin Fernandes (c) Benjamin Franklin (d) George Bush
79. Who invented the battery? [ a]
(a) Alessandro Volta (b) Alexander Bell (c) Alessandro Bell (d) Tim Southee
80. Calculate the active power in a 315 F capacitor. [ c]
(a) 45W (b) 81W (c)0W (d) 64W
81. Full form of EV is [ b]
(a) Energy voltage (b) Electric vehicles (c) Electric voltage (d) Energy vehicles
82. The consideration involved in the selection of the type of electric drive for a [ d]
particular application depends upon
(a) Speed control range and its nature (b) Starting Nature
(c) Environmental condition (d) All the above
83. Which of the following motor is preferred for automatic drives? [ a]
(a) Ward Leonard controlled dc motors (b)Squirrel cage induction motor (c)
Synchronous motors (d) Shunt Motor
84. The consideration involved in the selection of the type of electric drive for the Load [ d]
Variation application depends upon
 (a) Constant Load (b) Continuous Variable Load (c) Pulsating Load
(d) All of the above
85. drive is also called as Line shaft drive [ d]
(a) Individual drive (b) Multimotor drive (c) Group Drive (d) Nome of the above
86. The advantages of a group driver electric drive are [ a]
(a) High efficiency (b) Low Noise (c) Constant speed (d) All of the above
87. The disadvantages of group drive electric machine is/are [ c]
(a) Low efficiency (b) Low overload capacity (c) Can’t be used for constant
operation (d) All of the above
88. In drive each machine is driven by its own separate motor with the help [ a]
of gears and pulley
(a) Individual drive (b) Multimotor drive (c) Group Drive (d) Nome of the above
89. The advantages of the individual drive is/are [ d]
(a) Flexibility in operation (b) Each machine can be run or stop as desired (c)
Maintenance of Line shaft, bearing is eliminated (d) All of the above
90. The drive which is used for metal-cutting machines tools, rolling mills etc. are [ b]
(a) Individual drive (b) Multimotor drive (c) Group Drive (d) Nome of the above
91. duty cycle consist of frequent on load and off-load period. [ d]
(a) Continuous Duty with constant Load (b) Continuous Duty With the variable load
(c) Short Time duty (d) Intermittent duty
92. Which duty cycle is preferred if the load requires a constant power for short period [ a]
of time and rest for sufficient longer duration.?
(a) Short Time duty (b) Intermittent duty (c) Intermittent duty with starting (d)
Intermittent duty with starting and braking
93. Which of the following motors is preferred for traction work? [ b]
(a) Synchronous Motor (b) 3 phase induction motor (c) DC Shunt Motor (d) Single
phase induction motor
94. For an application which requires smooth and precise speed control over the wide [ d]
range, the motor is preferred is
(a) Squirrel cage Induction Motor (b)Synchronous Motor (c) DC motor (d)Wound
Rotor Induction Motor
95. Which type of drive can be used for Hoisting Machinery? [ d]
(a) AC slip Ring Motor (b) Ward Leonard Method (c) Cumulative Compound Motor
(d) All of the above
96 A wound rotor induction motor is preferred over squirrel cage induction motor when [ d]
the major consideration involved is
(a) High starting Torque (b) Low starting current (c) Speed control over the limited
range (d) All of the above
97. A synchronous Motor is found more economical when the load is above [ d]
(a) 1 kW (b) 10 kW (c) 20 kW (d)100 kW
98. Stator voltage control for the speed control of induction motor is suitable for [ a]
(a) Fan and Pump Drive (b) Drive of a crane (c) Running as the generator
(d)Constant Load drive
99. The selection of control gear for a particular application is based on the [ d]
consideration of
(a) Duty (b)Starting Torque (c)Limitation of starting current (d) All of the above
100. In motor, the static frequency changers are used for [ d]
(a) Power factor management (b) Improved cooling (c) Reversal of direction (d)
Speed Regulation
101 A pole changing type squirrel cage motor used in derricks has four, eight and [ d]
twenty-four poles. In this, the medium speed is used for
(a) Lifting (b) Hoisting (c) Lowering (d)Landing the load
102. which of the following is NOT the type of Hybrid Vehicle? [ c]
(a) Plug-in Hybrid (b) Parallel Hybrid (c) Natural Gas For Vehicles (d) Series
Hybrid
103. The Hybrid Electric Vehicle consists of : [ a]
(a) Internal Combustion Engine + Electric Motor (b) Motor Electric 1 + Motor
electric 2 (c) NGV engine + Gasoline engine (d) none of the above
104. "In this system, the engine is used to supply electrical power to the motor, which [ a]
then turns the wheels" Select the type of Hybrid System according to above
description.
(a) Series Hybrid (b) Parallel Hybrid (c) Plug-in Hybrid (d) Series-parallel Hybrid
105. "The wheels are driven by both the engine and the motor" [ b]
Select the type of Hybrid System according to above description.
(a) Series Hybrid (b) Parallel Hybrid (c) Plug-in Hybrid (d) Series-parallel Hybrid
106. Select the features of Hybrid Electric Vehicles [ a]
(a) Idle Stop (b) EV Drive (c) Regenerative Braking (d) All the above
107. The electric motor in a hybrid car can also act as : [ c]
(a) cooling fan (b) fuel pump (c) generator (d)brake
108. Regenerative braking involves :
(a) nanofibers that repair the surface of brake pads (b) reducing the amount of [ c]
friction necessary to slow a car (c) reclaiming heat from the brakes and using it for
power (d) All the above
109. The benefits of a hybrid car include : [ a]
(a) reducing emissions (b) high fuel consumption (c) high speed driving (d) All the
above
110. A is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, just the [ b]
batteries, or a combination of the two.
(a) Mild Hybrid (b) Full Hybrid (c) Fuel Cell (d) Assist Hybrid
112. A Toyota Prius C Hybrid has engine. [ a]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) half (d)no
113. Select the cycle use in a Hybrid Engine. [ c]
(a) Otto (b) Diesel (c) Atkinson (d) Isentropic
114. The power factor of the reluctance motor at full load is [ d]
(a) Unity (b) 0.2 – 0.3 (c) 0.8 (d) 0.6 – 0.7
115. The efficiency of the reluctance motor is around [ c]
(a) 95% (b) 90% (c)70 to 80% (d) 60 to 75%
116. What is the colour of a positive plate of a lead-acid battery? [ d]
a) White b) Grey c) White d) Brown
117. What gets deposited on the plates of a discharged lead-acid battery? [ d]
 a) PbO2 b) Pb2O4 c) Pb d) PbSO4
118. What should a fully-charged 6 cell automotive battery indicate? [ d]
a) 12 V b) 12.6 V c) The specific gravity of 1.29 at 32℃ d) 12.6 V and the specific
gravity of 1.29 at 32℃
119. What is a maintenance-free battery? [ b]
a) A battery having lead-antimony plate grid b) A battery having lead-calcium plate
grid c) A battery does not contain acid d) A battery does not contain water
120. Which of the following is the advantage of alkaline battery? [ c]
a) High energy density b) Good discharge characteristics over a wide range of
temperature c) The specific gravity of electrolyte remains the same d) Cheap raw
materials are used
121. The capacity of a battery is expressed in terms of [ c]
(a) Current rating (b) Voltage rating (c) Ampere hour rating (d) None of the above
122. Trickle charger of a storage battery helps to [ d]
(a) Maintain proper electrolyte level (b) Increase its reverse capacity (c) Prevent
sulphation (d) Keep it fresh and fully charged
123. Select the WRONG statement. [ a]
(a) Toyota produced the Insight Hybrid (b) Hybrid systems rely on very high
voltages. (c) All of the high-voltage cables are covered in orange sleeves for easy
identification. (d) To test high-voltage systems you need a Category 3 (CAT III)
digital volt ohmmeter
124. Select the CORRECT statement about Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid system [ a]
(a) Produced by Honda (b) Produced by Suzuki (c) This system is the basis for many
series-parallel hybrid vehicles. (d) This system is capable of instantaneously
switching from one power source to another or combining the two.
125 The most common type of hybrid car combines the following: [ b]
(a) diesel and electric power (b) gas and electric power (c) The engine has no
connection to the transmission. (d) only diesel

Faculty HoD
 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad, MR20
Hyderabad
Maisammaguda, Dhulapaly, (Post Via Kompally), Secunderabad,
Telangana State – 500100
IV B.Tech. I- SEMESTER (MR18) REGULAR END EXAMINATIONS

Model Question Paper Format

Subject: Utilization of Electrical Energy (A0243) Branch: EEE

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 100

Answer all questions

All questions carry equal marks
BT
Q.NO QUESTION Mark CO
Level
Module - 1

Q1. Explain the principle of dielectric heating with neat diagram and 14 L2 1
mention its advantages and disadvantages.

OR

Q2. Explain seam welding and projection welding methods and 14 L2 1

mention its applications.

Module - 2

Q3. Prove that the amount of light falls on an area is inversely 14 L5 2

proportional to the square of the distance from source and also
explain Lambert’s cosine law.

OR

Q4. Appraise the importance of Polar Curves in Illumination and 14 L5 2

explain the basic principles of Light Control.

Module - 3

Q5. State the main features for an ideal traction system and explain the 14 L2 3
various track electrification systems available.

OR

Q6. Explain plugging rheostatic braking and regenerative braking with 14 L2 3

reference to DC motor.
 Module - 4

Q7. Analyze the typical speed-time curve for (i) Urban Service 14 L4 4
(ii) sub-urban service and (ii) Main line service

OR

Q8. Deduce the necessary expression to calculate total tractive effort 14 L4 4

required to run a train on track.

Module - 5

Q9. Explain plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and write its advantages 14 L2 5
and disadvantages.

OR

Q10. What are the key components of a hybrid electric vehicle and 14 L2 5
explain the different types of hybrid electric vehicle with relevant
block diagrams.

Signature of the Faculty Signature of HOD